Materials Used in Precast Structures: 2.1.1 Concrete For Precast Production

Chapter 2
Materials used in precast structures
2.1 CONCRETE
2.1.1 Concrete for precast production

‘Precast concrete is of the highest possible quality, both in terms of strength and durabil-
ity’. The essence of this statement is captured in Figure 2.1, where concrete is accurately
delivered to every part of the mould, ensuring zero segregation, minimising voids and hon-
eycombing, using minimal vibration. However, contrast this view with the precast column
shown in Figure 2.2 and it is easy to understand the problems of workmanship, rather
than material defects, that certain parts of the industry endure. Using materials that have
passed strict quality control procedures, rapid hardening cement type CEM I class 42.5R or
52.5R according to BS EN 197 Part 1 (BS EN 197-1 2011) is mixed with excellent-quality
aggregates of known source and purity, in computer-controlled batching and mixing plant,
to produce concrete of speci ed workability and strength. Even the introduction of small
quantities of uncontaminated recycled concrete, usually from the factory’s own waste pro-
duction, superplasticisers and pozzolanic materials (such as pulverised fuel ash), has not
reduced this standard. To quote standard deviations (SDs) of less than 2 N/mm 2 on concrete
of the 28-day compressive cube strength of fck = 45–70 N/mm 2 would not be an exaggera-
tion. Table 2.1 lists typical mean concrete strengths fcm (usually obtained from 2 or 3 cubes)
for precast production at 20 h (detensioning prestress or stripping moulds), 3 days and
28 days, and the characteristic values for cement cubes fcu (BS EN 197-1 2011). The table
shows that even allowing for fcu = fcm – 4 N/mm2 , concrete at 20 h just about exceeds the
requirements for cement strength at 2 days.
Concrete is speci ed according to BS EN 206 (BS EN 206 2013). The design strength is
denoted in the Eurocode EC2, BS EN 1992, Part 1-1, clause 3.1.2(1) (BS EN 1992-1-1 2004)
by strength classes (known as ‘grade’), which relate to the characteristic (5%) compressive
cylinder strength fck, or the cube strength fck,cube (fcu in BS 8110) in accordance with EN
206, for example grade C32/40 is the 28-day characteristic strength fck = 32 N/mm 2 and
fck,cube = 40 N/mm 2 . See Section 2.1.3 for Young’s modulus Ecm.
The strength class used in design is the cylinder strength fck up to a maximum of 90 N/mm2
(105 cube strength) with a minimum 20 N/mm 2 for structural grade. The true stress vs
strain (σc vs εc) relationship for concrete of normal and higher mean strength fcm is shown in
Figure 2.3a, based on BS EN 1992-1-1, Fig. 3.2. Note the reduced ductility after the peak
stress of higher strength, de ned as > C50/60, where the design concrete crushing strain
reduces from εcu3 = 0.0035 to 0.0026. The effect of this means that the calculated value
of x/d for a exurally balanced section, using rebar with f yd = 500/1.15 = 434.8 N/mm 2 ,
is generally x/d = 0.0035/(0.0035 + 434.8/200,000) = 0.617, reducing to x/d = 0.545 for
fck = 90 N/mm 2.
21
22 Precast Concrete Structures
Figure 2.1 Precise delivery of concrete into the mould. (Courtesy of Tammer Elementti Oy, Finland.)
Figure 2.2 Compaction problems in precast concrete columns.
The constitutive stress–strain relationship is idealised as a parabola–rectangle in

Figure 2.3b, where the design strength fcd = fck /γm , where γm is the material partial safety
factor of 1.5 at the ultimate limit state and 1.2 for accidental situations based on the UK
national annex (NA) to BS EN 1992-1-1, Table 2.1N (NA to BS EN 1992-1-1, 2004).
Figure 2.3c shows the idealised rectangular stress block used in design, where the distance
x to the centroid of the areas beneath the curves in Figure 2.3b and c due to the design
Materials used in precast structures 23
Table 2.1 Strength requirements for cement based on BS EN 197-1:2011 and typical concrete strengths
achieved by precast producers
Early strength (N/mm2) Standard concrete strength
Cement at 28 days (N/mm2)
strength 20 h concrete 2 days cement 7 days concrete
class Precaster BS EN 197 Precaster BS EN 197 Precaster
42.5N 15–20 ≥10.0 40–55 42.5–62.5 50–70
42.5R 25–35 ≥20.0 50–70 60–90
52.5N 20–30 ≥20.0 50–70 ≥52.5 60–90
52.5R 30–35 ≥30.0 50–80 70–100
Key: BS EN 197 characteristic value for cement (italics); producer’s mean cube strength.
σc
High strength fcm
fcm
fck
x = to centroid of area
fcd η fcd
0.4 fcm
x x
Ecm
εc
(a) εc1 εcu1 (b) εc2 εcu2 (c) εcu3
Figure 2.3 Constitutive stress vs strain relationships for concrete in compression. (a) Actual relationships
for normal and high strengths, (b) parabola–rectangle idealization, and (c) idealized rectangular
stress block used in design.
strength ηfcd is established by national codes to be as close as possible. BS EN 1992-1-1,

Exp. 3.19 through 3.22 gives:
h = 1 for fck £ 50 N/mm2

(2.1)
2
h = 1 - (fck - 50)/200 for fck £ 90 N/mm
For example for fck = 90 N/mm 2 fcd loses 20%.

and in Figure 2.3c if the x-axis represents the depth to the neutral axis x, then the design
rectangular stress block has a depth λx, where
l = 0.8 for fck £ 50 N/mm2

(2.2)
l = 0.8 - (fck - 50) / 400 for 50 < fck £ 90 N/mm 2
That is 0.8 reduces to 0.7 at 90 N/mm 2 .

For example the ultimate force in a concrete beam of breadth b is Fc = design stress ×
area = ηfck b λx = 0.8fckbx for fck = 50 N/mm 2 reducing to 0.56fckbx for fck = 90 N/mm 2 .
Coupled with the reduced depth at the balanced section, the total force at the balanced
section is Fc = 24.68 bd and 27.47 bd for fck = 50 and 90 N/mm 2 , respectively, that is only
11% greater for an 80% increase in fck!
The strength of concrete at demoulding, or at detensioning in the case of prestressed
concrete, is speci ed by the producer according to manufacturing and handling techniques,
using mean compressive cube strengths fcm,cube. This takes place mostly at 16–24 h, where
there are no empirical expressions to predict this strength, which is highly dependent on
casting and curing conditions. The workability of the concrete is still speci ed according to
slump value, for example 25–100 mm in factory production, except in the case of concrete
provided for slip form or extrusion, which has no workability requirements (zero slump).
The strength of concrete fck(t) between 3 and 28 days can be determined either by testing
cubes/cylinders or estimated using semi-empirical equation for an average temperature of
20°C and standard curing conditions as follows:
fcm (t) = fcm es(1-Ö 28/t ) (2.3)
where
fcm(t) = fck(t) + 8 N/mm2 (2.4)
and fcm = fck + 8 N/mm2 (representing a margin of 1.64 SDs of strength for 5% character-
istic values). Precast production quality measures achieve early strength SD ≈ 2–3 N/mm 2 ,
making the one mentioned earlier conservative.
s = 0.20, 0.25 and 0.38 for cement Class R, N and S.
For example if fck = 40 N/mm2 at 28 days using CEM 52.5N (Class R), at say t = 3 days,
fcm(t) = 48 e0.2(1 – √28/3) = 48 × 0.663 = 31.8 N/mm 2 and fck(t) = 23.8 N/mm 2 . If the margin at
3 days is taken as 3 N/mm 2 , then for the same example fck(t) = 28.8 N/mm2 , giving a better
estimate of more than two-thirds at 3 days.
When precasting in a modern factory, it is vital to achieve the dual requirements of
good workability and early strength. Concrete is often transported automatically from an
automatic batching plant to the mould leaving no opportunity for workability tests. It is
unlikely that such tests are required thanks to the experience of batching staff. Producers
do not vary the mix speci cation unnecessarily – for example Grade C40/50 concrete
might be used for a staircase even though the design calls for a lower strength of say
fck = 25 N/mm 2 .
A huge impact on precast production methods has been the use of self-compacting con-
crete (SCC), which as the name suggests will ow and compact without external vibration.
SCC admixtures conform to BS EN 206 Part 9 (BS EN 206-9 2010). After the problems of
low early strength gain were resolved around 2002, this has been widespread in all types of
frames, ooring, stairs, and terraces. Figure 2.4 shows SCC owing up to 1.5 m in an out-
door steel mould on quite a cold day in the United Kingdom (around 7oC), achieving an 18-h
detensioning cube strength of fck,cube = 25–30 N/mm 2 . Figure 2.5 shows the nished SCC
product for seating terraces, undeniably of the highest-quality concrete. The workability of
SCC is measured using a ow table in which the diameter of ow, as shown in Figure 2.6,
is usually 600–700 mm, neglecting the small ring of cement slurry at the edges. The precast
industry has exploited the advancements made in concrete technology more than in any
other part of the construction industry.
Figure 2.4 Self-compacting concrete, owing and compacting without segregation, used to manufacture
prestressed oor slabs.
Figure 2.5 Self-compacting concrete used to manufacture precast terrace units for stadia, by Bison
Manufacturing, United Kingdom.
For the production of standard elements such as columns and beams, concrete is cast into
clean steel or timber (sometimes concrete) moulds, accurate to ±3 mm, or less, in cross sec-
tion. Figure 2.7 shows an adjustable steel mould of around 100 m length for casting beams
(in this case, bridge beams), or for casting double-tee slabs of xed width (usually 2.4 m)
and variable length and depth as shown in Figure 2.8. The use of clamped vibrators tuned
Figure 2.6 Measurement of the workability of self-compacting concrete by measuring the diameter of ow
on a ow table.
Figure 2.7 Production of precast prestressed concrete structural elements in steel moulds.
to the correct oscillations for the size and weight of the lled mould ensures correct com-
paction to a density of around 2400 kg/m3 (excluding reinforcement). The resulting surface
nish results in minimum porosity for maximum durability. Concrete strengths are made to
match the optimum performance of each element, such that exural members are produced
in grade C32/40 concrete, whilst compression members are typically C40/50 for walls and
C50/60 to C90/105 for columns.
Figure 2.8 Stripping of steel moulds and lifting of prestressed element 20 h after casting.
Figure 2.9 Production of precast concrete facade elements in timber moulds.
Non-standard elements, such as the cladding panel in preparation in Figure 2.9, are cast
in timber or bre glass moulds (epoxy-based materials may be remoulded after use). The
grade of concrete is usually C32/40. Although the surface nish from a timber mould is not
equal to that from a steel mould, it is nonetheless equal to ‘special’ as follows.
Surface nishes are speci ed according to BS EN 13670 ‘Execution of Concrete Structures’,
Annex F8.8 (BS EN 13670 2009). However, the background document to the NA to BS EN
1992-1-1, PD 6687-1 (PD 6687-1 2010) states that the provisions of the National Structural
Concrete Speci cation Edition 4, known as NSCS-4 (NSCS 2010) are considered equiva-
lent to those in BS EN 13670 for all types. The website (The Concrete Centre 2016) states
‘developed by CONSTRUCT and a technical committee that included contractors, consul-
tants and industry partners. It aims to be the standard speci cation for concrete frames in
the United Kingdom. The speci cation is designed to achieve increased ef ciency through
a de nitive, simple, straightforward speci cation which removes unnecessary conditions
and facilitates construction. It also provides guidance on tolerances and nishes’. Until
further information is available, the surface nishes will be speci ed in NSCS-4, clause 8.6
as formed nishes as follows:
‘Basic’ – for ground or foundations

‘Ordinary’ – to receive nishes, but not painted directly
‘Plain’ – visual concrete occasionally seen, to be painted directly
‘Special’ – architectural nishes, controlled for irregularity, arrises, colour variation,
blowholes
2.1.2 Concrete for precast floor elements

