The Green Guide For Housing Specification

The Green Guide
to Housing Specification
An environmental profiling system
for building materials and components
Jane Anderson
Nigel Howard
BRE
Garston
Watford
WD2 7JR
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BR 390
ISBN 1 86081 376 3
© Copyright BRE 2000

First published 2000
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iii
Contents
Foreword v
Acknowledgements vi
Introduction 1
Why this book? 2
Information presentation within The Green Guide 3
Environmental issues covered in The Green Guide 3
How Green Guide ratings are assessed 3
Summary ratings 4
Weighting the importance of environmental impacts 4
Sources of LCA information 4
Recycling 5
Reclaimed or recycled materials 5
Embodied energy 5
Costs 6
Replacement intervals 6
How the elements were chosen 6
Using The Green Guide to Housing Specification 6
Timber 7
External walls 8
Framed wall construction 8
Cavity and solid masonry wall construction 10
Roofing 12
Pitched roof construction 12
Flat roof construction 14
Ground floors 16
Concrete ground floor construction 16
Suspended timber ground floor construction 18
Upper floors 20
Windows 22
Internal walls 24
Internal partitions 24
Party walls 25
Kitchens 26
Worktops 26
Cupboard units 27
Refurbishment: external and internal wall insulation 28
Bespoke timber cladding systems 29
Dry cladding systems 29
Insulating render 29
Internal wall insulation 29
Polymer-modified cementitious render systems 29
Polymeric coating systems 29
Traditional render 29
Insulation 30
Landscaping 32
Boundary protection 32
External surfacing: hard and soft 34
Appendix 1 35
Life-cycle assessment 35
Appendix 2 37
Environmental issue categories 37
Contacts and further information 39
Key references 39
v
Foreword
This publication has been developed to provide house builders and housing
designers with a simple reference guide to the environmental impacts of the
construction materials most commonly used in house building.
The BRE method of Environmental Profiling has been adopted as the basis
for the approach, which means that for the first time, housing designers will
have a simple method available for comparing the environmental
performance of one construction type with another. This will enable informed
choices to be made in relation to the materials used to build our new homes,
as well as raising awareness of these important environmental issues.
There is growing global pressure to ensure that construction is ‘sustainable’
and practical guidance and information are required. This Guide, together
with the companion new environmental standard for homes, EcoHomes, fills
that gap and represents a valuable contribution. NHBC has been pleased to
support their development.
Christopher Mills, NHBC Director, Technical Services

vi
Acknowledgements
The first version of The Green Guide, looking at specifications used in The
Post Office’s property portfolio, was developed by Nigel Howard and
David Shiers of Oxford Brookes University as a private publication for The
Post Office in 1992. Following great interest in the publication, which had
been circulated widely amongst The Post Office’s design consultants, a
second version was published by BRE with The Post Office in September
1998. This version was linked to BREEAM 98 for offices and was used to
assess credits for materials specification.
The production of this version of The Green Guide, specifically relating to
the materials used in housing has been generously sponsored by NHBC. Its
production would not have been possible without the work which had gone
before on the earlier versions; in particular, thanks are due to David Shiers of
Oxford Brookes University.
We wish also to acknowledge the contribution made by the following
individuals and organisations:
Neil Smith, NHBC
Deborah Brownhill, BRE
Suzy Edwards, BRE
Matt Thomas, BRE
Susheel Rao, BRE
Alan Yates, BRE
Paul Evans, FBE Management Ltd
Helen Fairmaner, AFH Shaw Sprunt
Francis Maude, Donald Insall Associates
Andrew Upton, Anchor Trust
1
Introduction
This third version of The Green Guide contains over 150 specifications
commonly used in housing.
The guide contains typical wall, roof, floor and other constructions listed
against a simple environmental rating scale running from A (good) to
C (poor). Twelve different environmental impacts are individually scored,
together with an overall Summary Rating, information on recycling and
typical costs.
The Summary Ratings enable users to select materials and components on
their overall environmental performance over the building’s life. Because
ratings are also given for individual environmental issues such as climate
change, the specifier can alternatively select materials and components on the
basis of personal or organisational preferences or priorities, or take
specification decisions based on the performance of a material against a
particular environmental parameter.
Why this book?

A typical house uses almost 150 tonnes of The environmental impact of housing is considerable. Each year in the UK,
material in its construction. domestic energy use accounts for around 30% of energy consumption, and the
materials used in house construction account for 10% of mineral extraction
and 1% of climate change. Whilst energy efficiency initiatives over the last
30 years have reduced the energy needed to heat a typical house
considerably, the development of initiatives to reduce the impacts arising
All figures in this report, unless otherwise from construction materials has been comparatively slow. Of the written
referenced, have been derived, either information available to date, most has lacked practical guidance and has
directly or through analysis carried out by proved difficult for designers and their clients to interpret.
BRE in research for this and other projects, This handbook provides a ‘green’ guide to specification of construction
from the publications listed in Key materials for housing which is both easy to use and soundly based on Life
references at the back of this Guide. Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies of the environmental impacts of different
materials.
UK energy consumption 1995 UK waste generation Industry (including building

Building operation
materials manufacture)
Quarrying
Industry - building materials
Demolition and construction
Other industry
Agriculture
Agriculture Colliery
China clay
Transport - other freight
Sewage sludge
Transport - building materials
Dredged spoil
Municipal and commercial

Transport - people
waste
2 The Green Guide to Housing Specification
Information presentation within The Green Guide

Materials and components have been arranged into construction categories
or ‘elements’ such as External wall construction, Internal walls, Upper floor
construction, etc. (see pages 8–34), so that designers and specifiers can compare
and select from comparable systems or materials specifications. It is
meaningless to compare the environmental performance of say, concrete
floors and a particular type of paint and therefore ratings are based only on a
specification’s performance within each respective element.
Whilst specifications are generally To ensure that credible, like-for-like comparisons are made, a ‘functional
comparable, there are inevitably instances unit’ of comparison has been defined for each element. In the case of external
where comparisons are not exactly like-for- walls for example (page 8), the functional unit is 1 m2 of wall that satisfies
like. Some internal walls are loadbearing building regulations — so the environmental impacts of 1 m2 of each external
whilst others are not: windows, although all wall specification listed have been assessed and compared with each
double-glazed, may have differing thermal including sufficient insulation to give a U value of 0.45 W/m2K.
efficiencies. Using functional units for comparing specifications means that variables
such as the mass of material needed to fulfil a particular function, for example
structural stability, are taken into account. This is important because a
comparison of the environmental impacts of, for example, one tonne of
structural steel and one tonne of structural concrete would be misleading as
less steel is needed to perform the same function.
Environmental issues covered in The Green Guide

