Topic: PLATE TECTONICS – CONTINENTAL CRUST

Essential Question: “What are the characteristics of continental crust and oceanic
crust?”

Questions:
Earth’s Crust
What is the crust? The crust is the thinnest and the outermost layer of the Earth that
extends from the surface to about 32 km below. Underneath some
mountains, the crust thickness extends to 72 km.

The Earth’ crust is subdivided into two regions; the continental crust
What are the two types
and the oceanic crust.
of crust? And what are
their differences? Continental Crust
It is the thicker part of the crust, approximately 35-40 km. It has a
varied composition but generally composed of granitic rocks. It ages
up to 4 billion years, and has an average density of 2.7 grams per
cubic centimeter, making it less dense than the oceanic crust.

Oceanic Crust
It is the thinner part of the crust, approximately 7-10 km in thickness.
It is mainly composed of dark volcanic basalt. It ages up to 200
million years, and has an average density of 2.9 grams per cubic
centimeter, making it denser than the continental crust.

Oceanic crust Continental crust

Thickness Thinner Thicker
Age Younger Older
Type of rocks Basaltic Granitic
Density More dense Less dense

Summary: The earth’s crust is made up of two types; the continental and oceanic
crust. The continental crust is thicker, older, and less dense compared to the oceanic
crust which is thinner, younger and denser. The composition of both is varied but oceanic
crust is mainly dark volcanic basalt while the continental crust is mainly granitic rocks.
Topic: PLATE TECTONICS – CONTINENTAL CRUST

Essential Question: “What are the different tectonic plates and how do they move with
each other?”

Questions:
Plate Tectonics
What is Plate A theory which suggests that earth’s crust is made up of plates that
Tectonics? interact in various ways.

These plates are large pieces of the lithosphere, it includes both

oceanic and continental crust.

There are seven major plates that are big, and several minor plates
that are smaller.
What are different Major Plate: Minor Plates:
tectonic plates? And  Pacific Plate  Philippine Plate
identify which are the  North American Plate  Nazca Plate
major and minor plates.  Eurasian Plate  Indian Plate
 African Plate  Cocos Plate
 Antarctic Plate  Juan de fuca Plate
 Caribbean Plate
These plates interact by moving away, towards or sliding pass each
other.
Which plates move
Away: Towards: Slide pass:
away, towards, and
slide past each other?  North American  Eurasian &  North American
& Eurasian Philippine Plate & Pacific Plate
Plates  Australian &
 South America & Pacific Plate
African Plate  North & South
 Antarctic & American Plate
Australian Plate  Antarctic &
 Pacific & South
Antarctic Plate American plate

Summary: Plate Tectonics is an accepted theory that says that the earth’s
lithosphere is made up of different plates. There are seven big major plates and several
small minor plates, these plates move only a few centimeters per year, they move away,
towards, or sliding pass each other, producing earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes, and
etc.
Topic: EARTHQUAKE EPICENTERS USING TRIANGULATION METHOD

Essential Question: “How to locate the epicenter of an earthquake using triangulation

method?”

Questions:
Epicenter
What is an epicenter? The epicenter is the point on the earth's surface directly above a
hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake or an
underground explosion originates.

Primary (P) waves – travel into the earth’s interior, and first to be
What are the types of recorded in a seismic station.
waves released by an
earthquake? Secondary (S) waves – travel into the earth’s interior, and second
type of wave to be recorded.

Long-surface (L) waves – the third type of wave an earthquake

releases, it travels on the earth’s surface.

Triangulation Method
It is a plotting method to locate the position of something using
What is the reference points; it is mainly used to locate the epicenter of
triangulation method? earthquakes.

The epicenter can be determined using the triangulation method. It

How to locate the uses distance information from three seismic stations to locate the
epicenter of an earthquake epicenter.
earthquake?
To determine the distance of the epicenter from the seismic station,
we need to identify the interval between the P and S waves. After
identifying the lag time, use the formula below:

Td
d= ×100 km
8 seconds

Summary: The epicenter is the point on the earth’s surface above the origin of the
earthquake; with the released waves of an earthquake that are recorded in seismic
stations, where two out of three are used to identify the distance of the earthquake
relative to the station; with data from three seismic stations one can use the triangulation
method, and identify the location of the epicenter.
Topic: MAP OF THE EARTHQUAKE DISTRIBUTION

Essential Question: “How do you describe the distribution of earthquakes in the

different parts of the world?”

Questions:
Earthquakes
What is an earthquake? Earthquakes are the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the
pressure between two moving tectonic plates.

Everyday, millions of tiny earthquakes happen but we can only feel

those who are strong enough.

