BIOLOGY 12

Unit 8 ~ Learning Guide Name : Brandon Au-Young

INSTRUCTIONS
Complete the following notes and questions as you work through the related lessons .
You are required to have this package completed BEFORE you write your unit test . Do
your best and ask questions about anything that you don't understand BEFORE you write
the unit test .

7 .1 Nervous System
The nervous system contains a specialized network of cells called neurons and coordinates the
actions of complex organisms via the actions of complex organisms via the transmission of
electrochemical signals .
The nervous system can be divided into two main parts :
• Central Nervous System ( CNS ) : Made up of the brain and spinal cord .
• Peripheral Nervous System ( PNS ) : Made of peripheral nerves which link the CNS
with the CNS with the body’s receptors and effectors .

Divisions of the Nervous System

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Nerves : Structure/Function

1 . Dendrites

- conduct a nerve impulse ( message )

towards a cell body .
-Many dendrites enter a cell body .

2 . Cell Body

-Contains the nucleus and cell organelles

needed to keep the cell alive .

-Relays impulse from Dendrite to Axon .

3 . Axons

-Only a single axon leaves a cell body .

-Conducts a nerve impulse away from the cell body .

4 . Myelin Sheath

- protective coating of Schwann cells around larger Axons and Dendrites .

5 . Nodes of Ranvier

- Interrupted areas (not coated) with Myelin Sheath .

- Speeds up transmission of impulse .

6 . Motor End Plates

-In close proximity to muscles and organs .

- From here, the impulse is chemically transported to the muscles or organs .

7 . Ganglia

-A collection of cell bodies outside of the Central Nervous System .

Types of Neurons

There are three main types of neurons in the nervous system :

1 . Sensory Neuron

- Conduct nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS ( interneurons - brain or spinal cord ) .
-Afferent pathway .

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2 . Interneuron ( associated neuron or Connector Neuron

)
-Relays message from sensory neuron to motor neuron
-Make up the brain and spinal cord .
.

3 . Motor Neuron

- conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors ( muscles and organs ) .
-Efferent pathway .

**A Nerve is composed of long fibers of a number of Neurons**

Myelinated vs Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers

Schwann cells wrap around the nerve fibres when they are myelinated. This results in the
impulse skipping from node to node.

In myelinated axons and dendrites , the impulse can travel up to 200m/s . In unmyelinated
fibers , the impulse can be as slow as 0 .5 m/s .

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This difference in speed is because the action potential is able to jump over the myelin sheath .
Depolarization only occurs at the nodes of Ranvier .

7.2 Impulse Generation

The Stimulus-Response Model

The basic pathway for a nerve impulse is described by the stimulus-response model

• A receptor converts a stimulus into a nerve impulse , which is transmitted by a

sensory neuron to the CNS ( spinal cord )
• Relay neurons ( interneurons ) within the CNS will transmit this signal to a control
centre ( usually the brain ) , where the information is processed .
Motor neurons will transmit a resultant nerve impulse from the CNS to an effector
organ ( a muscle or gland ) , eliciting an appropriate response .
The Stimulus-Response Pathway

Transmission of a Nerve Impulse WITHIN a Neuron

• Transmission of a nerve impulse within a neuron occurs via the movement of an

electrical potential along the length of the neuron .
• When a neuron is not firing , the charge difference across the membrane is negative (-
70mV) - this is known as the resting potential .
• When a neuron is firing , the charge difference changes to become slightly positive
(~30mV) - this is known as the action potential .
• The change in membrane polarity when the neuron is firing ( from resting potential to
action potential ) is called depolarization .
• Restoration of the resting potential is known as repolarization .

Generation of a Resting Potential

If we hook up our voltmeter to a machine called an oscilloscope , we can see the change in
voltage over a period of time . There is a difference in ion distribution on either side of the
membrane of a neuron .

