CIE 525 Reinforced Concrete Structures Instructor: Andrew Whittaker

7. STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS

7.1 Recommended Reading

1. Wight, J. and MacGregor, J., Reinforced Concrete, Mechanics and Design, Prentice Hall,
Sixth Edition, Chapter 17 (denoted WM hereafter)

2. Schlaich, J., Schafer, K., and Jennewein, M., “Toward a Consistent Design of Structural
Concrete”, Journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 32., No. 3, May-June 1987,
pp 75-150.

3. American Concrete Institute, Examples for the Design of Structural Concrete with Strut-
and-Tie Models, ACI Special Publication SP-208, Farmington Hills, MI

7.2 Introduction

Strut-and-tie models are seeing increased use for the design and detailing of reinforced concrete
components of complex geometry. We introduce strut-and-tie models in this section by reference
to gravity load design of deep beams, corbels, and beam-column joints. The figure below from
WM describes the key features of a strut-and-tie model, namely, compression struts, tension ties
and nodes.

For the purpose of analysis and design, the strut-and-tie models condense all stress fields in
compression (into struts) and tension (into ties) into line elements and join them by nodes.
Appropriate detailing is used to ensure that these mathematical idealizations can be made.

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7.3 Discontinuity Regions and St. Venant’s Principle

7.3.1 Introduction

In the following discussion on strut-and-tie models, a structural component such as a beam or a

corbel is divided into two regions

• B-region (B stands for Beam or Bernoulli)

• D-region (D stands for Discontinuity or Disturbance)

In B regions, beam theory applies, namely, that plane sections remain plane. Internal stresses in
such regions can be easily derived from section forces (bending and torsional moments, shear
and axial forces). If the section is uncracked (e.g., in previous presentations), internal
stresses are calculated using gross section properties. If the tensile stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete ( ), the theory presented previously applies.

The Bernoulli hypothesis underpins much structural engineering analysis and design and has
been the basis for most of the discussions to date in CIE 525. The hypothesis is not valid in
regions of a structure or component where the strain distribution is substantially nonlinear.
Examples of such regions are

• Near concentrated loads (including reaction points)

• Corners and joints of frames

• Near openings

These regions of highly nonlinear strain distribution are termed D regions. If the D regions are
uncracked, they can be analyzed by linear elastic stress methods. However, in most cases the D
regions will be cracked and linear theory no longer applies. Strut-and-tie models were developed
for the analysis and design of cracked D regions. Sample D regions with nonlinear strain
distributions due to geometric discontinuities and load (statical) discontinuities are presented
below from Schlaich et al.

St. Venant’s principle can be used to qualitatively describe the extent of D regions:

“The difference between the stresses caused by statically equivalent load systems
is insignificant at distances greater than the largest dimension of the area over
which the loads are acting.”

Accordingly, D regions are assumed to extend one member dimension, typically depth, on each
side of a load or geometric discontinuity. Note again that this definition is a guide only and is not
precise.

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7.4 Design Procedures and Mathematical Modeling

7.4.1 Modeling of B and D Regions

Following the analysis of the structural frame to determine actions in the B regions and the
boundary forces (stresses) in the D regions, components can be designed and detailed.

• For uncracked regions (B and D), the standard methods of analysis of concrete and steel
stresses can be used.

• If the tensile stresses in individual B or D regions exceed the tensile strength of the
concrete, the internal forces should be calculated using the strut-and-tie procedures that
are discussed below.

The strut-and-tie procedure is relatively straightforward, and involves four key steps:

1. Develop the strut-and-tie model as explained below. The struts and ties serve to condense
or replace the real stress fields by resultant straight lines and concentrate their curvatures
in nodes.

2. Calculate the strut and tie forces, which must satisfy equilibrium. These forces are the
internal forces of bullet item 2 above.

3. Dimension the struts, ties, and nodes for the internal forces of step 2 with due
consideration of crack widths.

4. Detail the structural component (position the rebar) to accommodate the tension tie forces
and the stress redistributions associated with the compression struts and nodal zones.

Some care must be taken in the development of a strut-and-tie model because concrete can
tolerate only limited plastic deformation.

• Minimize the need for force redistribution

• Select a distribution of struts and ties that replicate the direction and size of the internal
forces calculated by elastic analysis.

The presentation in CIE 525 will focus on the development of strut-and-tie models for D regions.
One example of such a region is shown on the following page from Schlaich et al., namely, a
deep beam supporting a uniformly distributed load. Shown in the figure are the elastic stress
trajectories, the elastic stresses ( ) and the strut and tie model.