Earthquakes, even the tiniest that we can barely feel and the
destructive big ones, all are recorded by an instrument called a
seismograph.

Distribution and Concentration of Earthquakes

Earthquakes aren’t distributed equally, if we map earthquake
Are earthquakes evenly frequencies and instances, we can see how these are concentrated
distributed around the along mainland coastlines, especially along boundary plates.
world?

Areas such as the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean, covering the

Where are earthquakes Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the western parts of America, along
mostly concentrated the Indo Australian plate boundaries, the eastern side of the
at? Eurasian plate, and the western side of the North American Plate.

Summary: Caused by the movement of plates, earthquakes are natural geological

events; as plates are constantly moving, millions of tiny earthquakes that we don’t feel
happen everyday; strong or weak, these earthquakes are recorded by a seismograph.
Using the data from seismographs one can map out where these earthquakes are; these
earthquakes aren’t distributed equally around the world, but concentrated along
coastlines and plate boundaries.
Topic: MAP OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES IN THE WORLD

Essential Question: “How do you relate the distribution of volcanoes to plate

tectonics?”

Questions:
Volcanoes
What are volcanoes? It is a mountain or hill, typically, conical, having a crater or vent,
through which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and gas are being or
have been erupted from the earth’s crust.

Earth’s natural pressure vents characterized by a crater that reaches

deep within the lithosphere.

Concentration and Distribution of Volcanoes

Volcanoes follow a trend on where they are located; the places on
How are volcanoes Earth where most of the volcanoes were formed mark the
distributed around the boundaries of each lithospheric plate.
world?

Earthquakes and volcanoes are interrelated, in a way that both

What is the connection earthquakes and volcanoes are mostly located and concentrated
between earthquakes near plate boundaries.
and volcanoes?
Pacific Ring of Fire
The Pacific Ring of Fire is an arc around the Pacific Ocean where
many volcanoes and the earthquakes formed. It traces boundaries
between plates like the Pacific, Philippine, Juan de Fuca, Cocos and
the Nazca
Plates.

Countries that lie on the Pacific Ring of fire frequently experience

geological events like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Summary: Volcanoes, just like earthquakes are concentrated and mostly located
near plate boundaries; caused by constant movement of plates geological events are
frequent in regions near plate boundaries. The Pacific Ring of Fire is the region that
perimeters the Pacific ocean, the areas part of the Ring of Fire lies on or near plate
boundaries hence the great number of volcanoes, volcanic activities, and earthquakes.
Topic: MOUNTAIN RANGES OF THE WORLD

Essential Question: “How do you relate the occurrence of mountain ranges to plate
tectonics?”

Questions:
Mountain Ranges
What are mountain A mountain range is a group or chain of mountains located close
ranges? together. Since neighboring mountains often share the same
geological origins, mountain ranges have similar form, size and age.

It is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line and connected by

high ground.

Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but

How are these most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics
mountain ranges
formed? Most mountain ranges have been formed at convergent boundaries
where two plates move towards each other.

Orogeny – it is the general term used by geologist to describe

mountain building process.

Mountain ranges are not randomly located; they are located at

Where are mountain convergent boundaries where they are formed.
ranges located?
List of Major Mountain Ranges

 The Himalayas
 The Alps
 The Atlas
 The Andes
 The Rockies

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge – it is the longest mountain range in the

world.

Summary: A mountain range is a group or chain of mountains located close to each

other, they are formed by a variety of geological processes, but the most significant are
the result of plate tectonics; mountain ranges are mostly formed and located at
convergent boundaries where two plates collide.
Topic: TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

Essential Question: “How do you describe the different types of plate boundaries?”

Questions:
Plate Boundaries
What are plate Plate boundaries are the edges where two plates meet. Most
boundaries? geologic activities, including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain
building, take place at plate boundaries.

Tectonic plates or huge slabs of solid rocks separate, collide, and

slide past each other causing earthquakes, feeding volcanic
eruptions, and raising mountains.

Three Types of Plate Boundaries

There are 3 types of plate boundaries, they differ in the way two
What are the different
plates interact with each other.
types of plate
boundaries? Convergent Boundary
- Plates converge and move towards each other; where one
crust is destroyed as subduction occurs.

Divergent Boundary
- Plates diverge and move away from each other; where new
crust is formed as the plates separate.

Transform Boundary
- Plates slide past each other horizontally; where crust is
neither created nor destroyed, instead fault lines are
formed.

Summary: Plate boundaries are the narrow zones between plates, many geological
features and events are frequent and present at these regions; there are three types of
plate boundaries each differ in the way the plates interact with each other, producing
and resulting into different things.
Topic: TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

Essential Question: “How do you describe the different types of convergent

boundaries?”