Precast oor slabs are manufactured using either ‘wet cast’ (semi-wet with less than 50 mm
slump) or ‘dry cast’ (semi-dry with zero slump and 5–10 s V-B time). Steel moulds are used in
the semi-wet production of reinforced hollow core units, as shown in Figure 2.10. Machine
delivered concrete makes two passes to ll the mould below and above the mandrels forming
circular hollow cores. The grade of concrete is usually C32/40.
Machine-extruded concrete is not, by de nition, cast and compacted. It is instead forced
through rotating augers to pass out through steel formers, possibly with mandrels to create
voids, as shown in Figures 2.11 and 2.12. Slip-formed concrete is similarly produced through
Figure 2.10 Machine delivery of concrete to reinforced hollow core slabs at Creagh Concrete, N. Ireland,
United Kingdom.
Figure 2.11 Rotating augers create forced extrusion of concrete around the mandrels shown in Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12 Circular mandrels create circular voids in hollow core slabs.
a machine that compacts the concrete by rows of small hammers – known as the ‘shear-
compaction’ method. To enable both the processes to happen, the concrete is ‘earth-dry’,
having a water–cement (or water-cementitious material) ratio of around 0.3. Aggregates are
carefully selected, especially the sand grading and content, and the shape and size of the
coarse aggregates, typically 14 mm down. Although not exclusive to these production meth-
ods, concrete produced in this way is usually prestressed for exural members such as oor
slabs, such as hollow core oor units shown in Figures 2.13 and 2.14. Because prestressed
Figure 2.13 Long line slip form of prestressed hollow core oor slabs, at Bison Manufacturing, United Kingdom.
Figure 2.14 Excellent compaction of slip-formed hollow core oor units.
concrete bene ts from additional strength in exural compression, it is advantageous to use

grade C50/60 concrete; although for certain geometry and in order to balance the limiting
compressive stress (0.45 fck) and tensile stress (fctm), the common grade is C45/55. For inter-
nal exposure XC1, BS EN 1992-1-1 clause 7.3.2(4) limits the service condition to the mean
axial tensile stress (with the code reference)
Table 3.1 fctm = 0.3fck2/3 (2.5)

100
90
80
70
60
Passing (%)
50
Slipformer 1
40 Extruder: Finer grading with 55%–65% passing Extruder 2
0.5 mm sieve, and ne/total aggregate ratio
Extruder 3
30 0.35–0.40.
Extruder 4
Slipforming: 40% passing 0.5 mm sieve, and
20 ne/total aggregate ratio 0.40–0.45. Slipformer 5
Coarse aggregate 14/5 size, gravel or Extruder 6
10 limestone. Extruder 7
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Sieve (mm)
Figure 2.15 Grading curves for ne aggregate used in the extrusion and slip form of prestressed hollow core
slabs. (Data collected in the United Kingdom by the author 2004–2008.)
for concrete grade ≤ C50/60 (viz. Class 2 in BS 8110 Part 1 (BS8110 1997)). For exposure >
XC1, BS EN 1992-1-1 Table 7.1 (NAD Table A.4) requires that the service condition is ‘decom-
pression’, that is zero tension (viz. Class 1 in BS 8110-1). (See Section 4.3.1 for full analysis.)
Each producer will modify their mix according to variations in local supplies. The grad-
ing of ne aggregate is often the most critical mix parameter, especially in the dry mixes
used in slip-formed and extruded concrete. Figure 2.15 shows typical grading curves for ne
aggregate used in machine cast units, note the high percentage passing the 0.5 mm sieve size
for the extrusion machine. There is some evidence (in private work by the author) that slip-
page of strands occurs where the grading is too ne around the 1 mm sieve size.
Although the 28-day strength fck speci ed in the design must be achieved, the controlling
factor in mix design is the strength at demoulding, or in the case of prestressed concrete,
its strength at detensioning (transfer). Demoulding and detensioning of cast concrete takes
place at around 18 h. Detensioning of machine slip-formed or extruded concrete takes place
between 10 and 20 h. Various methods to accelerate the early strength of concrete include
rapid hardening Portland cement, chemical accelerators (calcium chloride must not be used)
and by external heating, such as steam curing and electrical heating. Even microwave oven
techniques have been tried. Care must be taken in thin-walled section, such as hollow core
oor units, to avoid thermal restraint due to large temperature differentials.
2.1.3 Young’s modulus and modular ratios

The static value for Young’s modulus is calculated according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause
3.1.3, as:
Table 3.1 Ecm = 22 [(fck + 8)/10] 0.3 (2.6)
for gravel aggregate. For limestone and sandstone aggregates, the value should be reduced
by 10% and 30%, respectively. For basalt aggregates, the value should be increased by 20%.
Table 2.2 Concrete strengths and elastic modulii used in precast elements
fck at fck(t) at Tensile Ecm at
28 days demould Design fcd strength fctm 28 daysa Ecm(t)
Component Type (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (kN/mm2) (kN/mm2)
Beams, shear RC 30–40 15–20 17.0–22.7 N/A 33–35 N/A
walls staircases,
wet cast oors
Columns, load- RC 40–90 20–25 22.7–51.0 N/A 35–44 N/A
bearing walls
Beams, columns PSC 40–50 25–30 22.7–28.3 3.5–4.1 35–37 31–33
Dry cast slabs PSC 45–55 25–35 25.5–19.8 3.8–4.2 36–38 31–34
a Ecm based on gravel aggregates. For limestone or sandstone, divide by 1.1 and 1.3.
Table 2.3 Strengths and short-term elastic modulus for typical concrete used in composite construction
Type of concrete fck (N/mm2) fctm (N/mm2) Ecm (kN/mm2) Modular ratio
In situ 25 N/A 31.5 N/A
30 N/A 32.8 N/A
Precast reinforced 30 N/A 32.8 0.96–1.00
40 N/A 35.2 0.89–0.93
Prestressed 45 3.80 36.3 0.87–0.90
50 4.07 38.2 0.82–0.86
Source: From BS EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings,
BSI, London, UK., February 2014, 2004.
Ecm based on gravel aggregates. For limestone or sandstone, divide by 1.1 and 1.3.
Table 2.2 gives the relevant information. Mix design details are given by Elliott and Jolly
(Elliott and Jolly 2013).
Where in situ concrete of strength fcki is added to precast elements to form composite
behaviour (see Sections 4.4.4 and 5.5), the relative strengths (fck) and stiffness (Ecm) of the
two materials must be considered using the modular ratio method. The most common combi-
nations of in situ-to-precast strengths are fcki/fck = 20/32 and 25/45. This leads to the modular
ratio m = Ecmi/Ecm ≈ 0.87 as shown in Table 2.3.
2.1.4 Shrinkage and creep

Shrinkage and creep are time-dependent properties of concrete. They depend on the ambi-
ent humidity (RHs %); notional depth or thickness of element = 2 × area/exposed perimeter,
ho = 2Ac/u); concrete composition (w/c, cement type, e.g. rapid hardening Class R, fck); maturity
of the concrete when the elements are stored; age (to) when load is rst applied; and the
duration and magnitude of the loading.
BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 2.3.2.2 notes: Shrinkage and creep effects should generally be
taken into account for the veri cation of serviceability limit states. The effects should be
considered at ultimate limit states only where their effects are signi cant, for example in
the veri cation of ultimate limit states of stability where second-order effects are of impor-
tance. In other cases, these effects need not be considered for ultimate limit states, provided
that ductility and rotation capacity of the elements are suf cient. Creep effects should be
evaluated under the quasi-permanent combination of actions irrespective of the design
situation considered, that is persistent, transient or accidental. In most cases, the effects of
creep may be evaluated under permanent loads and the mean value of prestress. In other
words, creep is considered for second-order effects in column design but otherwise is used
only in the determination of long-term deformations of de ection and crack width.
In precast elements, some of the creep and shrinkage deformations take place prior to
installation, something which is not considered in the code equations, and therefore these
effects are calculated at the time of installation (typically 7–28 days) and in the long term of
500,000 h (57 years).
Shrinkage causes shortening of concrete, around 400 × 10–6 (μm) ≈ 4 mm in 10 m length,
and is considered mainly in the long term, although in composite precast design the short-term
shrinkage of the precast element is determined so that the effects of the relative shrinkage of the
in situ to the precast can be determined for shrinkage-induced curvature. First introduced in BS
EN 1992-1-1 in clause 2.3.2.2, shrinkage actions are evaluated in clause 3.1.4 and Appendix B
as follows. The shrinkage strain εcs at time t (20,833 days for long-term shrinkage) after removal
from mould (or detensioning in the case of prestressed) at time ts = typically 1 day is
Exp. 3.8 Total shrinkage strain εcs = εcd + εca (2.7)
where
Exp. 3.9 Drying shrinkage strain εcd = βds(t,ts) kn εcd,o (2.8)
Exp. 3.10 Age factor βds(t,ts) = (t – ts)/[(t – ts) + 0.04 ho1.5 ] (2.9)
Table 3.3
Size coefficient kn = 1.0 - 0.0015(ho - 100) for 100 £ ho < 200 mm

0.85 - 0.001(ho - 200) for 200 £ ho < 300 mm (2.10)
0.75 - 0.0005(ho - 300) for 300 £ ho < 500 mm
Exp. B.11 εcd,o = 0.85 [(220 + 110 αds1) exp –(αds2 fcm /fcmo)] × 10 –6 βRH (2.11)
Exp. B.12 RH factor βRH = 1.55 [1 – (RHs /100)3] (2.12)
Exp. 3.11 Autogenous shrinkage strain εca(t) = βas εca (2.13)
10.3.1.2(3) In precast elements subjected to heat curing εca(t) is negligible.
Exp. 3.13 βas(t) = 1 – e-0.2√t = 1 for the long term (where t is in days) (2.14)
eca = 2.5 (fck - 10) ´ 10-6

Exp. 3.12 (2.15)
2 2
fck and fcm in N/mm , fcmo = 10 N/mm
3.1.2(6) Cement classes and αds factors are

B.2 Class R = CEM 42.5 R, CEM 52.5 N and CEM 52.5 R (αds1 = 6, αds2 = 0.11)
Class N = CEM 32.5 R, CEM 42.5 N (αds1 = 4, αds2 = 0.12)

Class S = CEM 32.5 N (αds1 = 3, αds2 = 0.13)
Where shrinkage actions are required at ultimate limit state, a partial factor γSH = 1.0 is used.
Example 2.1
Calculate long-term εcs for a precast concrete element of 300 × 300 mm cross section
manufactured using grade C40/50 concrete using cement CEM I class 52.5R. The col-
umn is demoulded at 1 day and is used inside a building with RHs = 50%. Repeat using
cement class 42.5N and comment on the differences.
Solution
Equation 2.4 fcm = 40 + 8 = 48 N/mm 2
Equation 2.12 βRH = 1.55 [1 – (50/100)3] = 1.356
cl. B2 Cement class R, where αds1 = 6 and αds2 = 0.11
Equation 2.11 εcd,o = 0.85 × [(220 + 110 × 6) e−(0.11 × 4.8)] × 10–6 × 1.356 = 598 × 10–6
Equation 2.10 kn = 0.925 for ho = 2 × 90,000/1,200 = 150 mm
Equation 2.7 βds(t,t s) = (20,833 – 1)/[(20,833 – 1) + 0.04 × 1501.5] = 0.996
Equation 2.8 εcd = 0.996 × 0.925 × 598 × 10 – 6 = 552 × 10 –6
Equation 2.15 εca = 2.5 × (40 – 10) × 10 –6 = 75 × 10 –6
Equation 2.7 εcs = 552 + 75 = 627 × 10 –6
This is rather a high value for precast concrete in particular and certainly much greater
than BS 8110 values closer to 400 × 10 –6. However, if the cement is changed to class N
(αds1 = 4, αds2 = 0.12) α cd,o = 0.85 × [(220 + 110 × 4) e –(0.12 × 4.8)] × 10 –6 × 1.356 = 427 × 10 –6,
a reduction of 30% will result compared with that of Class R. It is dif cult to grasp how
εcd,o can be so sensitive to a change of cement from class 52.5R to 42.5N? Note that εcd,o
values are tabulated in BS EN 1992-1-1, Table 3.2 for Class N cement, giving 420 × 10 –6
for this example.
Creep, as a viscoelastic effect of the deformability of cement paste, causes changes in
the elastic modulus of concrete from the immediate value (as mentioned earlier) Ecm to
E cm /(1 + φ(t,ti)), where φ(t,ti) = creep coef cient from time ti to t. This means that φmay
be calculated for any time interval as:
Exp. B.2 Creep coef cient φ(t,ti) = φRH . β(fcm). β(ti). βc (t,ti) (2.16)
where
Exp. B.3 φRH = {1 + [(1 – RHs /100) α1/0.1 ho1/3]}α2 (2.17)
Exp. B.8c α1 = min{1; (35/fcm)0.7}, α 2 = min{1; (35/fcm)0.2} (2.18)
Exp. B.4 Strength factor β(fcm) = 16.8/√fcm (2.19)
Exp. B.5 Age at installation loading factor β(ti) = 1/(0.1 + ti 0.2) (2.20)
Exp. B.7 βc (t,ti) = {(t – ti)/[(t – ti) + βH]}0.3 (2.21)
Exp. B.8b RH factor βH (days) = 1.5 [1 + (0.012 RHs)18] ho + 250 α3 (2.22)
Exp. B.8c α3 = min{1; (35/fcm)0.5} (2.23)