The environmental issues against which building materials and components
are judged, reflect the generally accepted areas of concern related to the
production of building materials used in the UK. They are listed in the box,
below. Further information about these environmental issues is given in
Appendix 2.
Environmental issues and production of building materials concerns

Climate change: Global warming or greenhouse gases
Fossil fuel depletion: Coal, oil and gas consumption.
Ozone depletion: Gases which destroy the ozone layer
Freight transport: Distance and mass of freight moved
Human toxicity: Pollutants which are toxic to humans
Waste disposal: Material sent to landfill or incineration
Water extraction: Mains, surface and ground water consumption
Acid deposition: Gases which cause acid rain, etc.
Ecotoxicity: Pollutants which are toxic to the ecosystem
Eutrophication: Water pollutants which promote algal blooms, etc.
Summer smog: Air pollutants which cause respiratory problems
Minerals extraction: Metal ores, minerals and aggregates
Introduction 3
How Green Guide ratings are assessed

The specifications in this book are based on commonly found components,
High environmental impact
C rating
assemblies and materials selected to reflect the best available data and provide
a representative range of specifications.
The ratings compare a square metre of each specification over a 60-year
B rating building life and therefore take account of maintenance and refurbishment
over the building life, and demolition at the end of its life.
For each specification, information was gathered on the constituent
materials, for example the relative quantities per m2 of each material and its
A rating
expected life before replacement.
Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies which show the environmental
impacts of the manufacture of a tonne of materials, the specifications were
then analysed over the 60-year building design life to give the total
Environmental environmental impacts for each specification, where necessary taking account
impact of
specification of the expected replacement of components during the building’s life.
Although this study is underpinned by extensive LCA data, it was felt that
listing the actual values for each environmental issue for each specification
would significantly increase the complexity of the Guide, make comparison
more difficult, and would be of interest only to specialists. The Environmental
Low environmental impact
Profiles have therefore been presented in a straightforward way, to enable

specifiers to make meaningful comparisons between materials and
components. The A B C rating system, where ‘A’ denotes the best
environmental performance, is quick and easy to use and understand.
The way A B C ratings were calculated is shown in the diagram, left. For
each element category, eg roofs, the range of numerical results for each issue
was arranged in order of environmental impact, and the range from highest to
lowest divided into three equal bands. Specifications within that category
with impacts in the band with the lowest environmental impact were assigned
an ‘A’ rating, specifications with results falling in the middle band were
assigned a ‘B’ rating, and specifications with results in the band with the
highest environmental impact were assigned a ‘C’ rating.
Summary Ratings
Although some specifiers will be happy to make a choice based on their own
assessment of the importance of each environmental impact, there is also a
No environmental impact
demand for a Summary Rating, reflecting overall environmental performance.

The Summary Rating was determined by firstly assigning a relative
importance or weighting factor to each issue. Secondly, the impacts for each
issue were multiplied by the respective weighting factor and the resulting
values summed for each specification to give a single figure. These summary
0
results were then assigned A B C ratings from their position within the band of
summary results for each element in exactly the same way as the issue ratings
were calculated.
Groups consulted as part of the Weighting the importance of environmental impacts
weighting exercise:
● local government, The weighting factors used in this Guide were determined from an extensive
● central government, BRE research programme that included consultation with more than 60
● materials producers, professionals representing seven different groups (see box, left). A surprising
● construction professionals, degree of consensus regarding the relative importance of different
● environmental activists and lobbyists, environmental issues was found across the groups. From this consensus, it was
● academics, and
possible to weight the different issues covered by The Green Guide and hence
● environmental researchers.
to derive the Summary Ratings. The relative weightings are given in the Table,
left.
Weighting of environmental issues

Sources of LCA information
Issue % weight
Information is required on materials for their whole life cycle. A major source
Climate change 36.0 of data is the BRE Environmental Profiles scheme, which was developed with
Fossil fuel depletion 11.4 support from DETR and UK Materials Producers. The Environmental
Ozone depletion 7.7 Profiles scheme enables environmental assessment of construction materials
Freight transport 7.4 by using a common ‘level playing field’ methodology. This allows direct
Human toxicity 6.7 comparison of the environmental impacts of functionally equivalent products.
Waste disposal 5.8 Environmental Profiles are life cycle assessment (LCA) data derived from
Water extraction 5.1 the UK industry. Wherever permission to use Environmental Profiles has
Acid deposition 4.8 been given by manufacturers, BRE has used this data within this Guide.
Ecotoxicity 4.1 However, the BRE Methodology was only launched in June 1999, and some
Eutrophication 4.1 materials have still not been assessed in this way.
Summer smog 3.6 Where assessment has not occurred, or permission to use derived
Minerals extraction 3.3 Environmental Profiles has not been obtained, BRE has referred to other
sources of data. These sources include LCA data in the public or private
domain and overseas studies, such as the LCA databases compiled by IVAM
Environmental Profiles have been used to at the University of Amsterdam, PRé product ecology consultants based in
assess the following materials: the Netherlands and other well respected LCA providers. Where possible,
● Aggregates these sources have been listed in the Key references, page 39. When necessary,
● Aluminium BRE has adapted these studies to take account of differences between UK and
● Brick overseas practice, in energy mix and in methodology, and improvements in
● Gravel and sand production techniques where older LCA studies have been used.
● Limestone
● Granite
● Ground granulated blast furnace slag
Recycling
● Aerated blocks Recycling has not been included as a separate environmental issue within the
● Clay roof tiles Environmental Profiles scheme, however the BRE Methodology and
● Concrete roof tiles generated Environmental Profiles do take account of the actual levels of
● UK consumed softwood recycled input, and the current fate of materials at the end of their life cycle.
● Rock wool By taking account of current recycling practice, BRE is emphasising the
● Glass wool importance of today’s decision making in delivering sustainable construction
— however it is recognised that specifiers might wish to take account of the
potential for recycling that exists for construction materials. Specifiers should
be aware of the ongoing debate concerning the merits of recycling and should
adhere to best environmental practice when considering waste disposal and
use of recycled material. We have tried to reflect the complexity of this
argument by separately identifying and assessing four key aspects of recycling
for each material or component.
● Recycled input The percentage (by mass) of recycled or waste
material contained within a product.
● Recyclability The percentage (by mass) of material capable of being
recycled or reused at end of life of the product.
● Currently recycled The percentage (by mass) currently being recycled or
reused in the UK.
Introduction 5
● Energy saved A comparison of the energy required to recycle
by recycling and/or reuse the products compared with the energy
required to produce similar products from primary
resources based on current practice.
The information on recycling has been presented as A B C ratings calculated