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• The sodium-potassium channels ( Na+/K+ pump ) maintains the electrochemical

gradient of the resting potential ( -70mV )
• It is a transmembrane protein that uses active transport to exchange Na+ and K+ ions
across the membrane ( antiport mechanism )
• It expels 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions admitted ( in addition , some of the K+ ions will
leak back out of the cell )
• This makes the inside of the membrane relatively
negative when compared to the outside (-70mV =
resting potential)

Transmission of an Action Potential

• Sodium and potassium channels in nerve cells are

voltage gated , meaning they can open and close
depending on the voltage across the membrane
• In response to a signal at a sensory receptor or
dendrite , sodium channels open and sodium
enters the neuron passively.
• The influx of sodium ( Na+ in ) causes the membrane potential to become positive
( depolarization ) .
• If a sufficient change in membrane potential is achieved ( threshold potential ) ,
adjacent voltage-gated sodium channels open , generating voltage gated sodium
channels open, generating a wave of depolarization ( action potential ) that spreads
down the axon .
• The change in membrane potential also activates voltage gated potassium channels ,
causing potassium to exit the neuron passively .
• The efflux of potassium ( K+ out ) causes the membrane potential to become negative
again ( repolarization ) .

**Note : Charge is back to normal , but there is a problem , the Na+ and K+ ions are
reversed .**

• Before the neuron can fire again , the original distribution of ions ( Na+ out , K+ in )
must be re-established by the Na+/K+ pump .
• The inability to propagate another action potential during this time ( refractory period )
ensures nerve impulses only travel in one direction .

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So far we have only been looking at one point on the Axon or Dendrite . The depolarization of
one point in a neuron starts a chain reaction down the length of the neuron and the sodium gates
in the next area open . We get a wave motion ( chain reaction ) moving down the nerve fiber .

Summary

Be sure to know the following graph including the names of each phase and what is happening at
each .

1. RESTING POTENTIAL

• Charge is -70 mV
• Na+ outside
• K+ inside

2. UPSWING OF ACTION POTENTIAL

( depolarization )

• Sodium gates open

• Na+ moves inside the neuron
• Depolarization occurs
• Charge changes from -70 mV to ~
+30mV

3. DOWNSWING OF ACTION POTENTIAL ( repolarization )

• Potassium gates open

• K+ moves outside of the neuron

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• Repolarization occurs
• Charge changes from ~+30mV back to -70mV

4. RECOVERY PHASE ( refractory period )

• Charge is -70mV but Na+ are inside the neuron and K+ are outside the neuron
• Sodium/potassium pump restores ion distribution
• Moves Na+ out of the neuron and K+ back inside the neuron

***NOW NEURON CAN BE RESTIMULATED***

**REMEMBER THIS IS A WAVE MOTION DOWN THE NEURON**

Synapse

Each axon branches off and ends with a swelled tip or

terminal knob which lies close to but not touching the
dendrite of another neuron ( or an organ ) . The entire
region is called a synapse.

Transmission of nerve impulses across a Synaptic gap is

carried out by chemicals called Neurotransmitters. These
neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles at the end of the
axon. Two neurotransmitters that you need to know for the
purpose of this course are : Noradrenalin ( speeds up
activity) and acetylcholine ( slows down activity) .

When an impulse reaches the end of the axon , not only does Na+ come into the axon but
Ca+2 move into the neuron as well. The calcium ion binds with contractile proteins that pull
the Neurotransmitter vesicles to the presynaptic membrane. The vesicles join with the cell
membrane , forcing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap by exocytosis. The
neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic gap.
Neurotransmitter's job is to increase the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to Na+
(sodium ions) . The Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptor sites on the dendrite of the
next neuron. If enough neurotransmitter stimulates the dendrite ( reaches threshold) , the
neuron will ¨fire¨ and the impulse will continue down the next neuron .

A neurotransmitter only has a short period to work once it has been released into the synaptic
cleft. Enzymes rapidly break down the transmitter substance to clear the synapse so the
next impulse can be transmitted. Monoamine oxidase breaks down adrenaline or
noradrenaline and Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine.

Painkillers such as Tylenol act as an enzyme to break down the neurotransmitter to decrease the
pain impulse.

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Summary

7.3 Reflex Arc

A reflex is a rapid and involuntary
response to a stimulus and results from an
even simpler pathway called a reflex arc

 Reflex actions do not involve the

brainin the decision making process -
instead sensory information is relayed
directly to motor pathways within
the spine.
This results in a reaction without
conscious thought, which may be important in survival situations when quick
reactions are necessary to avoid permanent damage or pain.

Bypassing the brain

1. Receptor is stimulated.
2. Sensory neuron takes the message from receptor to the Central Nervous
System - (spinal cord) .
3. Interneuron relays the message from the sensory neuron to a motor neuron..
4. Motor Neuron receives the message from an interneuron and relays the
impulse to an effector (muscle/organ.
5. The muscle/organ receives the message and responds to the stimulus.