The high temperature steam or otherwise curing of precast elements gives an equivalent
age of maturity age when it is demoulded at time t 0, as follows:
Exp. B.5 Age at release loading factor β (t 0) = 1/(0.1 + t 0 0.2) (2.24)
a
æ 9 ö
Exp. B9 Here may use t0 = t0T ç 1.2
+ 1 ÷ ³ 0.5 days (2.25)
è 2 + t T ø
where α = 1, 0, −1 for Class R, N, S cement, respectively.
Exp. B10 Equivalent age at transfer t 0T = Σ e−[4000/(273+T) – 13.65].Δti (2.26)
where T = mean curing temperature (typically 50°C) during curing time Δti (typically
20 h) in days.
Example 2.2
Calculate the equivalent age at release t 0 for concrete matured for 20 h under a mean
temperature of 50°C using cement class R.
Solution
Equation 2.26 t 0T = e−[4000/(273+ 50) – 13.65] (20/24) = 3.547 × 0.833 = 2.96 days
α = 1 for Class R
Equation 2.25 t 0 = 2.96 × {[9/(2 + 2.961.2)] + 1}1 = 2.96 × 2.582 = 7.65 days
Example 2.3
Calculate the long-term creep coef cient φ(t,ti) for the section in Example 2.1 and curing
maturity in Example 2.2. Repeat at t = 28, 56 and 90 days and comment on the progres-
sion of creep in the short term.
Solution
Equation 2.23 α1 = min{1; (35/48) 0.7 } = 0.80; α2 = 0.94; α3 = 0.85
Equation 2.17 φRH = {1 + [(1 – 50/100) 0.80/0.1 × 1501/3]} × 0.94 = 1.647
Equation 2.19 β(fcm) = 16.8/√48 = 2.425
Equation 2.24 β (t 0) = 1/(0.1 + 7.650.2) = 0.624
Equation 2.22 βH = 1.5 [1 + (0.012 × 50)18] × 150 + 250 × 0.85 = 438 days
Equation 2.21 βc (t,ti) = {(20833 – 7.65)/[(20833 – 7.65) + 438]}0.3 = 0.994
Equation 2.16 φ(t,ti) = 1.647 × 2.425 × 0.624 × 0.994 = 2.492 × 0.994 = 2.48
Equation 2.21 If t = 28 days, βc (t,ti) = {(28 – 7.65)/[(28 – 7.65) + 438]}0.3 = 0.393
Equation 2.16 φ(t,ti) = 2.492 × 0.393= 0.98
Equation 2.16 If t = 56 days, βc (t,ti) = 0.500, φ(t,ti) = 1.25
Equation 2.16 If t = 90 days, βc (t,ti) = 0.500, φ(t,ti) = 1.43
1 N R t0 = 7.65 days C40/50

2 S
3
5 C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
10
t0
C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
20 C50/60 C55/67
C60/75 C70/85
30 C80/95 C90/105
50
100
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
(∞, t0) = 2.3 h0 = 150 mm h0 = (mm)
Inside conditions – RH = 50%
Note:
1 - intersection piont between lines 4 and 5 can also
4
be above point 1
5 3 - for t0 > 100 it is su cient accurate to assume t0
2 = 100 (and use the tangent line)
Figure 2.16 Method for determining the long-term creep coef cient. (Annotated by the author, based on BS EN
1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings,
BSI, London, UK., February 2014, 2004, Figure 3.1; Courtesy of British Standards Institute, London.)
The short-term creep is known to have a logarithmic relationship with time, and the
aforementioned results suggest that φ(t,ti) is a function of K loge tx as follows:
At t = 28 days, 0.2 × (Loge 28)1.3 = 0.96 (cf. 0.98)
At t = 90 days, 0.2 × (Loge 90)1.3 = 1.42 (cf. 1.43), and so on.
BS EN 1992-1-1, Fig. 3.1 presents a graphical route to φ(t,ti) as reproduced in Figure 2.16.

The additional (dashed) line gives the solution to the long-term value mentioned earlier as
φ(t,ti) ≈ 2.3, in reasonable agreement with their equations in Appendix B.
2.1.5 Fire resistance and axis distance to rebars and tendons

This section deals only with the relationship of re resistance with the cover, or more precisely
the mean axis distance to the centroid of reinforcement (rebars in reinforced concrete and ten-
dons in prestressed concrete (PSC)) contributing to the bending strength of elements. It does not
address the behaviour and resistance of frameworks and connections in re, which is beyond
the scope of the book. In the Eurocodes, re is classed as an ‘accidental situation of re expo-
sure.’ For concrete structures, the assessment of re and its consequential conformity is accord-
ing to Eurocode EC2, Part 1-2 (BS EN 1992-1-2 2004) and the UK NA (NA to BS 1992-1-2
2004) ‘General Rules - Structural Fire Design.’ The re resistance of certain precast products
is covered in product standards such as BS EN 13369 for the ‘Common Rules’ (BS EN 13369
2013), and BS EN 1168 for hollow core slabs (BS EN 1168 2005). Double-tee units are classed
as ribbed slabs and, apart from some thermal contours in the tapered ribs given in BS EN 13224
(BS EN 13224 2004), are covered in BS EN 1992-1-2 as ‘beams’ (for the ribs) and ‘slabs’ for
the top anges. It is important to note that product standards are intended to be used for the
product itself (beams, oor units) and not for the design of the completed building or oor slab.
The re resistance of structural elements has the following three components:
1. R: re resistance class for the load-bearing criterion – the capacity of an element to

resist loads in the re limit state, such as bending moments MEd, ≤ MRd, where the re
load is taken as dead load plus the quasi-permanent fraction of the live load, typically
ψ2 = 0.3 for of ces and domestic loading, and the resistance is according to the reduced
strength of steel and concrete at an elevated temperature.
2. E: re resistance class for the integrity criterion – otherwise known as the separating
criterion based on the wall thickness or slab depth of re-resisting compartments,
including plastering, screeds, nishes, or other non-combustible layers, for example
a 150 mm deep concrete slab with 50 mm insulating layer plus a 75 mm sand/cement
screed would have an equivalent re thickness of 225 mm.
3. I: re resistance class for the insulation criterion – this is also a separating criterion where
the average temperature rise over the whole of the non-exposed surface is limited to 140°C,
and the maximum temperature rise at any point of that surface does not exceed 180°C.
Fire resistance is measured by the ability of a structure or elements to satisfy the aforemen-
tioned components for 30, 60, 90, 120, 180 or 240 min in standard re exposure. Therefore,
if an element achieves M Ed, = M Rd, after say 100 min of re exposure, its re class is R 90.
If the element also has suf cient thickness/depth to satisfy that requirement after say 75 min
of re exposure, its re class is E 60, and is able to satisfy a separating criterion for 120 min,
its re class is I 120. The element’s combined class is then REI 60.
The design for re resistance can be satis ed either by
(i) member analysis in BS EN 1992-1-2, Sections 2 to 4, in which the criterion for the
re action E Ed, ≤ re resistance ERd,t, , where E represents shear, bending, bearing,
buckling, etc.
(ii) or indirectly by the use of tables in BS EN 1992-1-2, Section 5 giving the requirements
for member thickness or depth heff, breadth of column and beam bmin, breath of webs
bw and centroidal cover distance (called ‘axis’ distance a) to steel bars, satisfying re
classes R and E.
For (i) BS EN 1992-1-2, Section 4 member capacity is based on the reduced compressive
strength of concrete, rebars and prestressing tendons, and the spalling (loss of cross section) of
concrete at elevated temperatures. BS EN 1992-1-2 Annexes B.1 and B.2 provide a systematic
approach to spalling breadths as well as the calculation model for MRd, . Tabulated data for
heff, bmin, bw and a are given in BS EN 1992-1-2 Section 5 for beams and slabs (Figure 2.17),
columns and walls (Figure 2.18). Axis distance a = cover plus link diameter, neglecting the 2Ф
radius bend at the corners of the links which often causes the main bars to rise up the section.
2.1.5.1 Columns
Method A Table 5.2a. Columns subjected mainly to compression, where e = M0Ed, /N0Ed, ≤
0.15h and in braced structures, where the effective length l0, ≤ 3.0 m, making this very restric-
tive using pinned beam-to-column connections where l0, = storey height. Note that Table 5.2a
is based on (compression strength coef cient) αcc = 1, whereas the UK value is 0.85; this makes
the data slightly conservative. Values for bmin and a are summarised in Table 2.4 for columns
exposed to re on more than one face for values of μ = NEd, /NRd, where NEd, is the axial load
in a re situation = Gk + ψ2Qk loads, where ψ2 = quasi-permanent factor (de ned in Table 3.2),
Compression zone
h
a a a
asd
Side
bmin e.g. mesh with transverse
(a) (b) bars in first layer
Figure 2.17 De nition of breadth bmin, depth h and axis distance a in re situation (a) beams, (b) slabs. (Based on
BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2: General rules – Structural
re design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Section 5.)
a2 a1
a
Exposed to ﬁre on this
Axis of one side requires a1
bending
h
a
h
bmin
(a) (b) Plan view
Figure 2.18 De nition of breadth bmin, depth h and axis distance a in re situation (a) columns, (b) walls.
(Based on BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2: General rules –
Structural re design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Section 5.)
and NRd is the axial load capacity at room temperature. Each load case must therefore be ana-
lysed under these conditions. Note that in situations where the dead and live loads are equal
and for of ces ψ2 = 0.3, then μ ≈ 0.5. Most precast columns are designed using 30 mm cover,
8–10 mm links and 20–32 mm main bars so that typically a = 48–56 mm. Thus, bmin ≥ 200,
300 and 350 mm for R 60, R 90 and R 120, respectively. Values for the least values of bmin and
a are summarised in Table 2.4. Linear interpolation is permitted in all the re charts.
There are no reductions in dimensions for the use of limestone aggregates (clause 5.1.(2)
only for beams and slabs).
Method B Table 5.2b. Braced columns having slenderness λ = lo, /i ≤ 30, where i = radius
of gyration √I/A and e = M0Ed, /N0Ed, ≤ 0.25h, n = N0Ed, /0.7 Nu where squash load
Nu = Ac fcd + As 0.87 fyk, and steel ratio ω = As 0.87 fyk/Ac fcd. Additional frame analysis is
required in order to determine N0Ed, in a re situation using Gk + ψ2Qk loads, so that the area
Table 2.4 Fire resistance of columns

Minimum column width bmin/axis distance a (mm)
Fire resistance (min) μ = 0.2 μ = 0.5 μ = 0.7
R 60 200/25 200/36 250/46
300/31 350/40
R 90 200/31 300/45 350/53
300/25 400/38 450/40
R 120 250/40 350/45 350/57
350/35 450/40 450/51
R 180 350/45 350/63 450/70
R 240 350/61 450/75 –
Source: Adapted from BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2:
General rules – Structural re design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Table 5.2a for e ≤ 0.15h.