in the same way as those for environmental issues, with an A rating
representing good performance.
Reclaimed or recycled materials

Maximum transport distances for Reclaimed materials are materials that are directly reused, or reused with very
reclaimed materials little processing, for example, bricks that have been cleaned of mortar.
Material Distance Recycled materials are materials that require reprocessing to be reused, for
(miles) example, aggregates that are made of crushed concrete demolition waste.
From an environmental point of view, repair is generally preferable to reuse,
Reclaimed tile 100 reuse to recycling and recycling to disposal.
Reclaimed slate 300 The low impacts of reclaimed materials can be increased if they are
Reclaimed bricks 250 transported very long distances compared with new materials. The Table, left,
Recycled aggregates 150 shows the maximum distance a reclaimed material can be transported by road
Reclaimed timber 1000 before it will have a greater impact than a new material manufactured locally.
(eg floor boards) For example, reclaimed bricks from up to 500 miles away would have less
Reclaimed steel products 2500 environmental impact than new bricks from a factory 250 miles away.
Reclaimed aluminium 7500
products
Embodied energy
Many products with minimal energy use in their production can still have
considerable impacts on mineral extraction, waste generation and water
usage. In addition, the consequential impacts of energy use can vary greatly
depending on which type of fuel or electricity generation is used; for example,
comparing wind with coal-fired electricity generation. Therefore, BRE
believes that embodied energy, a measure of the total energy used, does not
always constitute a good model for overall environmental impact.
Instead, the BRE Methodology takes account of energy use by tracing the
impacts resulting from energy use, such as climate change, acidification and
fossil fuel depletion.
BRE recognises that embodied energy is still used by many as a proxy for
environmental impact; however the Summary Rating, which reflects eleven
weighted environmental issues, gives a much more accurate picture of overall
environmental impact.
Costs
Cost ranges are based on Spon’s Although primarily a ‘green’ guide, this handbook also provides data on initial
Architects’ and Builders’ Price Book 1999 capital cost, maintenance and durability to ensure that environmental issues
at a Davis Langdon & Everest Tender Index are considered within a wider context of specification choices. Indicative as-
of 325. built costs are provided for each material or component as a cost range in
£/m2. All costs are inclusive of materials, labour and plant. Readers are
reminded that these costs do not include any allowance for maintenance, repair
or replacement (whole life costs) over the chosen 60-year life of the building.
Replacement intervals
The specifications are assessed over a Replacement intervals indicate the typical replacement life of the major
60-year building life, taking account of components of each element. It should be recognised that these replacement
maintenance and refurbishment over the intervals are not always representative of durability, but take account of other
building life, and its demolition. For an factors such as ‘fashion’ which may have a greater influence, for example, in
internal wall with ‘tongue and groove’ (t&g) the replacement intervals for kitchen fittings.
boarding, repainting occurs every 5 years Replacement intervals are given in years for the most frequently replaced
and the t&g boarding has a typical major component; for the example, left, the replacement interval for the
replacement interval of 35 years. The tongue and groove boarding is given. The replacement intervals stated in this
impacts of the paint will therefore be Guide should be used for general guidance only.
increased to reflect the 11 subsequent
repaintings and the impacts of (tongue and
groove) boarding increased to reflect its
How the elements were chosen
replacement after 35 years. BRE initially considered the common specifications for elements used in
typical house construction. A simple analysis was then undertaken to identify
those elements that contributed most to the overall environmental impact of
Environmental impacts from the materials use house construction over a 60-year life. The chart, left, illustrates the
of a typical house over 60 years
contribution of each element to the overall environmental impacts for a
typical house.
Generally the external walls, upper floors and roof of a typical house can
account for over 50% of the total building mass, with a further 20% contained
within the sub-structure and ground floor. Because of this high mass, these
elements have the potential to produce the greatest relative impact of all the
elements that make up a house. They can require the highest energy levels for
extraction, production and transport, use the largest amounts of raw material,
produce the highest emissions and generate the largest amounts of waste,
especially after demolition.
Elements which have been excluded from this Guide include:
● elements over which most housebuilders have no control (eg carpets),
External walls
● elements which make a contribution to the impact of a typical house, but
where the impacts of the different specifications are very similar,
Roof
● elements which make very little contribution to impacts of a typical house.
External surfacing
Ground floor
Using The Green Guide to Housing Specification
Internal walls
Whilst all specification choices are important, designers may wish to give
Windows particular attention to the selection for the building elements which have the
Upper floors
potential for the greatest environmental impact. As a quick guide, the table of
ratings for each element includes a pie chart displaying that element’s typical
Boundary protection
contribution to the impacts of a house. However, specifiers should note that
Kitchen worktops when A-rated specifications have been chosen for the major elements, the
Kitchen cupboards impacts from the minor elements become more significant to the overall
impacts of the house, particularly when C-rated minor element specifications
Other
have been chosen.
Designers and specifiers should note the following in their use of the table
of ratings.
● The A B C ratings are relevant only within an element. An A rating in one
element for a particular issue is not equivalent to an A rating in another
element for the same issue.
● In most cases, the distinctions between specifications are significant. For
some elements, however, specifications with a similar impact may fall into
different A B C bands, for example one specification may have the worst
impacts for an A rating whilst a specification with very similar impact may
be a top performing B rating. Equally, specifications with the same rating
may have quite different impacts if one lies at the bottom of ‘A’ whilst the
other lies at the top. However, actual impacts are used when calculating
Summary Ratings so these similarities or differences will be reflected in the
overall Summary Rating.
Introduction 7
● The A B C ratings have been used to distinguish between impacts for an
issue even when the impacts may all be close to zero. This is particularly
true for ozone depletion ratings where the impacts from most element
specifications are zero, or very close to zero. However, the Summary
Rating will reflect the small contribution from these low impacts to the
element profile.
● Many houses will in practice last much longer than the assumed 60-year life
and hence the value of low maintenance and design for longevity are
underestimated in the ratings. For temporary or short-life buildings these
aspects will be over-estimated.
The ratings have been assigned using the best available information at the
time of writing and will be updated as BRE’s knowledge evolves.
Timber
The Environmental Profiles for timber in this Guide have been based on
timber sourced from sustainably managed forests.
Where possible, designers should give preference to timber products
obtained from well-managed, sustainable sources, independently certified
under schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Council, the Finnish National
Certification Scheme or UK Woodland Assurance Scheme.
Where independently certified timber is not available, designers should
give preference to timber from suppliers who have adopted a formal
Environmental Purchasing Policy, such as the Forests Forever Environmental
Purchasing Policy, or through the 95+ Group, and who can provide evidence
of commitment to that policy.
The organisation, Forests Forever, can advise on issues regarding the
sourcing of timber.
The Environmental Profiles for timber also take account of typical
transport based on current patterns of imports and home production. The
transport impacts of locally sourced timber are therefore likely to be better
than those shown within this Guide.
The use of timber preservatives in situations where timber, left untreated,
would be likely to decay, greatly extends the life of the timber (with modest
additional initial environmental impact), thereby reducing replacement
intervals and its total impact over a 60-year life. Factory application of
preservatives both ensures their efficacy and minimises any risk of
environmental damage. The use of wood preservatives is strictly regulated
under the Control of Pesticides Regulations.
8
External walls
Functional unit: 1 m2 to satisfy building A B C ratings have been assessed across all External walls specifications.
regulations, in particular However for ease of use, this element has been split into two sections:
a U value of 0.45 W/m2K. ● framed construction, and
● cavity and solid walls.
External walls
Typical replacement interval
Energy saved by recycling