Questions:
Convergent Plate Boundaries
What are convergent Convergent plate boundaries are where lithospheric plates converge
plate boundaries? and move towards each other, producing geological events and
features.

In convergent plate boundaries, subduction may occur when plates

collide with each other; subduction is where one plate sinks beneath
another.

Different Types of Convergent Boundaries

There are three different types of convergent plate boundaries:
What are the different oceanic-oceanic boundaries, oceanic-continental boundaries, and
types of convergent continental-continental boundaries. Each one is unique because of
boundaries? the density of the plates involved.

Oceanic-Continental Boundaries
- When oceanic and continental plates converge, the oceanic
plate undergoes subduction since it is denser and has higher
subduction potential, resulting to volcanic mountains arising
on land.
Oceanic-Oceanic Boundaries
- When two oceanic plates collide the denser plate sinks
below the lighter, eventually forming volcanic islands; when
oceanic plates undergoes subduction, they result in the
formation of oceanic trenches.
Continental-Continental Boundaries
- When two continental plates collide, it results in very little
subduction, instead the continental plates gets folded,
faulted, and thickened, forming great mountain ranges.

Summary: Among the three types of plate boundaries, the convergent plate
boundaries has three sub types, each differ in which type of crust they converge with,
whether oceanic crust or continental crust; The three types of convergent boundaries
are: oceanic-continental, oceanic-oceanic, and continental-continental boundaries, each
one is unique in terms of density of the plates involved, how it looks, the process, and the
landforms that are created.
Topic: CONVERGING CONTINENTAL PLATE AND OCEANIC PLATE

Essential Question: “What are the different processes that happen along this plate
boundary?”

Questions:
Oceanic-Continental Boundary
What happens when When the oceanic plate hits a continental one, the continental plate
the plates converge? uplifts, and the oceanic plate undergoes subduction.

Subduction – is when a plate sinks beneath another plate; between

the colliding plates the one with the much higher density has a
higher potency for subduction.

The process of subduction occurs at the oceanic trenches; the entire

region is known as the subduction zone.

Subduction Zone – in this region, there are many frequent intense

earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

The event of the collision of an oceanic and continental plate, gives

What are the geological rise to volcanic arcs and trenches; subduction occurs which gives
features and events results into earthquakes.
does it produce?
Trench – A depression in the seafloor produced by subduction
process.

Continental Volcanic Arc - mountains formed in part by igneous

activity associated with subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a
continent.

Volcanic Island Arc - a chain of volcanoes that develop parallel to a

trench.

Summary: In the convergence of a continental and an oceanic plate occurs, the

denser oceanic plate undergoes subduction and sinks beneath the continental plate – this
may result into an earthquake and formation of trenches; while the oceanic plate sinks
downwards it comes into close contact with the hot mantle, resulting into it melting thus
turning into magma, this magma now rises because of pressure and comes out of a
volcanic arc and may from volcanoes.
Topic: CONVERGENCE OF TWO OCEANIC PLATES

Essential Question: “What are the different processes that happen along this plate
boundary?”

Questions:
Oceanic-Oceanic Boundary
What happens when When two oceanic plates converge, the process of subduction will
the plates converge? occur; between the two oceanic plates the older and denser plate
has a higher subduction potency, hence it will undergo subduction
and sink beneath the younger and less dense plate.

As one of the plates will undergo subduction, as it sinks underneath

What are the geological the other, it will melt due to coming into contact with the hot mantle
features and events underneath, thus will melt and turn into magma that will rise and
does it produce? come out of a volcano under the sea, then it will again harden and
turn into volcanic islands; the subduction process may also produce
oceanic trenches.

Formation of The Philippine Archipelago

The Philippine Archipelago was formed by the convergence between
oceanic plates, hence the frequent volcanic activity, number of
volcanoes and trenches.

The formation of the Philippine islands was the product of the

Eurasian plate, the Indo-Australian plate, and the Philippine Sea
plate converging.

Many of the thousands of islands which make up the Philippines are

classified as island arcs which were formed as a result of subduction
after the collision of the three plates.

Summary: In the convergence between oceanic plates, the denser plate undergoes
subduction; the plate melts as it sinks, it turns into magma that will come out of a vent
under the ocean, thus creating volcanic islands. With this the geological features of the
Philippines can be explained; the Philippines are island arcs formed by converging
oceanic plates thus why there are a number of volcanic activities, volcanoes, and
trenches.
Topic: CONVERGENCE OF TWO CONTINENTAL PLATES

Essential Question: “What are the different processes that happen along this plate
boundary?”