Minimum column width bmin/axis
distance a (mm)
Fire resistance Reinforcement
(min) ratio ω n = 0.3 n = 0.5 n = 0.7
R 60 0.5 200/25 250/35 350/40
350/25 550/25
1.0 200/25 200/40 300/50
400/25 600/30
R 90 0.5 200/45 300/45 500/50
300/25 550/25 600/40
1.0 200/40 250/40 500/50
300/25 550/25 600/45
R 120 0.5 300/45 450/50 500/60
550/25 600/25 600/50
1.0 250/50 450/45 600/60
400/25 600/30
R 180 0.5 450/50 500/60 600/75
600/25 600/50
1.0 450/50 500/60 Note 1
550/25 600/45
R 240 0.5 550/55 600/70 Note 1
600/25
1.0 500/40 600/60 Note 1
600/30
General rules – Structural re design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Table 5.2b for e ≤ 0.25h.
Note 1: bmin > 600 mm. Particular assessment for buckling is required.
of bars As is found prior to calculating the re resistance in an iterative manner. Values for the
least values of bmin and a are summarised in Table 2.5 for ω= 0.5 and 1.0 as the most common
value of ω is for As/Ac of 4%, then ω = 0.04 × 435/(40/1.5) = 0.65.
Method C Tables C.3, C.6 and C.9. These tables provide the data for ω = 0.1, 0.5
and 1.0 using linear interpolation. Braced columns having slenderness λ = lo, /i ≤ 80

Minimum column width bmin/axis
distance a (mm)
Fire resistance Slenderness
(mins) ratio n = 0.3 n = 0.5 n = 0.7
R 60 30 200/40 450/50 550/50
450/25 550/30 600/40
40 250/40 500/40 600/60
500/25 550/35
50 300/45 500/50 Note 1
550/25 550/40
R 90 30 300/50 500/55 600/80
550/25 600/40
40 350/50 550/60 Note 1
550/35 600/50
50 500/45 600/60 Note 1
550/40
R 120 30 500/50 550/50 Note 1
550/40
40 500/55 550/60 Note 1
550/45 600/55
50 500/60 600/80 Note 1
600/45
R 180 30 550/55 600/75 Note 1
40 550/60 Note 1 Note 1
50 600/70 Note 1 Note 1
General rules – Structural re design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Table C.6 for e ≤ 0.5h.
Note 1: bmin > 600 mm. Particular assessment for buckling is required.
and e = M0Ed, /N0Ed, ≤ 0.5h under re conditions. If e > 0.5h, the section can be considered
as a beam. Unfortunately, n = N0Ed, /0.7 Nu > 0.5 requires bmin > 600 mm as well as special-
ist treatment for buckling in re, indicated by note 1. The data are for b or h ≤ 400 mm, but
no information is given otherwise. Values for the least values of bmin and a are summarised in
Table 2.6 for ω= 0.5 and λ ratios ≤ 50 as λ would typically not exceed 4000/(300/√12) = 45.
Example 2.4
Determine the re resistance for a 300 × 300 mm column reinforced using 4 no. H25 bars
which is carrying an axial load Gk = 900 kN and Qk = 600 kN and bending moment
Gk = 40 kN and Qk = 27 kNm at room temperature. The column is in a braced frame
with l 0 = 3.0 m. Use fck = 40 N/mm 2 and f yk = 500 N/mm 2 . PSF γG = 1.25 (dead load) and
γG = 1.5 (live load). ψ2 = 0.3. Cover to 8 mm dia. links = 30 mm.
Solution
a = 30 + 8 + 25/2 = 50 mm. A s = 1963 mm 2
N Ed = 1.25 × 900 + 1.5 × 600 = 2025 kN; M Ed = 1.25 × 40 + 1.5 × 27 = 90.5 kNm
N 0Ed, = 900 + 0.3 × 600 = 1080 kN; M 0Ed, = 40 + 0.3 × 27 = 48.1 kNm
e = M 0Ed, /N 0Ed, = 48.1/1080 = 0.044
e /h = 44/300 = 0.147 < 0.15 use Table 2.4 {Table 5.2a}
NRd = 90000 × 40/1.5 + 1963 × 0.87 × 500 = 3253 kN (note that fcd = fck/1.5 not
0.85 fck /1.5)
μ = N Ed, /N Rd = 1080/3254 = 0.33
Fire Requirements for column width bmin/axis distance a (mm)

resistance Pass/fail for b = 300
(min) μ = 0.2 from table μ = 0.5 from table μ = 0.33 interpolated and a = 50 mm
R 60 200/25 200/36 200/30 Pass
R 90 200/31 300/45 243/37 Pass
R 120 250 /40 350/45 293/42 Pass
R 180 350/45 350/63 350/52 Fail
Answer: Fire resistance = R 120.
Note: Interpolated values in italics.
Example 2.5
Repeat Example 2.4 carrying an axial load Gk = 900 and Qk = 600 kN and bending
moment Gk = 60 and Qk = 40 kNm at room temperature. The additional moment in this
column requires 4 no. H32 bars.
Solution
a = 30 + 8 + 32/2 = 54 mm. A s = 3216 mm 2
N Ed = 2025 kN; M Ed = 1.25 × 60 + 1.5 × 40 = 135 kNm
N 0Ed, = 1080 kN; M 0Ed, = 60 + 0.3 × 40 = 72 kNm
e = M 0Ed, /N 0Ed, = 72/1080 = 0.067
e /h = 67/300 = 0.22 < 0.25 use Table 2.5 {Table 5.2b}
Nu = 90,000 × 40/1.5 + 3216 × 0.87 × 500 = 3,800 kN (note that fcd = fck /1.5 not
0.85 fck /1.5)
n = N 0Ed, /0.7 Nu = 1080/0.7 × 3800 = 0.41
ω = A s 0.87 f yk /Ac fcd = 3216 × 0.87 × 500/90,000 × 40/1.5 = 0.58
Fire Requirements for column width bmin/axis distance a (mm) Pass/fail for
resistance Steel b = 300 and
(min) ratio ω n = 0.3 from table n = 0.5 from table n = 0.41 interpolated a = 54 mm
R 60 0.5 200/25 250/35 225/30
0.58 221/30 Pass
1.0 200/25 200/40 200/32
R 90 0.5 200/45 300/45 250/45
0.58 246/44 Pass
1.0 200/40 250/40 225/40
R 120 0.5 300/45 450/50 375/48
0.58 371/48 Fail
1.0 250/50 450/45 350/48
R 180 0.5 450/50 500/60 475/55
0.58 475/55 Fail
1.0 450/50 500/60 475/55
Answer: Fire resistance = R 90.
Note: Interpolated values in italics.
2.1.5.2 Unbraced columns

Tabular data are not included for unbraced columns in BS EN 1992-1-2. This is the case for
the simpli ed calculation presented in Annex B.3, which is a ‘zone method’ for the analysis
of columns with signi cant second-order effects. The subject has not yet been of cially pub-
lished in a handbook to BS EN 1992-1-2 by The Of ce of the Deputy Prime Minister.
In cases where the structure is unbraced, or that portion of the structure being con-
sidered cannot be considered as braced by that part of the structure remote from the
re, then the following method is available: For initial design, the background paper to
the UK NAs to BS EN 1992-1-2 states that, at the discretion of the designer, the tabular
methods may be used for general design and critical columns checked in accordance with
either the 500°C isotherm method or the zone method. The justi cation given is that no
distinction was made in BS 8110 between braced and unbraced columns in re design
and that typically column sizes in BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS EN 1992-1-2 will exceed those
determined from BS 8110. Such an approach would only be unsafe where the members
in the re zone provide the predominant means of structural stability and in such cases
advanced calculation methods and specialist advice may be required. In conclusion, the
tabulated methods adopted for braced column may, for the present time, also be adopted
for unbraced columns.
2.1.5.3 Walls
Walls are divided into non-load-bearing (partitions) and load-bearing (structural walls or
shear and in ll walls, see Section 7.4). The re resistance of partitions is only required to
meet the thermal insulation and integrity criterion I and E. There is no structural require-
ment R or axis distance a. Minimum wall thickness tmin should not be less than that given in
Table 2.7 (based on BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.3) and reduced by 10% using limestone aggre-
gates. To avoid excessive thermal deformation and subsequent failure of integrity between
the wall and slab, the ratio of clear height is l/t ≤ 40.
Load-bearing solid walls are required to meet the criterion REI in terms of tmin and a
according to Table 2.7 (based on BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.4) for walls exposed to re on
one or two faces for values of μ = N Ed, /N Rd = 0.35 and 0.7. tmin given in Table 2.7 may also
be used for plain concrete walls (see BS EN 1992-1-1, Section 12).
Table 2.7 Fire resistance of walls

Load-bearing walls
Minimum wall thickness tmin/axis distance a (mm)
Fire Non-load- μ = 0.35 μi = 0.35
resistance bearing walls
(min) tmin (mm) One facea Two facesa One face Two faces
REI 60 80 110/10 120/10 130/10 140/10
REI 90 100 120/20 140/10 140/25 170/25
REI 120 120 150/25 160/25 160/35 220/35
REI 180 150 180/40 200/45 210/50 270/55
REI 240 175 230/55 250/55 270/60 350/60
Source: Adapted from BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2: General rules – Structural re
design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Tables 5.3 and 5.4.
Values of a <25 will be governed by production methods or durability.
a Number of faces exposed to re.
2.1.5.4 Beams
The re resistance of reinforced and prestressed beams is required to meet the structural cri-
terion R (only) in terms of the minimum breadth of beam bmin, breadth of web bw and mean
axis distance amean according to BS EN 1992-1-2, Section 5.6. For nonrectangular beams,
such as tapered or I section beams, beam breadth is de ned in BS EN 1992-1-2, Fig. 5.4. To
avoid spalling of shallow bottom anges, the effective height (Figure 2.15c) is deff ≥ d1 + 0.5
d2 ≥ bmin, where bmin is according to Table 2.8. There are some other modi cations neces-
sary to a for narrow webs and for shallow bottom anges given in BS EN 1992-1-2, Exp.
5.10. The calculation for multiple bars amean = am = ΣAsi ai /ΣAsi (1 to 4) and at the side asd,m =
ΣA si ai /ΣAsi (5 to 8) is as illustrated in Figure 2.19. The rebar in the middle of the bottom row
may be included in a sd,m, although technically its in uence is less than the outer bars and it
is shared with asd,m from the other side. When reinforcement consists of rebars and tendons
with different characteristic strength, A si should be replaced by A si f yki (or A si f pki).
Table 2.8 Fire resistance of simply supported reinforced or prestressed beams

Fire Minimum dimensions (mm)
resistance
(min) Combinations of beam width bmin and axis distance a Web breadth bwa
R60 120/40 160/35 200/30 300/25 100
R90 150/55 200/45 300/40 400/35 110
R120 200/65 240/60 300/55 500/50 130
R180 240/80 300/70 400/65 600/60 150
R240 280/90 350/80 500/75 700/70 170
Source: Adapted from BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2: General rules – Structural re
design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Table 5.5.
Note: For prestressed beams, increase a according to 5.2(5 to 8).
bmin may be increased, and axis distance a reduced by 10% using limestone aggregates.
a Class WA according to NA to BS EN 1992-1-2.
Not included
As4
As3
As2 a4 Axes for a
As1 a2 a3
a1
a5
a6 Not included in
a7 mean asd
a8
Axes for asd
Figure 2.19 Calculation of mean axis distance for multiple bars. (Based on BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2:
Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2: General rules – Structural re design, BSI, London,
UK., 2004, Section 5.)
There is a major division of data between simply supported and continuous beams.
Options for the least values of bmin in combination with amean are summarised in Table 2.8
for simply supported reinforced concrete beams (BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.5). The axis
distance to prestressing tendons given in Table 2.8 should be increased according to BS EN
1992-1-2, clause 5.2(5) stated as follows: For prestressing tendons, the critical temperature
for bars is assumed to be 400°C and for strands and wires to be 350°C. This assumption
corresponds approximately to Ed, = 0.7 E d, f p0,1k/f pk = 0.9 and γs = 1.15 (stress level σs,
fi /fp0,1k = 0.55). If no special check according to (7) is made in prestressed tensile members,
beams and slabs, the required axis distance a should be increased by
10 mm for prestressing bars, corresponding to θcr = 400°C