Fossil fuel depletion
Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Framed wall construction
Brickwork outer leaf, insulation, A A A A A A B A A A A A A £50–£70 60 C A A A

steel frame, plasterboard, paint
Brickwork, timber frame with insulation, A A A A A A B A A A A A A £50–£68 60 C A A A
plasterboard, paint
Canadian Cedar weatherboarding, timber B A A A C A A A A A A A A £52–£72 30 C B B B
frame with insulation, plasterboard, paint
Clay tiles, battens, timber frame with A A A B A A A A A A A A A £60–£79 60 C A C A
insulation, plasterboard, paint
Concrete tiles, battens, timber frame A A A A A A A B A A A A A £67–£81 60 C A C A
with insulation, plasterboard, paint
Painted, pre-treated softwood weather A A A A A A A A A A C C A £43–£62 30 C B C B
boarding, timber frame with insulation,
plasterboard, paint
PVC weatherboarding, timber frame C C C C A C A A C C A A A £57–£82 30 C C C C
with insulation, plasterboard, paint
Terracotta rainscreen cladding, A B A A A B A A B A A A A £155–£220 30 A A A A
aluminium framework, insulation,
aerated blockwork wall,
plasterboard/plaster, paint
External walls 9
Framed wall construction

Using more insulation to achieve better Due to their lightweight nature, framed structures generally score better than
‘U’ values will reduce the impacts from their masonry counterparts. A ratings can be achieved using all conventional
domestic heating. Over a 60-year life, cladding materials (with the exception of PVC weatherboarding). The PVC
this will far outweigh the small increase in weatherboarding performs badly because of the comparatively high impacts
impacts from manufacturing the additional of PVC manufacture compared with other cladding materials.
insulation material. The timber and tile clad options, except for the cedar weatherboarding,
perform very well, mainly due to their lightweight nature. Although
containerised transport by sea is a very efficient method of transporting
freight in comparison with road transport, the cedar is imported from the west
coast of Canada, giving the freight transport impacts that cause it to get a
B rating.
Insulation used in framed construction

Improving the insulation to reduce the Specifiers should pay particular attention to the comments and ratings
building’s energy consumption will not contained in the section on Insulation on pages 30 and 31. However, because
affect the ratings of any element. of the small mass of insulation needed to satisfy Building Regulations
compared with the heavy mass of materials used in framed construction, the
ratings are not sensitive to the insulation selected, as long as the insulation
does not use ozone-depleting chemicals. If an ozone-depleting insulation is
specified, then the resulting increased climate change and ozone depletion
impacts will affect the Summary Rating for the specification. For example, an
A Summary Rating will move to a B Summary Rating, a B to a C, and a C
would perform so badly, a D rating would be appropriate.
Use of reclaimed materials

Both reclaimed bricks and tiles can be used in framed external wall
constructions. The Table on page 5 shows the distance reclaimed bricks and
tiles can be transported before the impact of transport becomes greater than
the impact of manufacturing a new brick.
External walls