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Note the following

• Location of the struts (4) and tie (1)

• Relationship between the stress trajectories and strut orientation

• Non-uniform distribution of stress over the height of the beam

Ø Compare distribution with beam theory

In the absence of elastic analysis results such as those shown above, how are strut-and-tie models
developed? Schlaich et al. established a procedure known as the load-path method to develop
strut-and-tie models, and this method is described below.

7.4.2 Load Path Method for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models

The first step in the load-path method is to ensure that equilibrium on the outer surface of the D
region is satisfied. Consider first the D region that is shown below.

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B region

D region

The pressure distribution p represents the B region forces that are acting on the D region. (As an
aside, is the height of the D region reasonable?).

The next step is to subdivide the stress diagram (in this case the linear stress distribution p) so
that loads find their way from one side of the region to the other. For the example above, the load
distribution p that is imposed at the top of the beam is resisted by two reactions on the underside
of the beam: A and B. The distribution p is replaced by resultant forces A and B, with the
magnitude of A exceeding that of B. Load paths should not cross as drawn above. Load paths
will tend to take the shortest path possible from the applied loads to the reactions.

What is a reasonable strut-and-tie model for the deep beams shown above? One plausible model
is shown in the figure to the right.

Note the following points regarding this

strut-and-tie model

• The locations of the vertical and

inclined struts follow the load path
from the distributed load at the top of
the beam to the reactions A and B at
the bottom of the beam.

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• The location of the horizontal strut

Ø Why is this strut needed?

Ø Why is the strut located at the position shown?

• The location of the horizontal tie

Ø Why is this tie needed?

Ø Tension tie provided by rebar

§ How is this rebar anchored?

Consider now another example shown below. This sketch, if rotated clockwise through 90
degrees could represent part of an end-zone (end block) of a post-tensioned transfer girder.

How is a strut-and-tie model developed for the case above where there is a tensile stress in the B
region at the left hand side of the beam? First, and as above, replace the pressure distribution p
with point loads (F and B in this case). Identify a tie to resist the tension force B that is circled
above. Insert struts to resist the compression forces F and B. Clearly there is no tensile load at the
right-hand end of the beam so the force turns as shown above (Schlaich et al. termed this a U
turn.) The corresponding strut-and-tie model is shown below.

B
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Note the following from the above figure

• The transition of the force F from the top of the beam at the right-hand end to a distance
below the top of the beam at the left-hand end.

• The strut that is needed at the transition point denoted A to accommodate the change in
direction of the force F.

• How the force in the tension tie at the bottom of the beam is resolved at the point that is
denoted B.

Multiple strut-and-tie models can be developed for a single load case. How should the optimal
model be selected?

• Loads follow the path with the least force and least deformation

• Since ties are more deformable than concrete struts, a model with the least number and
shortest ties is likely the best.

Schlaich et al. offered the following simple expression to realize the second bulleted item,

Minimum

where is the force in strut or tie i, is the length of member i, and is the mean strain in
member i. The contribution of the concrete struts to the above equation can generally be ignored
because the strains in the concrete struts are usually much smaller than those in the ties. Using
this approach could serve to differentiate between the good and bad models shown below.

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The two most frequent D regions are shown below, together with their strut-and-tie models.

Variations on these two basic models are shown below.

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Using the above information, what are reasonable strut-and-tie models for the following cases?

Example 1: A closing joint in a reinforced concrete moment-frame connection

• Define the B and D regions

• Draw the tension ties and the compression struts

Example 2: End zone in a post-tensioned beam

• Define the B and D regions

• Draw the tension ties and the compression struts

F d

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Example 3: Corbel bracket mounted on a column (with low axial load)

• Define the B and D regions

• Draw the tension ties and the compression struts

The these examples have illustrated the choice of a strut-and-tie geometry for a specific load
case. How are multiple load cases handled?

• Design for each load case and combine geometries and tie rebar.

• Select a geometry that is reasonable for all load cases but optimal for no single load case

Ø A reasonable approach provided that substantial load redistribution is not required.