15 mm for prestressing wires and strands, corresponding to θcr = 350°C
The ‘special’ check according to 5.2(7) allows the increase in a, known as Δa, to be reduced
according to the ratio of the re load E d, to the ultimate load Ed and the ratio of the area of
reinforcement required/provided, for example if M Ed, = 80 kNm and M Ed = 125 kNm, and
if the designed area of strands Ap = 280 mm 2 and 6 no. 9.3 mm strands = 312 mm 2 are pro-
vided, then the stress used to evaluate the critical temperature of reinforcement and hence
Δa would be σp = (1770/1.15) × (80/125) × (280/312) = 884 N/mm 2 . This procedure is also
applicable to slabs or other prestressed members in bending or tension.
The axis distance to the side of beam for the corner bars (or tendon or wire) of beams with
only one layer of reinforcement is asd = a + 10 mm. No increase is required for values of bmin
greater than those in the 3rd column of options (from the left) in Table 2.8, for example for
R 60 if bmin = 200 mm then asd = 30 + 10 = 40 mm, but if bmin = 250 mm then asd = 30 mm.
2.1.5.5 Reduced additional axis distance Δa

BS EN 1992-1-2, Fig. 5.1, reproduced here in Figure 2.20, shows the relationship between
the critical temperature θcr for rebars and prestressing tendons. For reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete with bonded tendons, tensile and simply supported members in bend-
ing, Clause 5.2.(6 to 8) and Equations 5.2 and 5.3 together with clause 2.4.2 allow the axis
distance a in Table 2.8 to be reduced by Δa if θcr is different at 500°C as:
Δa = 0.1 (500 – θcr) mm (2.27)
where θcr is obtained from Figure 2.20. For prestressing tendons, curve 3 may be expressed
as follows:
qcr = 655.5 - 555.5kp (qcr ) if kp (qcr ) = 0.55 to 1.0
qcr = 594.4 - 444.4kp (qcr ) if kp(qcr ) = 0.1 to 0.55 (2.28)
qcr = 1200 - 6500kp (qcr ) if kp (qcr ) < 0.1
where kp(θcr) = σp, /pyk(20°C) (2.29)
but σp, = (E d, /E d) (pyk(20°C)/1.15) (Ap,required /Ap,provided) (2.30)
Then from BS EN 1992-1-2, clause 2.4.2, the ratio of the re load/ultimate load
η = E d, /E d is the least of code Expressions 2.5a or 2.5b for the following load combinations.
1
0.8
2
ks (θcr), kp (θcr)
0.6
3 Curve 1 : Reinforcing steel

0.4
Curve 2 : Prestressing steel
(bars : EN 10138 - 4)
0.2
Curve 3 : Prestressing steel
(wires & strands EN 10138 -2

0 and -3)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θcr (°C)
Figure 2.20 Critical temperature of reinforcing and prestressing steel θcr corresponding to the reduction fac-
tor ks(θcr) = σs, /fyk(20°C) for rebars or kp(θcr) = σp,fi/fpk(20°C) for prestressing tendons. (From BSEN
1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2: General rules – Structural re
design, BSI, London, UK., 2004, Figure 5.1; Courtesy of British Standards Institute.)
Exp. 2.5a. η = (Gk + ψ2 Qk)/(γG Gk + γQ ψ0 Qk) (2.31)
Exp. 2.5a. η = (Gk + ψ2 Qk)/(ζγG Gk + γQ Qk) (2.32)
where γG = 1.35, ζγG = 1.25 and γQ = 1.5. Refer to Table 3.2 for values of ψ0 and ψ2.
BS EN 1992-1-2, clause 2.4.2(4) states that as only thermal deformations across the cross
section need be considered, and axial and in-plane expansions are ignored, then η may be
taken as M Ed, /M Ed.
Example 2.6
Determine the mean axis distance a required for a 300 mm wide prestressed concrete beam
having re resistance for 120 min. The beam is subjected to dead uniformly distributed
load (UDL) Gk = 40 kN/m and live UDL Qk = 30 kN/m. The area of tendons required
is known to be Ap = 1000 mm2. Use 12.5 mm diameter strands of 94 mm2 per strand with
pyk = 1770 N/mm2. Use of ce loading with ψ2 = 0.3 and ψ0 = 0.7.
Solution
Ap = 1000 mm2. No. of strands required > 1000/94 = 10.6. Use 11 no. × 94 = 1034 mm2
Ap,required /Ap,provided = 1000/1034 = 0.967
E d, = 40 + 0.3 × 30 = 49 kN/m
E d = max{1.35 × 40 + 0.7 × 1.5 × 30; 1.25 × 40 + 1.5 × 30} = {85.5; 95.0} = 95 kN/m
η = 49/95 = 0.516
σp, = 0.516 × (1770/1.15) × 0.967 = 768 N/mm 2 .
kp(θcr) = 768/1770 = 0.434 (note this can be reached by 0.516 × 0.967/1.15 = 0.434)
Then if kp(θcr) = 0.1 to 0.55, θcr = 594.4 – 444.4 kp(θcr) = 594.4 – 444.4 × 0.434 = 402°C
Δa = 0.1 (500 – 402) = 9.8 mm
From Table 2.8 for R 120, use bmin = 300 mm, a = 55 + 15 – 9.8 = 60.2 mm
The rst row of strands (5 no.) could be placed at a = 40 mm, 2nd and 3rd rows (3 each)
at 80 and 120 mm giving a = (5 × 40 + 3 × 80 + 3 × 120)/11 = 72 mm > 60.2 mm.
2.1.5.6 Floor slabs

The re resistance of reinforced solid, ribbed, waf e, at, one-way and two-way slabs, etc.
is given in BS EN 1992-1-2, Section 5.7. Common Rules for Precast Elements BS EN 13369
clause 4.4.4.2 (BS EN 13369 2013) states that tabulated data can be found in EN 1992-1-2,
but when applicable complementary rules may be given in product standards. The re resis-
tance of speci c precast oors is covered in EC Product Standards, such as hollow core units
given in Annex. G in BS EN 1168:2005+A3:2011 (BS EN 1168 2005).
Floor slabs are required to meet the criterion REI in terms of hs given in BS EN 1992-1-2,
Fig. 5.7 and Table 5.8 ensure adequate separating function (Criterions E and I). If load-
bearing function (Criterion R) is required only the necessary slab thickness h1 assumed for
design to BS EN 1992-1-1 may be taken. Values for hs and axis distance a are according to
Table 2.9 for simply supported one-way spanning slabs and for the top anges of double-tee
units (based on BS EN 1992-1-2, Table 5.8).
The re resistance of prestressed concrete hollow core oor units (Figure 2.14) is a
function of depth h and mean axis distance a. Figure 2.21 shows re-damaged sof t of
some 150 mm deep hollow core units showing exposed 5 mm diameter wire tendons.
Depth h corresponds to the minimum solid oor thickness given in Table 5.8 of BS EN
1992-1-2 and has been calculated using a conversion equation for hollow core units as
te = h√ζ, where h = actual depth and ζ = ratio of solid material (including in lled joints)
to the whole. This explains the differences of depth required for solid and hollow core
slabs in Table 2.9, for example a certain 150 mm deep hollow core unit has a re class R
60 compared with a solid slab R 180. This is because with the voids occupying 40% of
Table 2.9 Total thickness and axis distance for solid plank and hollow core units and composite slabs
required for re resistance
Total thickness for solid, hollow core units
and composite slab (mm)
Axis distance a to EC2 or
Fire resistance (min) Solid unit to BS EN 1992-1-2 Hollow core to BS EN 1168 EN1168 (mm)
R30 80 130 10
R60 80 130 20
R90 100 160 30
R120 120 200 40
R180 150 250 55
For prestressed slabs, increase a according to BS EN 1992-1-2, clause 5.2(5 to 8).
Figure 2.21 Fire damaged sof t of prestressed hollow core oor units showing two exposed prestressing
wires. The width of the photograph scales about 1 m. The line in the middle of the photograph is
the joint between two units. Blackened remains of timber ceiling battens are seen on the right.
the area ζ = 0.6. A solid slab of √0.6 × 150 = 116 mm would be class R 90. The data in
BS EN 1168, Table G.1 are for siliceous/gravel aggregates. Granite, sandstone, greywacke
perform no worse. If calcareous or dolomitic limestone is used, the dimensions h and a are
increased by 10%. A 150 mm deep hollow core unit made of limestone aggregates with
h = 1.1 × 150 = 165 mm is class R 90.
2.2 MIX DESIGN
2.2.1 Exposure, cover and strength

The producer speci es the mix design according to BS EN 206 (BS EN 206 2013) and
the quantities of cement, aggregates (coarse and ne), water and admixtures & additives.
The producer will specify the early strength gain expected. The quantity of mixing water,
including the use of superplasticisers and self-compacting admixtures, is the minimum
required to ensure the correct workability and strength intended for purpose. If a new fam-
ily of concrete mixes is speci ed, trial mixes will be carried out to the satisfaction of the
producer to demonstrate early handling and 28-day strengths.
Unlike previous British codes, environmental exposure is directly linked to concrete
strength, and vice-versa, in addition to the usual mix design parameters of the water/
cement ratio (w/c) and cement type and content, and nominal cover (C nom) to reinforcement.
Exposure classes for reinforcement corrosion are induced by
Carbonation (XC1 to XC4)

Chlorides (XD1 to XD3)
Chlorides from sea water (XS1 to XS3)
Freeze/thaw and chemical attack (XF1 to XF4, and XA1 to XA3)
The relationship between fck and C nom is given in:
BS 8500-1:2015 Tables A.4 (50 years’ life) and A.5 (100 years).

BS EN 1992-1-1 with the UK NA to BS EN 1992-1-1, Tables NA2 and NA3.
Note that the cover distances for exposure XS1 to XS3 have increased by around 30 mm in the
2015 revision of BS 8500-1. For the most severe XS3, the minimum concrete grade using CEM I
is C45/55 with Cnom = 85 mm, although this reduces to 50–55 mm using some blended cements.
Referring to BS EN 1992-1-1, clauses 4.4.1.1(1) and 4.4.1.3(3), nominal cover Cnom = Cmin +
ΔCdev. Where cover is regulated by quality control in the factory, ΔCdev may be taken as
5 mm. ∴Cnom = Cmin + 5 mm. Table 2.10 gives Cnom according to exposure class for three
grades of concrete from 28 to 45 N/mm2 cylinder strength, and Table 2.11 gives the minimum
water/cement ratio for the same. The minimum requirements for grade strength (N/mm2),
type CEM 1 cement content (kg/m3) and maximum water/cement ratio, for 50 years design
life, are given in Table 2.12 for exposure up to XD3.
Table 2.10 Relationship between exposure classes, concrete strength and nominal cover for reinforced
and prestressed concrete using cement CEM I
Nominal cover (mm) for 50 years
working life
Exposure
Exposure condition class C28/35 C40/50 ≥C45/55
Inside enclosed buildings, low humidity. XC1 20 20 20
Permanently wet.
Long-term contact with water, not containing XC2 30 30 30
chlorides.
Inside building, moderate and high humidity. XC3/4 35 25 25
External, sheltered from rain (ground oors).
Cyclic wet and dry.
Moderate humidity. ≤10 m from carriageway. XD1 40 30 30
Slight chloride conditions.
Airborne chlorides (open car parks).
Wet, rarely dry. Immersed in water containing XD2a 45 35 35
chlorides.
Cyclic wet and dry. ≤10 m from carriageway. XD3a 45 50 45
Bridges parapet edge beams. Reinforced
pavements and car park slabs.
Airborne salt. Not direct contact to sea water. XS1a 70 55 50
Surfaces in coastal areas.
Permanently submerged. XS2a — 70 65
Marine permanently wet. Below mid-tide level.
Spray containing chlorides. Marine tidal, splash and XS3a — — 85
spray, and upper tidal zones. Exposed sof ts
above sea water
Freeze/thaw. XF1-4b
Chemical attack. XA1-3b
Note a. Or concrete grade C28/35 with speci ed Note b. Refer to specialist
air-entrained admixture may be used with certain literature, e.g. Annex A BS8500-1
blended cements CEM II to CEM IV. Table A.4
Source: According to BS 8500-1, Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1, Part 1. Method of specifying
and guidance for the speci er, BSI, London, UK., 2015.
Table 2.11 Relationship between exposure classes, concrete strength and minimum
water/cement ratio for 50 years concrete using cement CEM I
Exposure class C28/35 C40/50 ≥C45/55
XC1 0.70 0.70 0.70
XC2 0.65 0.65 0.65
XC3/4 0.60 0.45 0.45
XD1 0.60 0.45 0.45
XD2 0.55 0.40 0.40
XD3 — 0.40 0.35
XS1 0.55 0.40 0.35
XS2 — 0.40 0.35
XS3 — — 0.35
Source: According to BS 8500-1, Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1,
Part 1. Method of specifying and guidance for the speci er, BSI, London, UK., 2015.
Table 2.12 Mix design requirements using CEM I