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Cavity and solid wall construction
Brickwork outer leaf, aerated blockwork B B A A A B B B A A A A A £49–£71 60 B A A A

inner leaf, plasterboard/plaster, paint
Brickwork outer leaf, insulation, A A A A A A B B A A A A A £49–£71 60 C A A A
aerated blockwork inner leaf,
Brickwork outer leaf, insulation, B A A A A A C B A A A A A £51–£67 60 C A A A
dense blockwork inner leaf,
PVC weatherboarding, insulation, C C C C A C A A C C A A A £55–£86 30 A B B B
aerated blockwork wall,
Rendered aerated blockwork cavity A A A A A A B B A A A A B £44–£72 60 A A A A
wall, plasterboard/plaster, paint
Rendered dense blockwork cavity B A A A A A C C A A A A B £49–£65 60 C A A A
wall, insulation, plasterboard/plaster,
paint
Rendered dense blockwork outer leaf, A A A A A A B B A A A A B £28–£40 60 C A A A
insulation, aerated concrete blockwork
inner leaf, plaster/plasterboard/plaster,
paint
Rendered lightweight blockwork outer B B A A A B B B A A A A B £45–£64 60 A A A A
leaf, insulation, aerated blockwork inner
leaf, plasterboard/plaster, paint
Rendered solid aerated blockwork, A A A A A B B B A A A A B £38–£55 60 A A A A
Stone outer leaf, insulation, dense A A A A A A C C A A A A C £97–£109 60 C A A A
blockwork inner leaf,
External walls 11
Cavity and solid masonry wall construction

The high mass of materials used in masonry construction leads to poorer
environmental performance than comparable framed alternatives. However,
the use of aerated blocks, which are both lightweight and provide insulation,
improves performance.
Brickwork, as a result of the energy required to fire the brick, performs less
well than other masonry, but used with cavity wall insulation and aerated
blocks or framed construction, can still obtain A ratings. It should be noted
that brickwork and masonry walls will typically last much longer than the
assumed 60-year life used by this Guide,
Although the masonry options generally perform well in terms of recycling,
they are normally only recycled into lower grade ‘fill’. The use of easily
removable lime mortars greatly increases the ease with which bricks, can be
reused.
Insulation used in cavity wall construction

Increasing the insulation to reduce the Specifiers should pay particular attention to the comments and ratings
building’s energy consumption will not contained in the section on Insulation on pages 30 and 31. However, because
affect the ratings of any element. of the small mass of insulation needed to satisfy the Building Regulations
compared with the heavy mass of materials used in cavity walls, the ratings
are not sensitive to the insulation selected, as long as the insulation does not
use ozone-depleting chemicals.
If an ozone-depleting insulation is specified, then the resulting increased
climate change and ozone depletion impacts will affect the Summary Rating
for the external wall specification, so that an A Summary Rating will move to a
B Summary Rating, a B to a C, and a C would perform so badly, a D rating
would be appropriate.

Reclaimed bricks can be used in masonry walls. The Table on page 5 shows
the maximum distance reclaimed bricks can be transported before the impact
of transport becomes greater than the impact of manufacturing a new brick.
12
Roofing
Functional unit: 1 m2 of roof area A B C ratings have been assessed across all Roofing specifications. However for
(measured horizontally), to satisfy ease of reference, this element has been split into two types:
building regulations, particularly a ● pitched roofing, and
U value of 0.25 W/m2K. ● flat roofing.
Roofing

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Pitched roof construction
Clay tiles, battens, sarking felt on A A A C B A A A A A A A A £32–£67 60 C A C A

timber roof structure with insulation
between rafters
Concrete tiles, battens, sarking felt, A A A A B A A B A A A A A £28–£54 60 C A C A
battens on timber roof structure with
insulation between rafters
Fibre cement slates, battens, sarking B A B A B B A A B B A B A £50–£77 30 C A C A
felt on timber roof structure with
insulation between rafters
Polymer resin bonded slates, battens, C C C A C C A B C C C C A £36–£69 35 C C C C
sarking felt on timber roof structure
with insulation between rafters
Slates, battens, sarking felt on timber A A A A C A C A A A A A C £51–£143 60 C A A A
roof structure with insulation within
rafters
Roofing 13
Pitched roof construction

The ‘room in the roof’, where attic rafters Traditional roof materials score well here, with replacement materials,
are used to provide habitable space within polymer resin bonded slates and fibre cement slates, scoring less well than
the loft, is becoming popular with their traditional counterparts.
housebuilders, who can provide extra living Trussed rafters, a modern innovation, use almost 30% less timber than
space for little extra cost. The additional traditional cut rafters, reducing the environmental impact of the roof
timber needed to construct the attic structure. The contribution of the structure to the roof ’s overall
trusses is offset by the general reduction in environmental impact is small though, so the ratings given are applicable for
material used per unit of living area. either type of timber roof structure.

Reclaimed tiles are likely to be more brittle than new tiles, leading to shorter
replacement intervals than virgin materials. However, like reclaimed slates,
they can still be transported long distances without losing their environmental
benefits — the Table on page 5 shows the maximum transport distances before
the impact of transport becomes greater than the impact of manufacturing
new slates or tiles.
Insulation used in pitched roof construction

Specifiers should pay particular attention to the comments and ratings
contained in the section on Insulation on pages 30 and 31. However, because
of the small mass of insulation needed to satisfy the Building Regulations
compared with the heavy mass of materials used in pitched roofing, the
ratings are not sensitive to the insulation specified, as long as the insulation
does not use ozone-depleting chemicals.
for the specification, so that an A Summary Rating will move to a B Summary
Rating, a B to a C, and a C would perform so badly, a D rating would be
appropriate.
Roofing

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Flat roof construction
Chipboard or OSB decking on timber A A A A A A A A A A A B A £43–£58 30 A B C B

joists with insulation, polyester-
reinforced bitumen felt
Plywood decking on timber joists A A A A A B A A A B B B A £60–£88 35 C C C A
with insulation, asphalt, chippings
Plywood decking on timber joists with A A A A A A A A A A A B A £60–£87 30 C B C B
insulation, polyester-reinforced
bitumen felt
Precast concrete slab, insulation, A A A A A C B C A B B A B £78–£118 35 C A B A
asphalt, chippings
Precast concrete slab, insulation, A A A A A B B C A A A A B £79–£117 30 C A A A
polyester-reinforced bitumen roofing felt,
chippings
Reinforced concrete flat slab, insulation, B A A A A C C C A B B A C £65–£100 35 C A A A
asphalt, chippings
Reinforced concrete flat slab, insulation, A A A A A B B C A A B A C £55–£62 30 C A A A
polyester-reinforced bitumen felt,
chippings
Roofing 15
Flat roof construction