Questions:
Continental-Continental Boundary
What happens when When two continental plates converge, it results into little to none
the plates converge? subduction, as their relative average density are the same, they’ll
have low subduction potency; with this, the plates instead gets
folded, faulted, and thickened in an upwards direction.

The convergence between continental plates results to the creation

What are the geological or formation of mountains, mountain ranges, or landforms with a
features and events high altitude; also the intense pressure may produce and result into
does it produce? earthquakes.

Formation of The Himalayas

About 40 to 50 million year ago, two large land masses, India and
Eurasia, collided to begin the formation of the most visible product
of plate tectonics, the Himalayas.

With the convergence between continental plates, it’s impossible or

nearly impossible for subduction to occur, instead pressure is
released by pushing the crusts upward and forming the Himalayas
peaks

Summary: In the convergence between continental plates, subduction cannot occur

due to the density of the plates involved, and because of continental plates being highly
buoyant, instead a collision between two continental plates crunches and folds the rock
at the boundary, lifting it up and leading to the formation of mountains and mountain
ranges.
Topic: DIVERGENCE OF PLATES

Essential Question: “What are the different processes that happen along this plate
boundary?”

Questions:
Divergent Plate Boundaries
What are divergent Divergent plate boundaries are where lithospheric plates diverge
plate boundaries? move away from each other, producing geological features and
events.

Divergence occurs lithospheric plates move apart due to convection

in the mantle and slab pull at the distant margin of the plates.

When plates pull away from each other and diverge, geological
What are the geological features such as mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, and the formation of
features and events new crust is made, with events like seafloor spreading and
does it produce? continental rifting.

Mid-Ocean Ridges – Mid-ocean ridges occur along divergent plate

boundaries, where new ocean floor is created as the Earth’s tectonic
plates spread apart.

Widening Ocean Basin – As a rift grows deeper it might drop below

sea level, allowing ocean waters to flow in. This will produce a
narrow, shallow sea within the rift. This rift can then grow deeper
and wider.

Rift Valleys – starts with a hotspot below the crust where the
pressure builds; the crust rises, and then starts to crumble apart.
Earthquakes, lava flows, and volcanoes are spawned and the tectonic
plates are spread slightly further apart. As the plates spread, a valley
is formed.

Continental Rifting – divergent plate boundary that occurs within a

continent; wherein magma rises beneath the continent, the crust
thins, breaks, and then splits apart; thus producing a rift valley.

Summary: Divergent plate boundaries are where plates move apart from each other;
creating mid-ocean ridges in oceans, where new seafloor is created by upwelling magma;
it can also rift a continent apart, with plates constantly moving, eventually the gap will
widen and new oceans may form in between.
Topic: TRANSFORM-FAULT BOUNDARY

Essential Question: “What are the different processes that happen along this plate
boundary?”

Questions:
Transform Plate Boundaries
What are transform Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past
plate boundaries? one another. The fracture zone that forms a transform plate
boundary is known as a transform fault. Most transform faults are
found in the ocean basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean
ridges.

With how the plates interact with each other transform plate
boundaries neither destroy nor create new crust.

What are the geological Transform fault boundaries are most common on the seafloor,
features and events where they form oceanic fracture zones; they can also occur on land,
does it produce? producing faults; also when the plates in this region move and slide
past each other major earthquakes may be produced.

Oceanic Fracture Zone – Most transform boundaries lie on the

seafloor. These oceanic fracture zones form large valleys, or trenches
that connect spreading oceanic ridges.

Fault Lines – A fault is one of the primary landforms that is

produced; they build up pressure when friction prevents them from
sliding until the pressure exceeds the force and results in an
earthquake.

Summary: Transform plate boundaries are when lithospheric plates slide past each
other, creating fault lines and producing earthquakes; in this region crust is neither
destroyed nor created, thus being called the conservative boundary.
Topic: CONVECTION CURRENT

Essential Question: “How do you describe the convection current and slab pull theory?”

Questions:
Convection Current
What is convection One driving force behind plate tectonics is mantle convection. This
current? theory of mantle convection was proposed by Arthur Holmes.

Tectonic plates move passively by convection currents in the earth’s

mantle; the hotter rocks that are near the earth’s core rise while the
cooler rocks in the upper layers sink, creating a cycle of vertical
currents.

Slab Pull Theory

A theory that states that gravity and the plates themselves are the
What is the slab pull ones responsible for the plate tectonics through subduction process.
theory?
Tectonic plate movement is said to be caused by the slab being
pulled down into the mantle dragging the rest of the plates along; a
denser slab will sink faster due to gravitational pull and it’ll exert
more drag force to other plates attached.