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7.5 Definitions of Nodes, Struts, and Ties

7.5.1 Introduction

As noted previously, strut-and-tie modeling is an iterative procedure that involves

1. Selection of a trial strut-and-tie model.

2. Sizing and detailing the struts, ties, and nodes.

3. Checking the dimensions of the struts, nodes, and ties to ensure that the assumptions of
step 1. are valid.

4. Iterate as necessary by returning to step 1.

Schlaich et al. identified three types of struts and ties and four types of nodes. The three types of
struts and ties are:

• : concrete struts in compression

• : concrete ties in tension

• : ties in tension with reinforcement or prestressing steel

Schlaich et al. identified four types of nodes depending on the combination of struts and ties

• CCC node

• CCT node

• CTT node

• TTT node

and noted that the design principles were unchanged if more than three struts and ties meet at a
node. Sketches of the different types of nodes are presented on the following page.

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a. CCC node

b. CCT node including a diagonal

compression strut and vertical
support reaction that are balanced by

1. reinforcement anchored by a
plate behind the node (b1)

2. bond within the node (b2)

3. bond within and behind the

node (b3)

4. bond and radial pressure (b4)

c. CTT node involving compression

strut supported by

1. two bonded rebar (c1)

2. radial pressure from a radius-

bent bar (c2)

d. TTT node as above with the

compression strut replaced by a
bonded tension tie.

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ACI-318-08 presents an image of such nodes, which is reproduced below.

7.5.2 Struts and Ties

In contrast to tension ties of rebar or prestressing steel (hereafter termed steel ties in this module)
that are one-dimensional elements spanning between nodes, the concrete struts and ties are two-
dimensional (or three-dimensional) stress fields that tend to spread between nodes. The
spreading or bulging of the struts often produces transverse tensile or compressive stresses that
must be considered by either

• Introducing these stresses into the failure criterion for the concrete (in compression or
tension), or

• Applying a strut and tie model to the strut itself as shown below.

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7.5.3 Nodes

Nodes in strut-and-tie models are the intersection points of three or more straight struts and ties
and are simplified idealizations of reality.

• A node represents an abrupt change of direction of forces

Ø Deviation in practice is not abrupt but often gradual

• Two types of nodes

Ø Concentrated

§ If one of the struts or ties represents a concentrated stress field, the deviation of
forces is locally concentrated

Ø Smeared (or spread)

§ Wide concrete stress fields joining each other or tensile ties that consist of many
closely distributed rebar

• Nodes A and B below are concentrated and smeared nodes respectively

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7.6 Proportions for Tension Ties, Compression Struts, and Nodes

7.6.1 Introduction

Appendix A presents rules for the design of struts, ties, and nodal zones. The basic design
equation is

where is the factored demand, is the nominal strength, and is the strength reduction
factor that is equal to 0.75 for struts, ties and nodes.

7.6.2 Rebar Tension Ties

Rebar is usually provided to resist tensile forces in concrete. The presentation in this module
assumes this to be the case and rebar is provided for all tensile forces. Schlaich et al. provide
summary information on concrete tensile ties.

Dimensioning of tension ties using rebar is straightforward as follows:

where is the nominal strength of the tension tie, is the area of the non-prestressed rebar,
is the yield stress of the rebar, is the area of the prestressing steel, is the effective
stress after losses in the prestressing tendons, and is the increase in stress in the tendons due
to the application of the factored loads. In the absence of prestressing steel, the second term on
the right hand side of the equation disappears.

The effective width of a tie assumed in design, , can vary between the following limits,
depending on the distribution of the tie reinforcement. The axis of the rebar in a tie must coincide
with the axis of the tie.

• For rebar in one layer, the effective tie width can be taken as the bar diameter plus twice
the cover to the surface of bars.

• For rebar in multiple layers, the effective tie width can be taken as the distance between
the exterior bars in the group plus two times the sum of the bar diameter and the cover the
surface of the bars.

• An upper limit corresponding to the width in a hydrostatic nodal zone (see later), given b

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where is the applicable effective compressive strength of the nodal zone, which is
also given later, and is the thickness of the strut. The concrete is included in the tie to
compute the widths of the faces of the nodal zones but does not resist tensile force.

The figures below, from ACI-318, illustrate the calculation for bullets 1 and 2 above.

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Consider also the tie width at the transition point in a dapped beam as shown below.

Tension ties can fail due to inadequate anchorage and so the provision of adequate anchorage is a
major part of the design of D regions using strut-and-tie models. Section A4.3 writes rules
regarding anchorage:

• Nodal zones shall develop the difference between forces on each side of the zone

• At nodal zones anchoring ties, the forces in the ties shall be developed at the point where
the centroids of the reinforcement in the ties leave the extended nodal zone and enters the
span

• See orange dotted lines in the figure above for an example

• Transverse reinforcement required to preserve the integrity of a strut shall be anchored.