Because insulation and timber decking often have to be replaced when
roofing membranes are replaced, the lifespan of the roofing membrane is of
great importance to the environmental profile of flat roofs. Increased resource
consumption in constructing a roof that will last longer will be offset by the
reduction in materials used later in repairs and refurbishment.
Concrete roof structures, with their greater resource consumption, perform
relatively well because they remain intact when the roofing membrane needs
to be replaced.
In terms of the impacts of roofing membranes, asphalt generally has higher
impacts than the lightweight reinforced bitumen felts and elastomeric
polymers (eg ethylene propylene diene monomer (epdm)) which have similar
impacts.
Insulation used in flat roof construction

of the small mass of insulation needed to satisfy the Building Regulations
compared with the heavy mass of materials used in flat roofs, the ratings are
not sensitive to the insulation specified, as long as the insulation does not use
ozone-depleting chemicals.
appropriate.
16
Ground floors
Functional unit: 1 m2 ground floor to A B C ratings have been assessed across all Ground floor specifications. However
satisfy building regulations, in particular for ease of reference, this element has been split into two types:
a U value of 0.45 W/m2K. ● concrete ground floors, and
● timber ground floors.
Ground floors

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Concrete ground floor

construction
Chipboard or OSB decking on insulation C C C C A C A A C C C C A £42–£70 20 C A A A

on precast concrete planks
Chipboard or OSB decking on timber B C C C B B A A C C B B A £30–£44 20 A A A A
battens with insulation, on beam and
block flooring
Plywood decking on timber battens A B A C B B A A A C B A A £44–£61 25 B A A A
with insulation, on beam and block
flooring
Plywood on insulation on precast B B B C A C A A B C C B A £55–£75 25 C A A A
concrete planks
Screeded in-situ concrete slab, C A A A A C C C A A B A C £43–£60 60 C A A A
over insulation on polyethylene
dpm laid on blinded subbase
Screeded in-situ reinforced concrete C B A A B C C C B A C A C £71–£166 60 C A A A
slab, over insulation on polyethylene
dpm laid on blinded sub-base
Ground floors 17
Concrete ground floor construction

Concrete ground floors can use large amounts of concrete and hardcore and
this results in high impacts, in particular for mineral extraction. Beam and
block floors and precast plank floors do not require oversite concrete and this
reduces their materials usage and consequent impacts. The performance of
the beam and block floors also reflects the low mass of the blocks.
The choice of floor decking, because of its low mass/m2 in comparison to
the ground floor structure, makes only a small contribution to the overall
impacts. The section on upper floors on pages 20 and 21 contains more
information.

The use of local recycled aggregate, both for hardcore and within concrete,
will improve the environmental profile of any relevant specification. The
Table on page 5 highlights the maximum distance it can be transported before
its impacts exceed virgin aggregate. If in-situ demolition or construction waste
can be crushed and utilised as recycled aggregate, this is the best option, both
in terms of the profile of the new construction, and the demolition of the old.
Insulation used in ground floor construction

The choice of insulation for ground floor construction is often determined on
the basis of resistance to crushing or moisture rather than simply conductivity.
of the heavy mass of materials used in floors and the small masses of insulation
needed to satisfy Building Regulations, the ratings are not sensitive to the
insulation selected, so long as it is does not use ozone-depleting chemicals.
appropriate.
Substructure
It was not possible to prepare meaningful elemental comparisons of
substructure design. However, cellar and basement construction can
contribute significantly to an environmental profile of a house. This is due to
the high mass of the materials often used to withstand the levels of lateral
loading from the surrounding ground and water pressure, in addition to the
loads imposed by the building.
Ground floors

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Suspended timber ground floor
construction
Chipboard or OSB decking on timber B C C C A B A A C C C C A £31–£67 20 A A C A

joists with insulation, over 100 mm
oversite concrete
Chipboard or OSB decking on timber B C C C A A A A C C C C A £37–£73 20 C C C C
joists with insulation, over 50 mm
oversite concrete on polyethylene
dpm laid on 50 mm sand
Plywood decking on timber joists A B B C A B A A B C C B A £45–£84 25 C A B A
with insulation, over 100 mm oversite
concrete
Plywood decking on timber joists A B A C A A A A A C C B A £52–£95 25 C C C C
with insulation, over 50 mm oversite
concrete on polyethylene dpm laid
on 50 mm sand
Tongue and groove softwood boards A A A A C A A A A A A A A £39–£75 60 C A B A
on timber joists with insulation,
over 100 mm oversite concrete
Tongue and groove softwood boards A A A A C A A A A A A A A £40–£77 60 C C C C
on timber joists with insulation, over
50 mm oversite concrete on
polyethylene dpm laid on 50 mm sand
Ground floors 19
Suspended timber ground floor construction

Due to their low mass and resource consumption, timber suspended ground
floors perform well; however, the requirement to provide oversite concrete
beneath suspended timber ground floors means that all the specifications
include a substantial mass of concrete. This increases their impacts,
particularly for mineral extraction. The timber specifications have all assumed
that the concrete or sand blinding has been laid directly onto the ground, with
no hardcore base. Use of virgin aggregates for hardcore in these specifications
will have an adverse affect on the Summary Ratings.
The environmental impacts of carpets and other floor coverings such as
tiling or linoleum can be significant, particularly as they may be replaced
relatively frequently. However housebuilders are generally not responsible for
the specification or installation of floor covering, so it has not been included
here. Generally, natural materials such as wool, cork and timber do better
than their synthetic counterparts, and the use of natural or recycled underlays
for carpets is also advantageous.
The choice of floor decking, because of its low mass/m2 in comparison with
the ground floor structure, makes only a small contribution to the overall
impacts. The section on upper floors on pages 20 and 21 contains more
information.
Use of recycled materials

The use of local recycled aggregate, both for hardcore and within concrete,
will reduce resource consumption and will improve environmental
performance. The Table on page 5 highlights the maximum distance recycled
aggregate can be transported before its impact exceeds that of virgin
aggregate. If in-situ demolition or construction waste can be crushed and
utilised as recycled aggregate, this is the best option, both in terms of the
profile of the new construction, and the demolition of the old.
Insulation used in ground floor construction

of the heavy mass of materials used in ground floors and the small masses of
insulation needed to satisfy the Building Regulations, the ratings are not
sensitive to the insulation specified, as long as it is does not cause ozone
depletion.
20
Upper floors
Upper floors