***The brain finds out later what had happened***

***Some reflexes can be controlled to some degree .eg . blinking***

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U1-3 : NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Draw and label a myelinated neuron showing the cell body , dendrite , axon , axon
terminal , Schwann cells and Nodes of Ranvier . Provide a brief description of the
function of each labeled structure beside its label . Please be neat!

- Cell body – Housekeeping functions of cell

- Dendrite – Receive chemical signals from neurons and conducts electrical messages to
other cells throughout the body
- Axon—Transmits electrical signals from cell body to the axon terminal
- Axon terminal – Converts the electrical signal back to a chemical signal ; does this by
releasing a transmitter substance into the synaptic cleft
- Nodes of Ranvier – Gaps located between the myelinating cells along the axon; “singla
jumping”

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2. Below is a diagram of a reflex arc :

a. Label each cell as an interneuron , motor neuron or sensory neuron .

b. Using arrows , indicate the direction of nerve impulse through each neuron .
c. Label the receptor end of the sensory neuron , the dendrite and axon .
d. Label the effector ( muscle/organ ) , the motor neuron , and its dendrite and
axon .

3. What is the purpose of a reflex arc?

 Independent form brain

 Ensure fastest reaction time
 Associated wit involuntary reflexes that prevent ppl from harm (blink, reactions to
hot objects)

4. Compare and contrast the functions of sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons .

o sensory neuron transmits nerve impulse from sensory receptors to interneurons

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o motor neurons transmit nerve impulse from interneuron to a variety of effectors

▪ ensure an appropriate response to external or internal stimuli
o interneuron transmits nerve impulse from sensory neurons to motor neurons

5. Identify the similarities and differences between the sensory neuron and motor neuron .

o sensory neurons have long dendrites and short axons

o motor neurons have short dendrites and long axons,
o both have cell bodies and can be myelinated
o sensory neurons carry signals from peripheral nervous system to central nervous
system
o motor neurons carry signals from central nervous system to peripheral nervous
system

6. What is meant when it is said that the electrical impulse of a neuron is an "all-or-nothing"
event? Please include the term "threshold" in your explanation .

- Electrical signal will not be initiated along an axon until the threshold potential is
met at the dendrite.
- If the threshold potential is met, then the sodium channel openings will allow an
electric signal to go through the axon

7. Label the following diagram of an Action Potential :

o repolarization o recovery o depolarization o membrane

Potential ( mV )
o resting potential ( label o time ( mS ) twice )
o threshold potential

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8. When a neuron is not sending an electrical signal it is said to be at rest .

a. How is a resting potential created and maintained?

- created and maintained by increasing the concentration of cations outside
the cell compared to the inside of the cell (or the cytoplasm)
- cell is at rest, the sodium potassium pump maintains an electrochemical
gradient of -70mV.
o It expels 3 Na+ ions for every 2 potassium ions that are let in.

b. How does the concentration of sodium ions compare inside the neuron versus
outside the neuron during rest?
▪ more sodium ions outside the neuron and inside the neuron, there are less
sodium ions inside the neuron.

c. How does the concentration of potassium ions compare inside the neuron versus
outside the neuron during rest?
- more potassium ions inside the neuron and less potassium ions
outside the neuron.

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d. Explain how the relative concentrations ( inside versus outside ) of sodium and
potassium ion are exploited to create an action potential . Be sure to explain how
the ions move ( which move in which direction ) during the depolarization ,
repolarization , and recover phases .
- To create action potential, sodium and potassium ion channels are
opened.
- The flow of more sodium ions causes the membrane potential to be
positive, therefore it is called depolarization
- threshold potential is reached, adjacent voltage-gated sodium channels
will open, creating a wave of depolarization that will spread down the
axon.
- Change in membrane potential will cause activation of the potassium
channels
o which will lead to potassium ions leaving the neuron
- When potassium ions flow out, the membrane potential will become
negative again – this is called repolarization.
- It will then be brought back to resting potential, and then the original
distributions of sodium and potassium ions will be re-established.