For exposure XC1 to XC4 For exposure XD1 – XD3
Concrete Minimum cement Maximum w/c Minimum cement Maximum
grade (kg/m3) ratio (kg/m3) w/c ratio
C20/25 240 0.70
C25/30 260 0.65
C28/35 280 0.60 300 0.60
320 0.55
C32/40 300 0.55 320 0.55
340 0.50
C35/45 360 0.45 360 0.45
C40/50 340 0.45 360 0.45
380 0.40
C45/55 380 0.35
Source: According to BS 8500-1, Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1,
Part 1. Method of specifying and guidance for the speci er, BSI, London, UK., 2015.
2.2.2 Mortars and grouts

Mortar is a sand–cement mix used for small in ll and semi-dry packing of joints. Mix
design is according to BS EN 206 as quantities of cement, ne aggregates, water and admix-
tures & additives. The sand is typically graded at 0/4 mm but may include 6 mm pea gravel
for joints wider than 50 mm. BS EN 13139 (BS EN 13139 2002) lists the preferred sizes of
aggregates for mortar as (min/max) 0/2 mm, 0/4 mm, 2/4 mm and 2/8 mm. Sieve sizes and
other information is according to PD 6682-3 (PD 6682-3 2003). The strength of mortars
and grouts in compression is generally not less than the parent material at the joint, but it
may be C25/30 in other cases such as longitudinal joints between slabs.
Grout is either a cement–water mix or a mortar mix used for in lling at joints and gaps.
Grout may be used as dry pack but may also contain admixtures such as non-shrink or
expansive agents, latex bonding, or be a polyester grout or equivalent, added according to
manufacturer’s instructions.
The function of grout is either ‘structural’ or ‘non-structural’ in ll. Structural grout

includes the protection of precast elements or connections in which its integrity is nec-
essary to ensure the correct structural function, including re resistance and durability
protection. Control cubes are taken for structural grout. Non-structural grout serves no
such function.
The workability of mortar is classed as ‘very low’ with no slump. The workability of grout
is as speci ed on construction drawings or in the method statement and may be ‘high’ with
100–150 mm slump.
2.2.3 Dry pack

Dry pack mortar or grout may be used where it is not possible to pour grout. The grout
has a water/cement ratio of about 0.25–0.30 and is therefore mouldable in the hand. It is
placed by hand and trowel and hammered into position, which removes free air. It may be
either ‘structural’ or ‘non-structural’ as mentioned earlier, but it is not possible to make
control cubes.
2.2.4 Aggregates
EN 206 clause 5.1.3 states that normal-weight coarse aggregates from natural land
resources conform to BS EN 12620 (BS EN 12620 2002). Sea dredge aggregates are
not used. Moisture content is measured according to BS EN 1097 Part 6 (BS EN 1097-6
2000). Samples should not be taken from the base of the stock pile. BS EN 206 clause
5.5.2 states that normal-weight aggregates should have an oven-dry density between
2000 and 2600 kg/m3. BS EN 206 clause 5.2.7 states that aggregate chloride content is
≤ 0.2% by mass of cement. Chloride content is certi ed by the aggregate supplier, both
in bulk or in bags.
Annex E of BS EN 13139 (BS EN 13139 2002) prescribes minimum test frequencies for the
various properties and the appropriate test methods. Aggregates are checked for the reactive
silica content, which may cause alkali silica reactions with cement, sothat they remain below
a threshold value that has to be carefully experimentally assessed by the aggregate producer.
If this is not satis ed, low alkali cement with less than 0.75% alkalis may be used such that
the total alkali content of the concrete is less than 3 kg/m3.
2.2.5 Substitute materials

Recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) may be used as a substitute for natural aggregates up
to a maximum replacement of 20% by weight of coarse aggregates not passing a 4 mm sieve.
Waste hollow core oor units, Figure 2.22, produce a well-graded coarse recycled concrete
coarse aggregate (RCCA) but a very ne recycled concrete ne aggregate (RCFA), too ne to
be reintroduced in machine cast units. The RCCA is stockpiled as shown in Figure 2.23; note
that the angle of repose shows that this is as well graded and shaped as a natural aggregate.
RCFA can be used in wet-casting if not passing a 1 mm sieve. Recycled ne aggregates as dust
are not used. The water absorption of all RCA is determined according to BS EN 1097 Part 6
(BS EN 1097-6 2000) under the surface-saturated dry conditions. The chloride content of all
RCA is determined according to BS EN 1744 Part 1 (BS EN 1744-1 2009), clause 7, and is
not greater than 0.2% CaCl content by weight. Recycled crushed brick and mortar, or any
other crushed material of unknown parentage, is not used as replacement aggregate.
Figure 2.22 Waste or rejected hollow core slabs prepared for crushing towards recycled concrete aggregate.
Figure 2.23 Stockpiled recycled concrete aggregate, the angle of repose shows that the RCA is as well
graded and shaped as the natural aggregate. (Courtesy of Bison Manufacturing, Swadlincote, UK.)
2.2.6 Admixtures
Admixtures comply with BS EN 934 Parts 1 to 3 (BS EN 934-1 2008, BS EN 934-2 2009,
BS EN 934-3 2009). Dosages are not permitted to be within the range given in proprietary
data sheets provided that the performance of the concrete is veri ed by the manufacturer or,
ready-mix supplier. Calcium chloride is not used as an admixture.
EN 206 clause 5.1.5 states that air entrainment agents and superplasticisers, excluding
SCC, may be used to comply with BS EN 934-2, clause 4.2 as a water-reducing agent where
total air content <6%. Superplasticisers should comply with the testing standard BS EN 480
Part 1:2006+A1:2011 (BS EN 480-1 2006).
Figure 2.24 Filtration of cement slurry for recycled water, at Samsung Precast, South Korea.
2.2.7 Water
Mixing water conforms to BS EN 1008 clause 3.1 (BS EN 1008 2002) and should be potable
from land sources. Sea water is not permitted. Water reclaimed from cement slurry must
be ltered, and the cement content is calculated and known from the speci c gravity of the
ltered slurry. New machinery for this process is shown in Figure 2.24. Crushed ice may be
used to replace 50% of the mixing water, or according to the manufacturer’s speci cation.
The maximum particle size for crushed ice is not more than about 20 mm. No particles of
crushed ice are visible in the nal mix.
2.3 STEEL REINFORCEMENT
2.3.1 Rebars
Precast concrete elements can, if necessary, be heavily reinforced because they are cast hori-
zontally, although BS EN 1992-1-1 does not recognise this. The code permits up to 4% of
the cross section generally and 8% at laps, although this amount is rarely used in favour of
higher concrete strengths.
High tensile hot rolled ribbed bar (HT rebar) designated ‘H’ is used in 95% of cases,
even in shear links where mild steel would be suitable. The small cost difference com-
pared to the additional strength, viz. 500 vs 250 N/mm2, and the need for consistency
of habit when assembling cages, makes it more economical. Tying wire is more secure
around ribbed bar making the cage more robust. Black annealed tying wire of 17 gauge
(1.4 mm) or galvanised iron wire of similar speci cation is used. Wire loop ties may be
used as 16-gauge (heavy duty) or PVC coating (for use with polymeric or epoxy-coated
steel). For stainless steel rebars, tie wire is an 18 gauge stainless steel annealed wire
(1.2 mm).
High tensile steel bars conform to BS EN 10080 (BS EN 10080 2005) as B500A, B500B
and B500C. The technical speci cation according to the UK NA gives values of:
Re = yield strength = 500 N/mm 2 (note that strengths of 600 N/mm 2 are available in some
countries)
Rm /Re = ratio of tensile strength/yield strength (also known as k = f tk /f yk) = 1.05, 1.08 and
1.15 to 1.35 for classes A, B and C in BS EN 1992-1-1:2004, Annex C.
Agt = percentage total elongation at maximum force = 2.5% (εuk = 25 × 10 –3), 5.0% and
7.5%, respectively.
The standard also gives fatigue strength, bend performance, weldability, bond strength,
shear and weld strength for use in welded fabric, tolerances and dimensions. B500 6 mm
diameter reinforcing steel does not comply with BS EN 1992-1-1 with respect to ductility.
Reinforcement shape codes are according to BS 8666 (BS 8666 2005) and details according
to ISO 3766 (BS EN ISO 3766 2003).
The actual and idealised stress vs strain relationships for reinforcing bars are given in
BS EN 1992-1-1, Figs. 3.7 and 3.8. Typically, k = f tk /f yk = 1.08. The design value for bars
f yk /γs , where γs = 1.15 for ultimate and 1.00 for accidental limit states, from NA to BS EN
1992-1-1, Table 2.1N. Then at ultimate f yd = 0.87 and f yk = 435 N/mm 2 for H500 rebar.
The bi-linear idealised and design curves are shown here in Figure 2.25a. There are two
design options known as the ‘inclined’ or ‘horizontal’ branches. The horizontal branch
(having a constant value f yd = 435 N/mm 2 for H500 rebar) is more convenient for the
design of reinforced concrete sections and has no limitation of strain in under-reinforced
sections. The drawback with the inclined branch is that even if the strain in the bars at
ultimate is say 0.01, the design stress f yd = 449 N/mm 2 , that is only 14 N/mm 2 greater than
435 N/mm 2 . Secondly, the strain is limited to εud = 0.02.
Mild steel is often used for projecting loops etc. because it is easier to hand bend on site.
Bar diameters commonly used are 8 and 10 mm for column links, 10 and 12 mm for beam
stirrups and other distribution or anti-crack bars, and 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40 mm for main
σs
k = ftk/fyk
Idealised
k fyk
fyk
k fyk/γs
fyd = fyk/γs
Design options
Es
εuk εs
fyd/Es εud = 0.02
(a)
Figure 2.25 Idealized and design stress vs strain relationships. (a) Reinforcing bars (subscript y) (Continued)
σp Idealised
fpk
fp 0.1k = 0.9fpk
fpk / γs
fpd = 0.9fpk/γs
Design
Ep
(b) εLOP = fpd /Ep εud = 0.02 εuk εp
Stress (N/mm2) fp = 1,385 + 10,200 (εp – 0.0071)

fp,max = 1517
1770/1.15 = 1539
fp 154
0.9 × 1539 = 1385 10,200
0.0151
195,000
(c) 0.0071 εp 0.02 0.02222 Strain
Figure 2.25 (Continued) Idealized and design stress vs strain relationships. (b) prestressing tendons (subscript p).
(Based on BS EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings, BSI, London, UK., February 2014, Figures 3.8 and 3.10.)
(c) Design stress vs strain diagram for standard helical strand using fpk = 1770 N/mm2.
See Section 4.3.4 and Figure 4.23b for explanation of fp and εp.
exural bars. Plain round mild steel bar of yield strength 250 N/mm2 does not conform to
BS EN 10080 and BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 3.2.2(3).
2.3.2 Mesh
Welded fabric, or ‘mesh’, is used in at units such as slabs and walls. It is also used to rein-
force structural toppings to oor slabs on-site. The popular mesh size for at panels, walls
etc. is A142 or A193 (6 or 7 mm bars at 200 mm centres in both directions). A rectangular
mesh C283 (6 mm at 100 mm centres × 5 mm at 400 mm centres) is often used in one-way
spanning units such as the anges of double-tee slabs. For rebar and mesh, the character-
istic strength f yk = 500 N/mm 2 . The design strength f yd = f yk /γs = 500/1.15 = 438 N/mm 2 .
Young’s modulus is taken as 200 kN/mm 2. There is no European standard for welded
mesh; it still conforms to BS 4483 (BS 4483 2005). Note that A98 and B196 mesh does not
conform to the strength of welded joints required in BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 3.2.5.
2.3.3 Stainless steel rebars