7.6.3 Concrete Compression Struts

The second major component of a strut-and-tie model is the concrete compression strut. Struts
are often idealized as prismatic or uniformly tapering members but frequently vary in cross-
section as indicated below in parts b. and c. of the figure below from WM.

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The spreading of the concrete compression forces gives rise to transverse tensions that are shown
in the figure below from WM. These transverse tensions may cause the concrete strut to crack
longitudinally. If the strut has no transverse reinforcement, it may fail after this cracking occurs.
If adequate transverse reinforcement is provided, the strut will fail by concrete crushing.

Panel (a) of the figure below shows one end of a bottle-shaped strut that is shown in total in
panel (b) of the figure above. Panel (b) of the figure below shows the strut-and-tie model for the
bottle-shaped region. Panel (c) of the figure shows transverse compressive and tensile forces that
are idealized in the strut-and-tie model.

In panel (a), the width of the bearing area (left hand side of strut) is a. The strut thickness is b. At
the mid-length of the strut, its width is , which is assumed to be realized a distance of
from the bearing area (note that dimension b is perpendicular to dimension ). Using the
geometry of panel (b), the transverse tension at one end of the strut can be computed as

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This transverse tensile force can trigger cracking. Analysis results reported in WM indicate that
longitudinal cracking can be associated with compressive (bearing) force acting on the end of the
strut (area ) of approximately

and that failure of the strut could occur at 1.2 to 2 times this cracking load.

Note that the above presentation assumed that the compression force spreads in only one
direction: the case for example of a 24-inch thick wall bearing on a 24-inch deep column. If the
bearing area does not extend over the full width of the D member, transverse tensile stresses will
develop through the width of the strut, which will require through-thickness rebar as shown `
below in a figure from WM. A strut and tie model should be used to compute the required area of
transverse rebar.

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The effective compression (crushing) strength of the concrete in a strut is given by

where is an efficiency factor with values between 0 and 1. The key factors affecting are a)
concrete strength (as strength increases, concrete response is more brittle [see Module 2], and
diminishes), b) load duration, sustained versus short term, which is accommodated by re-writing
the above equation as f ce = β s (0.85 f c′) , c) tensile strains transverse to the strut (in rebar), and d)
cracks in the struts inclined to the axis of the strut (weakening the strut) as described further
below.

ACI-318-11 writes that the nominal strength of a strut without longitudinal reinforcement be
taken as the smaller value of the strength at the two ends of the strut where the nominal strength
is given by

where is the cross-sectional (bearing) area at one end of the strut, and is the smaller of
(a) the effective compressive strength of the concrete in the strut (see above and below), and (b)
the effective compressive strength of the concrete in the nodal zone (see Section 7.6.3).

The area of the strut is calculated as the product of the strut width, , and the strut thickness.
The strut width is illustrated in the figure below from WM at a CCT node. See page 20 for
information on the calculation of the width of the tension tie where multiple layers of rebar are
used.

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For a strut of uniform cross-section over its length, namely, its area at its mid-length is the same
as at its end, . Examples include the compression zone of a beam and eccentrically loaded
columns. The strut is assumed to have depth , where c is the depth to the neutral axis and
the resultant compressive force in the rectangular stress block is , where the force acts
at from the most compressed face of the beam or column.

For bottle shaped struts, if confining reinforcement is provided per Section A3.2.2 of
ACI-318-11 (see below), and otherwise.

Other values for are presented in SectionA.3.2.3 of ACI-318-11 for (a) for struts in
tension members or in the tension flanges of members (e.g., for the design of reinforcement in
tension flanges of beams, box girders, and walls) because cracks in such components tend to be
wider than those in beam webs, and (b) for all other cases.

For bottle-shaped struts with confining reinforcement ( ), the axis of the strut shall be
crossed by reinforcement proportioned to resist the transverse tensile forces shown in the figure
on page 23. Taking the equation presented at the bottom of page 20, and substituting for T,
which assumes that the rebar is oriented perpendicular to the crack, one can write

where all terms have been defined previously and the summation is over the (equal) values at the
ends of the strut. If the rebar is oriented at angle to the axis of the strut, must be
multiplied by

For concrete strengths less than 6000 psi, the transverse rebar requirement is satisfied if the axis
of the strut is crossed by layers of reinforcement that satisfy the following equation

where is the total area of crack control reinforcement at spacing in a layer of

reinforcement with bars at an angle of to the axis of the strut. This equation permits the
designer to make a direct computation of the required area of crack control rebar and forgoes the
need for a strut-and-tie computation.