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Upper floor construction
Beam and block flooring, chipboard C C C B C B A A C B C C A £24–£28 20 A B B B

or OSB decking on timber battens,
plasterboard ceiling
Beam and block flooring, plywood C B B B C B A A B B C B A £25–£40 25 B B A B
decking on timber battens,
Screeded beam and block flooring, B A A A C B B B A A B A B £24–£33 60 B A A B
Screeded in-situ concrete slab, C B A A C C C C B A C A C £40–£80 60 C A A B
plasterboard/plaster ceiling
Steel joists, chipboard or OSB decking, C C C C A B A A C C C C A £21–£47 20 A B C C
Steel joists, plywood decking, B B B C A B A A B C C A A £22–£34 25 C C B C
Timber joists, chipboard or OSB B C C B B A A A C B C C A £21–£47 20 A B C B
decking, plasterboard ceiling
Timber joists, plywood decking, A B A B B A A A A B B B A £22–£34 25 C C C C
Timber joists, tongue and groove A A A A C A A A A A A A A £29–£56 60 C C B C
floorboards, plasterboard ceiling
Upper floors 21
Upper floor construction

Functional unit: 1 m2 of upper floor to The results for upper floor construction follow a similar pattern to those for
satisfy building regulations. ground floor construction, with timber floors of all kinds showing a smaller
impact than heavier and more resource intensive alternatives. Of the concrete
floors, the beam and block flooring again performs slightly better than the in-
situ slab because of its comparatively lower mass.
Floor decking
In contrast to ground floors, the mass/m2 of floor decking in comparison to
structure is higher, and can have significant bearing on the impacts of upper
floors. Chipboard and OSB both utilise waste timber from other processes,
however they require greater proportions of energy intensive resins and
processing than plywood. Plywood is often produced from tropical
hardwoods, and care should be taken to ensure that these have been
sustainably grown. Tongue and groove softwood floorboards have
comparatively little processing and perform well.
22
Windows
Windows

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
PVC-U frame, double glazed C B C C A B A A B C A A B £150–£530 25 C C C C
Pre-treated softwood frame, A A A A A A A A A A A C A £70– £320 25 C A B A
double glazed, painted inside and out
Durable hardwood frame, B A A A C A A A A B B A A £130– £355 35 C A A A
double glazed, painted inside and out
Powder coated aluminium frame, C C C A A C A C C A A A A £270–£360 30 A A A A
double glazed
Aluminium faced timber composite C C C A A C A C C A A B A £275–£370 35 A A A A
frame, double glazed, painted inside
Glass block window C A C A A C C A A C C A C £185–£420 25 C A B A
Windows 23
Windows
Functional unit: Double-glazed window of Despite their comparatively low mass, windows can make a significant
approximately 1 m2 in area with one fixed contribution to the environmental impacts of a house.
and one opening casement. PVC-U windows perform poorly due to the high intensity of the materials
manufacture and the shorter lifespan. PVC-U windows have no recycled
input; however, the industry is taking steps to encourage the recycling of
PVC-U windows.
Primary aluminium manufacture is also very intensive, though much less
energy is needed to process recycled aluminium. But although aluminium
used in construction contains amongst the highest percentage of recycled
inputs of any construction material and is also extensively recycled, the high
impacts of primary aluminium manufacture still results in high overall
environmental impacts for the aluminium window.
Made from a renewable material requiring low energy in manufacture,
softwood timber windows perform well. As with all timber products,
specifiers should ensure that the timber is sustainably grown. This is
particularly relevant for hardwood windows, which perform less well than
softwood windows because the timber is typically transported much longer
distances. Locally grown hardwoods will have similar impacts to the
softwood windows.
The aluminium faced window, which has a sacrificial aluminium extrusion
on the external face, has a performance similar to that of the aluminium
window.
Glazing
The glass within a typical double glazed The choice of glazing (single, double or triple) will not affect the Summary
window accounts for less than 10% of the Rating of the window, although it will have a significant effect on the heat loss
environmental impact of the window. through the window over its life. Like the use of additional insulation, the
energy used to manufacture the extra sheet of glass in double glazing will be
far less than the energy lost through the window over its life. The use of
coatings on glass (to improve thermal performance, etc.) will also make very
little difference to the environmental profile of the window.
24
Internal walls
Internal walls

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Internal partitions
Aerated blockwork partition, A A A A A A A B A A A C A £26–£41 60 A B B B

Brickwork, plasterboard/plaster, paint B B B A B A C B B A A C B £35–£50 60 C A A A
Dense blockwork, plasterboard/plaster, B A A A B A C C A A A C A £37–£50 60 C A A A
paint
Fairfaced brickwork B B A A B A C B A A A A B £22–£27 60 C A A A
Glass block wall C C C C A C B A C C C A C £185–£420 40 C A C A
Lightweight blockwork partition, C C A A C A C B A A A C A £33–£39 60 A A A A
Softwood framed safety A A A A A A A A B A A A A £150–200 60 C A C C
glass — single glazed
Steel stud, plasterboard, paint A A A A A A A A A A A C A £36–£44 60 C C C C
Timber studwork partition, A A A A A A A A A A A C A £27–£30 60 C C C C
plasterboard, paint
Timber studwork with tongue and groove A A A A A A A A A A A C A £32–£44 35 C B C B
boarding to one face, plasterboard to
the other, paint to both sides
Internal partitions
Functional unit: 1 m2 of internal wall. It Generally, the lightweight framed partitions perform better than their heavier
should be noted that these masonry counterparts.
specifications may not be comparable in Aerated blocks are much lighter and use less material per m2 than dense
terms of load-bearing capacity, fire blocks and lightweight blocks. This gives a better environmental performance
resistance, acoustic performance or than other blockwork, even though the manufacturing is more intensive.
transparency and hence may not be The extraction and transport of raw materials for the lightweight blocks,
suitable in every situation. which use low density aggregates such as pumice, requires more energy than
dense blocks, which generally use more locally sourced aggregates.
The choice of plaster or plasterboard makes little difference to the profile of
relevant specifications. Plasterboard does have higher processing energy and
wastage than plaster, but it can contain up to 100% recycled material from
processes such as emission scrubbing within coal-fired power stations.
Internal walls 25
Internal walls