Stainless steel for reinforcement conforms to BS 6744 (BS 6744 2001). Other requirements
are according to BS EN 10088 Part 5 (BS EN 10088-5 2009). Yield strength is speci ed as
Re = 500 N/mm 2 and R m /Re = 1.10. For non-chloride exposure, the grade is at least 1.4301
(was BS 6744 grade 304), otherwise grades 1.4401 or 1.4436 are used (was BS 6744 grade
316). Stainless steel mesh fabric conforms to BS 4483:2005.
2.3.4 Prestressing tendons

Two main types of steel are used for pretensioning – plain or indented (or crimped) wire, and
7-wire helical strand. Prestressing bars such as Macalloy are not common in precast factories.
Figure 2.26 shows an array of 12.5 mm diameter 7-wire strand in a prestressed beam, and
Figure 2.27 shows the same in cross section in a hollow core oor unit. Note the excellent
compaction of concrete around the strand, particularly in the crevices between the outer wires.
This is vital for good transfer of stress to the concrete. Prestressing tendons conform to BS
EN 10138 Parts 1 to 3 (BS EN 10138-1 2015, BS EN 10138-2 2015, BS EN 10138-3 2015)
(parts 1 and 3 are under ‘technical review,’ and part 2 has been ‘accepted’ in December 2015).
The standard 7-wire helical strand of 9.3, 10.9, 12.5 and 15.7 mm diameter, the standard
3-wire helical strand of 6.5 mm diameter and the super strand (Dyform) of 9.6, 12.9 and
15.2 mm diameter may be used. The 5% characteristic strength is taken as fpk = 1770 N/mm2,
except for 7 mm wire fpk = 1670 N/mm2. Super-stress strand is also available where fpk = 1770
to 1860 N/mm2, with reported strengths of up to 2100 N/mm2, and the relaxation is 2.5%.
The modulus of elasticity Ep is taken as 195 kN/mm2 for a helical strand and 205 kN/mm2
Figure 2.26 7-wire helical strand of 12.5 mm nominal diameter.

Figure 2.27 Cross section of 7-wire helical strand in hollow core units.
for an indented wire. The elongation at the breaking load (obtained from BS 5896*) is taken
as 3.5% or εuk = 35 × 10–3 > 0.0222 used in BS EN 1992-1-1 as shown in Figure 2.25b). For
hollow core oor units, the maximum diameter of the strand is 16 mm and the wire is 11 mm
according to BS EN 1168:2005+A3:2011 (BS EN 1168 2005), clause 4.1.1.1.
The choice of tendon is often a matter of the arrangement of tendons and the correct dis-
tribution of pretensioning force in a section. Large tendons should not be placed in thin wall
sections–to avoid localised splitting and bond failure, the edge cover to tendons is at least
twice the diameter. For this reason, a helical strand is preferred in larger units or where the
level of prestress is high.
A helical strand comprising 3 or 7 hot rolled wires, and individual hot rolled plain or
Belgian indented wire, is used according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 3.3.2.(4) as low relax-
ation Class 2. There are immediate and long-term losses of force called ‘relaxation’ due
to the stress-relieving heat treatment process. Class 2 tendons have 2.5% low relaxation,
meaning that the nal stress after 1000 h relaxation is 97.5% of the original, although man-
ufacturers may quote characteristic relaxation as low as 1.6% 1000 h. Class 1 relaxation is
greater but is rarely used today. When calculating relaxation losses, BS EN 1992-1-1 splits
the losses into immediate and long-term as discussed in Section 4.3.2. Plain and indented
wire is of 5 and 7 mm diameter, and ribbed wire of 9 mm diameter may be used. Speci ed
strengths and elastic modulii are given in Table 2.13.
The actual and idealised stress vs strain relationships for tendons are given in BS EN
1992-1-1, Figs. 3.9 and 3.10. The design value is f pk /γs, where γs = 1.15 and 1.00 as before.
The bi-linear idealised and design curves are shown here in Figure 2.25b. Adequate ductility
in tension may be assumed if f pk /f p0,1k ≥ k = 1.1 from clause 3.3.6(7) and the UK NA, then
f p0,1k /0.9 f pk. The inclined branch is used for prestressing tendons as the additional strength
between f pd and f pk /γs is worthwhile, even if the strain is limited to 0.02. Figure 2.25c shows
the design values for strand, for example f pk = 1770 N/mm 2 . Then f pd = 0.9 f pk /1.15 = 1385
N/mm 2 and fpk /γs = 1539 N/mm 2 , an increase of stress of 154 N/mm 2 for an increase in a
* Although this standard is being superceded by BS EN 10138, the material properties of the strand supplied by
the manufacturers still conform to Tables 4 to 6 of this standard.
Table 2.13 Types and speci cation of pretensioning tendons

Nominal Cross-sectional Characteristic Characteristic strength Elastic modulus
Type diameter (mm) area (mm2) load (kN) fpk (N/mm2) (kN/mm2)
Wire 5.0 19.6 34.7 1770 205
7.0 38.5 64.2 1670
Standard strand 9.3 52 92 1770 195
10.9 71 126 1770
12.5 93 165 1770
15.2 138 244 1770
Super strand 12.9 100 186 1860 195
15.7 150 265 1770
Drawn strand 12.7 112 209 1860 195
15.2 165 300 1820
strain εuk – εLOP = (0.0222 – 1385/195,000) = 0.0151. This gives f pmax = 1517 N/mm 2 , an
additional 132 N/mm 2 or 10% extra. The design may also be based on the actual stress vs
strain relationship, if this is known, with stress above the elastic limit reduced analogously
with BS EN 1992-1-1, Fig. 3.10.
2.4 STRUCTURAL STEEL, WELDING, INSERTS AND BOLTS
2.4.1 Structural steelwork

Structural steelwork sections are used in many types of precast elements, especially at the
connections. These include rolled rectangular and square hollow sections (RHS, SHS), solid
billets, channels and angles, plates and welded tees etc. Details of how these are used in
practice are given in Sections 9.4 and 10.2. Structural sections such as universal beams and
columns (UB, UC) may be cast into precast elements to enhance strength where the rein-
forced concrete capacity is exhausted. However, this may have severe cost implications that
must be carefully examined.
Structural steelwork conforms to BS EN 10025 Part 1 (BS EN 10025-1 2004) and is
designed according to BS EN 1993 Part 1-1 (BS EN 1993-1-1 2004). The grade of hot rolled
structural steel is S275 (f y /fu = yield/ultimate = 275/430 N/mm 2), S355 (355/510) or S450
(440/550) according to BS EN 10025 Part 2 (BS EN 10025-2 2004) (these used to be known
as grades 43, 51 and 55, respectively). The grade of rectangular hollow sections is S275H
(275/430) or S355H (355/510) according to BS EN 10210-1 (EN 10210-1 1994). Its speci -
cation includes product analysis, carbon equivalent, yield strength, tensile strength, stress v
strain data and elongation. Steel strength is according to Table 2.14.
Where steel with improved through-thickness properties is necessary according to BS EN
1993 Part 1-10 (BS EN 1993-1-10 2005), for example for beam–column connections made
from full steel billet/sections, steel according to the required quality class in BS EN 10164
(BS EN 10164 2004) is used.
Hot dipped galvanised steel is used for exposed connections, usually of secondary struc-
tural signi cance, such as dovetail channels for brick ties. The basic plate is grade S275 steel,
and grade S355 is used in the more highly stressed plates.
Exposed steelwork is cleaned by blasting to BS EN ISO 8501 Part 1 (BS EN ISO 8501-1
2007) to Swedish standard SA2, where most of the mill-scale rust and paint, etc. are removed
and any remaining is very well adhered, or may be by hand-powered tools to standard ST2,
Table 2.14 Yield and ultimate tensile strength of steel base plates
Plate grade
Plate yield strength fy Plate ultimate tensile
BS5950a BS EN 1993-1 (N/mm2) strength fu (N/mm2)
S235 235 360
43 S275 275 430
50 S355 355 510
S420 420 520
S450 450 550
Design the same as yield strength pyd = fy/γM0 .γM0 = 1.0.
a Included for comparison of BS notation.
with poorly adhering rust, mill-scale, etc. being removed, leaving surface contamination
that is well adhered. Steelwork entirely cast in concrete is cleaned by blasting to ISO 8501-1
to standard SA1, where poorly adhering mill-scale, rust and old paint and foreign matter
are removed, but well-adhered contaminants remain. No primer is used. Boundaries with
exposed steelwork are shown on production drawings.
2.4.2 Welding
Rolled steel sections and bent or at steel plates are welded to form steel connectors in many
highly stressed support situations where direct contact between concrete surfaces is to be
avoided. Welding conforms to BS EN 1011, Part 1 (BS EN 1011-1 2009). Welding equip-
ment conforms to BS EN 60974, Part 1 (BS EN 60974-1 2005) and may use proprietary
plant such as Murex, Thermadyne, Rand, Migatronic, Cebora, etc. This BS was published
in January 2006 but is currently being revised.
Welding electrodes conform to BS EN 1011 Parts 2 and 3 (BS EN 1011-2 2001, BS EN
1011-3 2000). Rod sizes should vary between 2.5 and 6 mm. Welded electrodes are mostly
grade E275. When used to join grade S275 steel (previously known as grade 43), this gives
the yield strength of the weld as fyw = 275 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength as fuw = 430
N/mm2. When used in combination with grade S355, steel grade E355 electrodes give fyw and
fuw = 355 and 510 N/mm2. The values are divided by γM2 = 1.25, so that the design strengths
are pywd = 220 and 284 N/mm2, respectively. Intermittent llet welds are rarely used as weld
lengths tend to be short. Weld strength is according to Table 2.15.
Welding of ferrous reinforcing bars and ferrous cast in xings such as plates, rolled and
hollow steel sections use either metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG)
welding. The welding electrode rod for a high tensile bar is a low hydrogen type to cover a
wide range of applications for welding carbon manganese and low alloy steels.
Table 2.15 Yield and ultimate tensile strength of welds

BS EN 1993-1-8
Design strength pywd Weld yield strength Weld ultimate tensile
Weld grade (N/mm2) fyw (N/mm2) strength fuw (N/mm2)
S235 188 235 360
S275 220 275 430
S355 284 355 510
Design pywd = fyw/γM2 .γM2 = 1.25.
Welding of reinforcing steel bars to structural steel in load-bearing joints is in accordance

with BS EN ISO 17660 Part 1 (BS EN ISO 17660-1 2006). The processes used are shielded
metal arc, gas metal arc. The welding electrode rods for B500 rebar is low hydrogen type
electrodes to cover a wide range of applications for welding carbon manganese and low
alloy steels. Spot welding of non-load-bearing bars is according to BS EN ISO 17660 Part 2
(BS EN ISO 17660-2 2006).
Butt and llet welds are fully fused llet welds to make lap joints, corner joints, and
T joints, having a convex pro le and may be either continuous or intermittent. Rebar T-joints,
that is bars of equal diameter crossing at right angles, are a ared V-groove weld. Butt
welds may be used along a single edge in a single plane. The throat thickness of the weld,
run-out lengths, under cutting, cracks and inaccuracies of position are inspected for com-
pliance, recorded and if necessary rejected. When thicker materials are welded, the edges
are bevelled to form a single or double V-groove. No backup weld or backing strip is used.
Preheating is not required, and postweld heat treatment is normally not required unless
speci ed on the production drawings. Site welding is carried out using an intermediate rein-
forcing bar that is provided in V-grooved butting joints. The diameter of the bar is equal to
0.7 × the depth of V-groove.
2.4.3 Cast-in fixings and lifting devices