The figure on the following page, from ACI-318, identifies these terms. The figure shows two
layers of reinforcement crossing the strut.

• If one layer only is used, must exceed 40 deg.

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Compression reinforcement can be added to increase the strength of the strut. The strut will then
act as a column. Detailing rules for columns should then be followed. Transverse reinforcement
(ties or spirals) shall be provided per Section 7.10 of ACI-318. The strength of a strut with
compressive reinforcement can be taken as

where is the area of compressive reinforcement and is the stress in the reinforcement at
the strain associated with the crushing of the strut. For Grade 60 rebar, .

7.6.4 Nodes

The subject of nodes in strut-and-tie models was introduced in Section 7.5 but no strengths were
assigned to the nodes at that time. Four types of nodes were identified: CCC, CCT, CTT, and
TTT. The nodes are treated as pinned joints. In a planar strut-and-tie model, three or more forces
must act at a node to satisfy force and moment equilibrium.

Two common ways of laying out nodal zones are presented below using figures from WM and
ACI-318-11: hydrostatic nodal zones and extended nodal zone. We introduce each here but
emphasize extended nodal zones.

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Hydrostatic Nodal Zones

The first method is to place the sides of the nodes at right angles to the struts or ties meeting at
that node, as shown in the figure below, to have the same bearing pressure on each side of the
node. A cross section perpendicular to the strut is in pure compression (no shear stresses). For a
CCC node, the ratio of the lengths of the three sides, is the same as the ratio of the
axial forces in the three members meeting at the node, . If one of the forces is tensile
(CCT node), the width of that side is calculated from a hypothetical bearing plate on one end of
the tie that is assumed to exert a bearing pressure on the backside of the node. Such nodal zones
are termed hydrostatic since the in-plane stresses in the node are the same in all directions.

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Extended Nodal Zones

Another approach assumes the nodal zone to comprise that concrete lying within extensions of
the members meeting at the joint as shown in the figure from WM below. The extended nodal
zones are shown shaded. The stresses can all be different (see panel (a) of the figure)
provided that (a) the resultants of the three forces coincide, (b) the stresses are within the limits
given in ACI-318-11, and (c) the stress is constant on any face. Another example is shown in
panel (b) of the figure. This node is divided into two zones or subnodes. The designer must
check that the stresses in the members entering the node, the stress over the bearing plate, and
the stress on the vertical line dividing the two subnodes.

Below are figures from ACI-318-08 that show extended nodal zones.

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The extended nodal zone of the figures from ACI-318-11 is that portion of the figure bounded by
the intersection of the effective strut width, , and the effective tie width, . Note the point at
which the rebar must be fully developed: not the edge of the bearing plate but rather at the
intersection point of the rebar centroid and the extended nodal zone: reflecting the improved
bond conditions associated with the compression stress in the strut.

Nodal zone calculations can be simplified in certain cases using the procedure shown in the
figure below in which the reaction R equilibrates the vertical components of the strut forces
and .

For this example, the reaction R is divided into , which equilibrates the vertical component of
, and , which equilibrates the vertical component of . Note that the horizontal force on
the interface between zones A and B above must be considered in the analysis of the nodal zone.

ACI-318-11 writes that the nominal compressive strength of a nodal zone be calculated as

where is the effective compressive strength of the concrete in the nodal zone (see below) and
is the smaller of (a) the area of the face of the nodal zone that acts on (in compression),
taken perpendicular to the line of action of : acting on ***** or acting on *****, or (b)
the area of the section through the nodal zone taken perpendicular to the line of action of the

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resultant force acting on the section: see the dashed orange line above. How is the limit of (a)
applied to the figures at the bottom of page 28? Is equal to the strut area or the line
separating the nodal zone from the remainder of the extended nodal zone?

Unless confining reinforcement is provided in the nodal zone, the effective compressive strength
of the concrete in the nodal zone shall be taken as

f ce = β n (0.85 f c′)

where is given in Section A5.2.1 of ACI 318-11 as 1.0 if the nodal zone is bounded by struts
or bearing areas or both (a CCC node), 0.80 if the nodal zone anchors one tie (a CCT node), or
0.60 if the nodal zone anchors two or more ties (CTT or TTT nodes). A value of less than 1.0
reflects an increasing degree of disruption of the nodal zones due to the incompatibility of
tension strains in the ties and compression strains in the struts.