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9. Draw a synapse . Label and briefly describe the function , in relation to a synapse , of
the following : ( Be sure to use the terms exocytosis and diffusion where applicable )

o synaptic vesicle o postsynaptic membrane

o neurotransmitter o Ca2+ o mitochondria o axon terminal o
presynaptic membrane o dendrite
o synaptic gap o contractile proteins

 synaptic vesicle = has neurotransmitter

 contractile proteins = enable synaptic vesicles to move
 presynaptic membrane = before synapse = axon terminal
 post synaptic membrane = after synapse = dendrite
 axon terminal = converts electrical signal to chemical signal
 dendrite = receives chemical signals to convert to electrical signal
 Ca2+ = ion that binds to contractile proteins→ causes synaptic vesicles to move to and
fuse with presynaptic membrane
 synaptic cleft = space between two adjacent neurons
 neurotransmitter =chemical messenger that diffuses across synaptic cleft
 mitochondria = provides energy from atp to power sodium/potassium pumps &vesicle
movement

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7.4 The Brain

Central Nervous System

Spinal Cord

Contains :

• Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

• Gray matter made up of cell bodies .
• White matter made of long fibers of interneurons .

They are white because they are covered by myelin sheath.

The dorsal ( back) part of the cord is specialized to carry

sensory information to the brain.

The ventral ( front) part of the cord sends messages from

the brain to the body.

Interneuron fibers run together in parallel bundles called

tracts . Left and right tracts crossover prior to entering
the brain. Therefore , left side of the brain controls right
side of the body and vice versa.

Brain

Medulla Oblongata :

• brain stem ( bottom of brain ) .

• pathway between brain and spinal cord .
• Controls : vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
hiccoughing, and swallowing.
• Controls : heartbeat rate, breathing, and blood
pressure .

Cerebellum :

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• Butterfly shaped.
• Rear, lower portion of the brain.
• Second largest portion of the brain.
• Controls: Muscle co-ordination (smooth
graceful motions) muscle tone, balance and
posture.
• ..

Hypothalamus :

• Located just above the pituitary gland.

• Controls : Hunger, thirst, sleep, body temp,
water balance, and Blood Pressure. One of the
most important functions of the hypothalamus
is to maintain homeostasis by linking the
nervous system to the endocrine system via
the pituitary gland thereby controlling the
endocrine system.

Thalamus :

• Above the hypothalamus.

• Function : Relay station for information going to the cerebrum.  Channels
info to appropriate place and prevents sensory overload.

Cerebrum :

• Largest part of the brain.

• Controls : Conscious thought, Perceives
sensory information, Initiates movements.
• Contains 2 hemispheres ( Right and Left) . 
Memory.

Parts :

1. Frontal Lobe - Conscious thought.

2. Temporal Lobe - Hearing and Smelling.
3. Parietal Lobe - Temperature, Touch and Pain.
4. Occipital Lobe - Vision.

Corpus Callosum :

• Holds the hemispheres of the Cerebrum together.

• Conducts impulses from one side of the brain to the other.

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The CNS is comprised of the Brain and the Spinal Cord .

7 .5 Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic & Autonomic Nervous System

PNS is made up of nerves , which are either part of the Somatic or the Autonomic Nervous
System .

• Somatic : Contains nerves that control skeletal muscles, joints, and skin. They receive
and act on external stimuli. Voluntary control.
•

• Autonomic : Contains nerves that control the _smooth muscles of the internal organs
and the gland. Automatic , _usually without the need for conscious thought.

Two Divisions :

1 . Sympathetic 2 . Parasympathetic

Both :

• function automatically (involuntary.

• serve all internal organs.

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• Have two motor neurons with a ganglion

between

Sudden simultaneous release of noradrenalin from all

the sympathetic neurons ( as in times of fright ) has a
critical effect .

It causes the release of the hormone adrenalin from

the interior of the adrenal glands located on top of the
autos . The noradrenalin and adrenalin initiate and
sustain what is known as the ¨Fight or Flight¨
response .

They prepare the body to respond to danger in the following ways :

1. Increase heart rate so that more blood is supplied to the body more quickly.
2. Widen air passageways so that more air can be exchanged with each breath.
3. Sudden contraction of some muscles to tense the body up for action. Included in this
is the contraction of the diaphragm. A scared person will gasp, inhaling suddenly.
Included in this is the contraction of the diaphragm . A scared person will gasp , inhaling
suddenly .
4. The iris of the eye contracts thus widening the pupil to maximize visual alertness.
5. Increased blood flow to the skeletal muscles so they are more able to act.
6. Decreased digestive activity, circulation and control.