The slab pull theory believes that mantle convection is not the cause
of plate tectonics but rather, it is a product of subduction.

Summary: Proposed by Arthur Holmes, convection current, it is the current in the

mantle because of the heat from the inner layers of the earth, and is the force that drives
the plates to move; While the slab pull theory believes that mantle convection is not the
cause of plate tectonics, but just a product of subduction – it states that plate tectonics is
caused by gravity pulling a slab down to the mantle via subduction, dragging other plates
with it.
Topic: CONVECTION CURRENT – RIDGE PUSH

Essential Question: “How do you describe the ridge push?”

Questions:
Ridge Push
What is ridge push? Ridge push is a proposed driving force for plate motion in plate
tectonics that occurs at mid-ocean ridges as the result of the rigid
lithosphere sliding down the hot, raised asthenosphere below mid-
ocean ridges.

It is a mechanism driven by gravity, from the elevated position of the

mid-oceanic ridge, causing slabs of lithosphere to slide down the
flanks of the ridge.

Gravity Sliding Model – a model proposed by a geologist, BOTT,

which states that the pushing on the plates is actually due to
difference in gravitation potential energy between a plate at its
spreading center and subduction zone.

New seafloor formed at divergent plate margins is hot, and less

How does ridge push dense than the surrounding area thus rises to form oceanic ridges.
contribute to the The newly-formed plates slide sideways off these high areas, pushing
movement of tectonic the plate in front of them.
plates?

Summary: Ridge push is another force that drives the plate tectonics; it occurs in
divergent plate boundaries at mid-ocean ridges; the force acted upon the oceanic crust
which produces mid-oceanic ridges forces the crust to move in separate ways, thus there
is a movement of the tectonic plates.
Topic: THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Essential Question: “What are the evidences that support the continental drift theory?”

Questions:
Continental Drift Theory
What is the continental It is a theory that states that the earth’s continents have moved over
drift theory? geologic time relative to each other.

Pangaea – Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, proposed a

theory that about 200 million years ago, the continents were once
one large landmass; this super continent was named Pangaea the
Greek word for ‘all earth’.

Evidences
The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
Is the continental drift - The shape of the present continents acts as an evidence for
theory real? the continental drift theory; with the edge of the continents
surprisingly matches the edge of another like a jigsaw puzzle.

Fossils
- Fossil are preserved remains traces of organisms from the
past; a fossil of the same extinct plant was found at different
continents separated by oceans.

Rocks
- Rock formations in Africa line up with that in South America
as if it was long mountain range.

Coal Deposits
- Coal beds were formed from the compaction and
decomposition of swamp plants that lived million years ago;
this were discovered in different continents including
Antarctica, giving the thought that it might have been
located somewhere tropical.

Summary: Alfred Wegener proposed that 200 million years ago all of the continents
were one supercontinent he called the ‘Pangaea’ that drifted apart to make all the
present continents; evidences such as the shapes of the present continents that fit
together, rock formations from different continents lining up, the discovery of the same
fossil in different continents, and the presence of coal beds in Antarctica, were given as
proof.
Topic: SEAFLOOR SPREADING & MAGNETIC REVERSION

Essential Question: “How is seafloor spreading and magnetic reversion related to the
movement of tectonic plates”

Questions:
Seafloor Spreading
What is seafloor It is a suggested explanation to the continental drift theory, by Harry
spreading? Hess and Robert Diaz.

According to this theory, hot, less dense material from below the
earth’s crust rises towards the surface at the mid-ocean ridge

The process of seafloor spreading allowed the creation of new

bodies of water as well as the widening of oceans; with this it also
pulls continents away from each other.

If subduction is faster than seafloor spreading, the ocean shrinks.

When the seafloor spreading is greater than the subduction, then
the ocean gets wider.

Magnetic Reversions
Magnetic reversal is also called magnetic ‘flip’ of the Earth. It
What is magnetic happens when the North Pole is transformed into a South Pole and
reversions? vice versa, due to the change in the direction of flow in the outer
core.

As iron bearing minerals crystalize when lava solidifies, the minerals

behave like tiny compasses and align with the Earth’s magnetic field;
thus there is a change in polarity of rocks when magnetic reversals
occur.

New rocks are added to the ocean floor at the ridge with
approximately equal amounts on both sides of the oceanic ridge;
thus indicates and supports that the seafloor is spreading.
Summary: Seafloor spreading is the process by which new ocean floor is formed near
the mid-ocean ridge and moves outward; it was strengthened with the discovery that the
magnetic rocks near the ridge follow a pattern aside from the fact that rocks near the
ridge are remarkably younger than those father from the ridge.