7.7 Example

The discontinuous wall shown on the following page consists of 5 D regions and one B region.
The example is taken from WM. (Do not use such walls in a structure exposed to earthquake
shaking.) The wall is 14 inches thick and cannot buckle out of plane due to the presence of floor
slabs, Design the rebar in regions D2 and D3. Assume psi and ksi. Assume
that the load of 384 kips is an ultimate (factored) load. The plan dimensions of the column at the
top of the wall are inches.

The five steps in the design process are

1. Identify and isolate the D regions

2. Compute the internal stresses on the boundaries of the D regions at the strength level
using the standard strength approach or assuming elastic response ( ). See
the example below.

3. Subdivide the boundaries into sub-lengths and determine the force resultants on each sub-
length. See below.
4. Draw a truss (the strut-and-tie model) to transmit the forces from boundary to boundary.

5. Calculate the forces in the members of the truss and check stresses.

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Step 1

Isolate the D regions of the wall as shown above.

Step 2

Compute the stresses on the boundaries as shown above. Assume that the stresses can be
calculated by . Calculate the weight of the wall as

kips

and assume that this weight acts at the mid-height of the wall.

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Step 3

Subdivide the boundary and compute the force resultants. For this problem the choices are
straightforward. All boundaries except for the boundary at the top of D2 are divided into two
sub-lengths.

Step 4

Draw the truss for the strut-and-tie model. Compression struts are shown by dashed lines and
tension ties by solid lines. To draw the truss an assumption must be made about the angle . In
most cases a 2:1 slope can be assumed.

Step 5

Calculate member forces and check stresses.

Tension ties BL and FG

For tie BL:

kips

in2

Transverse rebar with a minimum area of 2.02 in2 should be provided across the full width of the
wall in a band approximately 0.3d feet deep, centered on the tension tie BL. Assume that #5 or
#6 rebar are used for the wall reinforcement. The area of a #5 bar is 0.3 in2, so assuming rebar on
each face of the wall, use 4 #5 bars each face over a depth of 30 inches ( ). Anchor the
rebar with 90-degree hooks at each end of the wall. Note that the nodes B and L anchoring the
struts AB and AL and the tie BL are smeared nodes and the tension tie rebar can be spread over a
finite distance.

For tie FG:

kips

in2

Transverse rebar in this amount or greater should be provided across the width of the wall at the
base of D3. Should the rebar be

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CIE 525 Reinforced Concrete Structures Instructor: Andrew Whittaker

• Concentrated in one or two layers (concentrated node): 6#5 or 6#6?

• Smeared over a finite height of the wall?

anchored at the end of the wall, perhaps with 90 or 180 degree hooks (or heads) into the column
cages projecting up into the wall from D4 and D5 below.

Compression struts and nodes in D2

Since the concrete struts fan out from point A, the critical region will be at node A. Since the
node is compressed on all faces, take ksi. The design strength
of the nodal zone is

kips

which is greater than the factored load of 384 kips.

For completeness, we now check one of the two struts, noting that crack control rebar will be
provided in the body of the wall. The axial load in one of the struts is 217 kips. Noting that the
width of the compressed concrete at the midlength of the strut can spread laterally, assume that
the strut is bottle shaped for which ksi. As a starting point,
assume that the node at A is hydrostatic and check the capacity of the node for ksi. By
inspection, the strut will be satisfactory.

Of some interest are the minimum dimensions for nodes B and L, which are CCT nodes. For a
CCT node, the effective compressive stress is ksi, which
will control the minimum dimensions of the nodes because struts BC and LK are prismatic, for
which . The minimum strut width is

which fits easily into the width of the wall (as expected). The minimum height of node B for tie
BL is

and clearly this can be accommodated also.

Compression struts in D3

Since concrete struts fan out from nodes F and G, the critical region will be at these nodes. Since
each of these nodes anchors a tension tie, the nodal strength will likely control. That said, the
nodal forces are of the same order as those in zone D2 , which are small, and so the strut capacity

Module 07 Page 31
CIE 525 Reinforced Concrete Structures Instructor: Andrew Whittaker

is not checked here. Although the column widths for D4 and D5 are 30% smaller than that of D1,
the column widths are satisfactory by inspection.

Crack control reinforcement

The minimum wall rebar ratio is 0.0020 per Section 14.3 of ACI 318. For a 14-inch thick wall,
this corresponds to 0.34 in2 per foot width (say #4@12 inches, EF EW), which, if provided in the
vertical and horizontal directions, satisfies the minimum crack control rebar requirement of page
25.

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