**Note that acetylcholine is the hormone secreted for the parasympathetic system which
causes the opposite conditions ( see above ) in the body as compared to the sympathetic
system**

Neuroendocrine Control of Bodily Functions

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There is an association between nerve tissue and the body's hormones (endocrine = hormonal) .
This association is between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. It can be seen that there
are two lobes of the pituitary gland : an anterior and a posterior lobe. Both of these extend
down from the hypothalamus.

As blood passes through the hypothalamus , its composition and temperature stimulate various
homeostatic responses . These responses involve the release of hormones .
The anterior pituitary releases six major hormones that range in effect from bringing about
from bringing about reproductive changes to skeletal growth.

The posterior pituitary releases two hormones.

The mechanism of action is slightly different for the release of the anterior pituitary hormones
than it is for the posterior pituitary hormones .

In the case where the hypothalamus detects that the effect of one of the hormones from the
anterior pituitary is required , it releases a hormone like substance that is called a releasing
factor that travels through the very short blood vessels that is connected with the anterior
pituitary. This causes the release of the required hormone .

In the case of the hormones released by the posterior pituitary, the hypothalamus actually
makes these hormones which it releases into a nerve tract that conducts them to the posterior
pituitary gland.

Regardless of the mechanism , all the hormones are released into the circulatory system and they
travel about the body affecting the specific target organs for which they were designed.

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**IMPORTANT** A good understanding of these hormones , where they are produced , what
causes their release , where they are released from and the effects they have on the body is
extremely important . A good knowledge of these hormones will also help you in the next two
units .

U4-5 : Brain

1. Identify and briefly describe the two major divisions of the nervous system .
o autonomic nervous system – control system that acts and regulates bodily functions
▪ Mechanism in control of the fight-or –flight response.
o somatic nervous – responsible for movement of voluntary muscles and the process
known as a reflex arc.
▪ Carries nerve impulses back and forth between the central nervous system and
skeletal muscles, skin, and sensory organs.

2. Identify and briefly describe the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system .
 sensory nervous (afferent) division
i Transmits info from periphery to CNS
ii Contains receptors
 motor (efferent) division
i transmits info from CNS to rest of body
ii sends info to effectors
iii includes autonomic (involuntary) motor and somatic (voluntary) motor

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3. The autonomic system has two major divisions :

 What are the two major divisions called and what are their nicknames?
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic

 What effect does each branch have on the body?

Sympathetic
- Prepares body for danger or activity
Parasympathetic
- Prepares body for recovery and rest

 Give a specific example/scenario where each division may be activated . Identify

the neurotransmitter that would be released in response to that scenario and list
some of the specific effects that the neurotransmitter would have on the body .
Sympathetic
- can be activated when you are in the dark and difficult to see in the room
- heart may increase and your pupils will dilate to receive as much light as
possible into your eyes.

Parasympathetic
- Once the light is turned on, your heart rate will decrease since you are
safe and secure in the room
- eyes will readjust to the light to a normal size.
-

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4. Explain how the adrenal glands are involved in the body’s response to stressful situations .
o during stressful situations, sympathetic neurons will release a chemical named
noradrenalin
▪ causes the adrenal glands to release adrenalin
• adrenaline initiates our three f responses.

5. Create a flow chart to illustrate the major divisions of the nervous system , including the
following terms :

o PNS o autonomic o o CNS

o sympathetic brain o o somatic
o spinal cord parasympathetic o nervous
system

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nervous system peripheral nercous system

sensory neutrons (sensory motor neurons (CNS to

central nervous system
organs to CNS) muscles and galnds)

brain (receives and processes

sensory info, initiates somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system (
responses, stores, memories, (controls voluntary controls involuntary
generates thoughts and movements) responses
emotions

spinal cord (conducts signals

sympathetic division (fight or
to and from brain, controls
flight responses)
reflex activies

parasympathetic division (rest

or digest responses)

6. What is the general function of the brain?

o receive and process sensory information
o direct responses to the information
o store and retrieve memories
o use collected data to make future decisions and response

7. Please label the following structures on the diagram below . Please place a brief
description of each structure's function beside its label . Please be neat :

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o medulla o thalamus o corpus

oblongata o o pituitary gland callosum o
cerebellum o cerebrum
hypothalamus

8. Below is a diagram of the 4 major lobes of the cerebrum . Label each lobe and place a
brief description of each lobe's function beside its label . Please be neat :

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