Cast-in xings, such as threaded sockets, lifting loops and sockets, spherical head anchors,
rotating anchors, at steel, double wall and tail anchors, etc. are used according to manufac-
turers’ instructions, including edge distances, depth of embedment, anchorage reinforcement,
concrete strengths, etc.
Lifting systems are designed according to their intended use and the mode of lifting,
for example tilting, at, vertical, number of lifters and angle of lifting chains, concrete
strength, element dimensions, type of lifting equipment, speed of lifting and ground condi-
tions. Spherical head lifting anchor and plate anchors are available in steel minimum grade
S355 or stainless steel 304 or hot dip spun galvanized. Anchors are manufactured, batch-
checked and tested by an independent testing house. Lifting loops are manufactured using
galvanised steel wire of minimum grade S500 and supplied with anchorages. Polypropylene
loops may be used where steel is not appropriate. Care is taken not to pass these loops over
sharp edges. Anchors have a minimum factor of safety of 3. The factor of safety against con-
crete failure is taken as 2.5. Bespoke lifting devices cast into concrete may be designed and
manufactured by the manufacturer or frame erector. Load tests can be carried out according
to BS 5080 Part 1 (BS 5080-1 1993) and evaluated according to BS EN 1990 Part 1 (BS EN
1990-1 2002).
2.4.4 Bolting
Metric bolts, set screws and nuts conform to BS 3692 (BS 3692 2001). These are current
documents with no BS EN. The minimum diameter for a structural bolt or threaded rod is
12 mm. Clearance holes should not be more than 2 mm greater than the nominal bolt or rod
diameter. Holes should not be enlarged.
Mating surfaces are cleaned to standard SA2, where most of the mill-scale rust and paint
etc. are removed and any remaining is very well adhered, and (excluding high-strength
friction grip [HSFG] bolts) receive zinc or lead paint or similar priming unless the xing is
to be cast in concrete.
Strength grades for carbon steel are preferably limited to Grade 4.6, 5.6, 6.8, 8.8 (both ≤
16 mm and >16 mm) and 10.9. Grade strength of nuts is 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10, respectively. Black
Table 2.16 Yield and ultimate tensile strength of holding down bolts
BS EN 1993-1-8, Clause 3.1.1(3)
Bolt design strength pybd Bolt yield strength fybk Bolt ultimate tensile
Bolt grade (N/mm2) (N/mm2) strength fub (N/mm2)
4.6 192 240 400
5.6 240 300 500
6.8 384 480 600
8.8 512 640 800
10.9 720 900 1000
Design pybd = fybk/γM2 .γM2 = 1.25. Shear pbq = 0.6 pybd.
Code, e.g. 4.6: 4 means fub = 400 N/mm2; 6 means fybk = 0.6 × 400 = 240 N/mm2.
bolts of grade 4:6 (pybk = 240 N/mm 2 in tension and in shear = 0.6 × 240 = 144 N/mm 2) and
8:8 (pybk = 480) are used in many connections. Bolt strengths are given in Table 2.16.
HSFG bolts are used in special circumstances where the integrity and safety (both tem-
porary and permanent) of connections made with ordinary bolts in clearance holes cannot
be guaranteed. HSFG bolts conform to the UK NA to BS EN 1993 Part 1–8 (NA to BS EN
1993-1-8 2005) using grade 8.8, 10.9 and 12.9. Preloading of HSFG bolts conforms to BS
EN 14399 Part 1 (BS EN 14399-1 2005). HSFG bolts are tightened using power tools show-
ing speci ed torque or tightened by hand using spanners according to the load-indicating
washer.
2.4.5 Cast-in sockets and anchorage

Cast-in sockets do not have a BS EN but are speci ed according to manufacturer’s details.
The grade may be 4.6 or 8.8 and may be stainless steel or bright zinc plated (ref UK manu-
facturer) to BS 7371 Part 12 (BS 7371-12 2008). Cast-in channels do not have a BS EN but
are speci ed according to manufacturer’s details. The grade of steel may be S235 or S275
and be hot dipped galvanised to BS EN ISO 1461 (BS EN ISO 1461 2009), or pregalvanised
grade Z275 (according to manufacturer’s details as the BS for this is withdrawn). Stainless
steel channels may be of grade 1.4301. The T-head bolts may be hot rolled steel in grade 4.6
or 8.8 or stainless steel.
2.5 NON-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
Epoxy-based mortars are used to make, either partially or completely, connections where a
rapid gain in strength is required, for example up to 40 N/mm 2 in 2 to 3 h. Care is taken to
ensure that these materials have not exceeded their shelf life, are being used correctly and for
the right application. The thermal expansion of epoxy materials is seven times that of con-
crete, and this is accounted for in design. Epoxy compounds comprise two parts to be site
mixed - epoxy resins and hardeners. They are occasionally used as pressure injections for
crack lling or to restore tensile strength. Manufacturer’s procedures are strictly adhered to.
Concrete substrates must be prepared either by use of scabbling, grit blasting or needle
gunning, or similar, and surfaces contaminated with oil or grease require suitable prepara-
tion such as steam cleaning in conjunction with a suitable detergent.
Epoxy resins conform to BS ISO 18280 (BS ISO 18280 2005). They may be used as
structural adhesives for connections, together with the requirements for con nement and
Table 2.17 Non-cementitious materials in precast construction

Material Application Data (at 20°C)
Elastomeric bearings, Bearing pads Comp. strength = 7–10 N/mm2
e.g. neoprene, rubber Shear strength = 1 N/mm2
Compressive strain = 15%
Bitumen impregnated Backing strip to concrete joints Compressibility = 85%
sealing strip
Polysulphide sealants Expansion joints Elongation strain < 50%
Epoxy resin mortars Compression, shear or tension joints Comp strength = 55–110 N/mm2
Tensile strength = 9–20 N/mm2
Elongation strain < 15%
Polyester resin mortars Compression, shear or tension joints Comp strength = 55–110 N/mm2
Tensile strength = 6–15 N/mm2
Elongation strain < 2%
Polystyrene Filler, backup blocks
PTFE (Te on) Frictionless bearings Compression = 8 N/mm2 virgin and
15 N/mm2 reinforced.
Coef cient of friction 0.04
ductility using reinforcement crossing the joint line. They may be used as the chemical
for resin anchor bolts according to the proprietary information given by suppliers. Acrylic
polymer–modi ed cementitious materials such as high build structural repair mortars may
be used for repair and in lling in joints of minimum width according to manufacturer’s
requirements, typically 50 mm.
Neoprene, rubbers and mastics are used for soft bearings, backing strips etc. The PCI
Manual on Architectural Precast Cladding (PCI 1989) gives extensive guidance on the use
of these materials. Although they are not used extensively in precast structures, a typical
range of applications is given in Table 2.17
REFERENCES
BS EN 197-1. 2011. Cement – composition, speci cations and conformity criteria for common
cements, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 206. 2013. Concrete – Speci cation, performance, production and conformity, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 206-9. 2010. Concrete – Additional rules for self-compacting concrete, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 480-1. 2006. Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout. Test methods. Reference concrete
and reference mortar for testing, +A1:2011, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 934-1. 2008. Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout. Common requirements, BSI,
London, UK.
BS EN 934-2. 2009. Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout. Concrete admixtures. De nitions,
requirements, conformity, marking and labelling, +A1:2012BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 934-3. 2009. Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout. Admixtures for masonry mortar.
De nitions, requirements, conformity, marking and labelling, +A1:2012BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 1008. 2002. Mixing water for concrete, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 1097-6. 2000. Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 1011-1. 2009. Welding. Recommendations for welding of metallic materials. General guidance
for arc welding, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 1011-2. 2001. Arc welding of ferritic steels, BSI, London, UK.
BS EN 1011-3. 2000. Arc welding of stainless steels, BSI, London, UK.

Materials Used in Precast Structures: 2.1.1 Concrete For Precast Production

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Materials Used in Precast Structures: 2.1.1 Concrete For Precast Production

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Chapter 2

Materials used in precast structures

2.1.1 Concrete for precast production

Figure 2.2 Compaction problems in precast concrete columns.

The constitutive stress–strain relationship is idealised as a parabola–rectangle in

strength ηfcd is established by national codes to be as close as possible. BS EN 1992-1-1,

h = 1 for fck £ 50 N/mm2

For example for fck = 90 N/mm 2 fcd loses 20%.

l = 0.8 for fck £ 50 N/mm2

That is 0.8 reduces to 0.7 at 90 N/mm 2 .

fcm (t) = fcm es(1-Ö 28/t ) (2.3)

fcm(t) = fck(t) + 8 N/mm2 (2.4)

Figure 2.9 Production of precast concrete facade elements in timber moulds.

‘Basic’ – for ground or foundations

2.1.2 Concrete for precast floor elements

Figure 2.14 Excellent compaction of slip-formed hollow core oor units.

concrete bene ts from additional strength in exural compression, it is advantageous to use

Table 3.1 fctm = 0.3fck2/3 (2.5)

2.1.3 Young’s modulus and modular ratios

Table 3.1 Ecm = 22 [(fck + 8)/10] 0.3 (2.6)

2.1.4 Shrinkage and creep

Exp. 3.8 Total shrinkage strain εcs = εcd + εca (2.7)

Exp. 3.9 Drying shrinkage strain εcd = βds(t,ts) kn εcd,o (2.8)

Size coefficient kn = 1.0 - 0.0015(ho - 100) for 100 £ ho < 200 mm

Exp. B.12 RH factor βRH = 1.55 [1 – (RHs /100)3] (2.12)

Exp. 3.11 Autogenous shrinkage strain εca(t) = βas εca (2.13)

10.3.1.2(3) In precast elements subjected to heat curing εca(t) is negligible.

eca = 2.5 (fck - 10) ´ 10-6

3.1.2(6) Cement classes and αds factors are

Class N = CEM 32.5 R, CEM 42.5 N (αds1 = 4, αds2 = 0.12)

Equation 2.12 βRH = 1.55 [1 – (50/100)3] = 1.356

cl. B2 Cement class R, where αds1 = 6 and αds2 = 0.11

Equation 2.10 kn = 0.925 for ho = 2 × 90,000/1,200 = 150 mm

Equation 2.7 βds(t,t s) = (20,833 – 1)/[(20,833 – 1) + 0.04 × 1501.5] = 0.996

Equation 2.8 εcd = 0.996 × 0.925 × 598 × 10 – 6 = 552 × 10 –6

Equation 2.15 εca = 2.5 × (40 – 10) × 10 –6 = 75 × 10 –6

Equation 2.7 εcs = 552 + 75 = 627 × 10 –6

Exp. B.3 φRH = {1 + [(1 – RHs /100) α1/0.1 ho1/3]}α2 (2.17)

Exp. B.8c α1 = min{1; (35/fcm)0.7}, α 2 = min{1; (35/fcm)0.2} (2.18)

Exp. B.4 Strength factor β(fcm) = 16.8/√fcm (2.19)

Exp. B.7 βc (t,ti) = {(t – ti)/[(t – ti) + βH]}0.3 (2.21)

Exp. B.8b RH factor βH (days) = 1.5 [1 + (0.012 RHs)18] ho + 250 α3 (2.22)

Exp. B.8c α3 = min{1; (35/fcm)0.5} (2.23)

Exp. B.5 Age at release loading factor β (t 0) = 1/(0.1 + t 0 0.2) (2.24)

where α = 1, 0, −1 for Class R, N, S cement, respectively.

Exp. B10 Equivalent age at transfer t 0T = Σ e−[4000/(273+T) – 13.65].Δti (2.26)

1 N R t0 = 7.65 days C40/50

At t = 90 days, 0.2 × (Loge 90)1.3 = 1.42 (cf. 1.43), and so on.

BS EN 1992-1-1, Fig. 3.1 presents a graphical route to φ(t,ti) as reproduced in Figure 2.16.

2.1.5 Fire resistance and axis distance to rebars and tendons

1. R: re resistance class for the load-bearing criterion – the capacity of an element to

Table 2.4 Fire resistance of columns

Table 2.5 Fire resistance of columns

Table 2.6 Fire resistance of columns

Fire Requirements for column width bmin/axis distance a (mm)

2.1.5.2 Unbraced columns

Table 2.7 Fire resistance of walls

Table 2.8 Fire resistance of simply supported reinforced or prestressed beams

Axes for asd

10 mm for prestressing bars, corresponding to θcr = 400°C

2.1.5.5 Reduced additional axis distance Δa

Δa = 0.1 (500 – θcr) mm (2.27)