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Party walls
Aerated blockwork cavity wall with A A A A A A A A A A A A A £32–£44 60 A B A B

isolated plasterboard panels
Brickwork cavity wall, C B C A A B C B C A B C A £54–£66 60 C A A A
plasterboard/plaster
Dense blockwork cavity wall, A A A A B A C C A A A A A £57–£75 60 C A A A
Lightweight blockwork cavity wall, C C A A C B B A B A B C A £30–£50 60 A A A A
Plasterboard lined timber framing, A A A C A A A A A C A C A £48–£60 60 C C C C
plywood structural sheathing with
absorbent material (mineral fibre)
Reinforced concrete wall, C A A A A C C C C A C A C £78–£99 60 C A A A
Solid brickwork wall, C B C A A B C B C A B C B £50–£63 60 C A A A
Solid dense blockwork with isolated A A A A A A B B A A A A A £37–£44 60 C A A A
plasterboard panels
Solid dense blockwork, B A A A B B C C A A B B A £36–£44 60 C A A A
Party walls
Functional unit: 1 m2 of party walling to Party walls containing air spaces (in the form of cavity walls or isolated panels or
satisfy building regulations, in particular timber frameworks) to provide acoustic separation tend to have lower
the provision of acoustic separation environmental impacts than those which use solid mass. Again, the aerated
between dwellings. blockwork, when built in accordance with Approved Document E of the
Building Regulations (England & Wales), performs better than the other
masonry options because of the low mass of the construction.
26
Kitchens
Worktops

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Glazed tiles on chipboard base B A A A A A C A A A A A A £70–£100 20 B A C A
Hardwood laminated blockboard A A A A A B A A A C C A A £60–£70 20 C C C C
worktop
Melamine laminated chipboard A B A A A A A A A A A A A £30–£45 20 A A C A
worktop
Slate tiles on chipboard base A A A A A A A A A A A A A £70–£100 20 C A B A
Slate worktop with timber supports C A A C C A C A A B A A C £170–£147 20 C A A A
Solid hardwood worktop A A A A A B A A A C C A A £60–£75 20 C A B A
Stainless steel worktop on chipboard A A A A A A A A A A A A A £40–£80 20 A A C A
base
Stone worktop with timber supports B A A C A A A A C B A A A £140–£160 20 C A A A
Synthetic stone worktop C C C A A C A C A A A C A £200–£300 20 C C C C
Worktops
Functional unit: 1 m2 of worktop plus Although the impact of kitchen fittings within the typical house is small, less
any additional support needed to fit than 5%, the range of environmental performance from the common
standard kitchen units. specifications gives housebuilders the opportunity to make significant
reductions in environmental impacts through ‘green’ specification.
Synthetic stones, using mineral dust in an acrylic resin, have greater
These ratings could also be used to environmental impacts than their natural counterparts. Stone worktops, despite
judge worktops used in other places their minimal processing, do not perform particularly well because of their high
such as bathrooms. mass. Slate, because of the large amounts of wastage associated with its
finishing, does less well than other stones. Glazed tiles, because of the energy
required to fire and glaze them, do not perform well.
The solid hardwood worktop performs very well, with the laminated
blockboard performing slightly less well due to the glues used. Chipboards with
both melamine laminate and stainless steel also have good performance.
27
Cupboard units

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Beech veneered chipboard doors B B B A A B B A B B C A A £126–£141 20 A A C A
Lacquered MDF doors B B B A A A B C A B A C A £94–£105 20 A A C A
Lacquered MDF and glass doors B A A C A C C B A C C A C £94–£105 20 C A C C
Melamine laminated chipboard doors C C C A B B C A C B B C A £82–£97 20 A C C A
Solid hardwood doors A A A C A C A A A C C A A £130–£145 20 C A A A
Solid softwood doors A A A A C A A A A A A A A £114–£130 20 C A A A
Solid softwood glazed doors A A A B C C B A A B C A C £140–£155 20 C A C C
Cupboard units
Functional unit: 1 m2 of kitchen As with the worktops, the timber specifications perform very well because of
cupboard frontage, with standard their low climate change impacts. MDF, chipboard and melamine all use highly
chipboard carcass. processed resins that adversely affect their profiles. The low mass of glass used
in the glazed cupboards does not greatly affect their profiles and their overall
performance is similar to that of solid doors of the same frame material.
28
Refurbishment: external and

internal wall insulation
Functional unit: 1 m2 of internal or external Specification of insulation

wall insulation with protective cladding Compared with external wall construction, the mass of insulation used within
where necessary to upgrade the thermal external and internal wall insulation is greater in proportion to that of the
performance of a solid 9 inch masonry wall other materials. The choice of insulation is therefore significant to the impacts
to provide a U value of 0.45 W/m2K. In all of the chosen cladding system. For this reason, specifiers should select both
cases, we have assumed that the internal the cladding type and the Summary Rating of the chosen insulation (using the
wall surface was sound, and that the Summary Ratings for insulation given on page 30) in order to check the
external surface required rendering or ratings for the given cladding system.
some other form of protection. If an ozone-depleting insulation is specified, then the resulting increased
for the specification and make it worse than a system using a C-rated
insulation. To obtain a Summary Rating for a system using an ozone-
depleting insulation, the Summary Rating for a system using a C-rated
insulation should be made a rating worse. For example, a polymer-modified
cementitious render using an ozone-depleting insulation would move from a
B Summary Rating to a C.
Specification of cladding
Generally, minimally processed cladding systems, internal wall insulation and
traditional renders perform well. Claddings such as timber and fibre cement
require much less processing than epoxy resin laminates or aluminium boards
with a thermoplastic core and they have correspondingly lower impacts.
Relevant information on Canadian Cedar cladding is given in the section on
framed external walls (page 8).
Internal insulation systems perform well because the framework needed to
support the insulation and plasterboard can be much lighter than external
systems as they do not need to withstand wind loading, etc.
Traditional render, with minimal processing and a longer typical
replacement interval, performs well. Polymer-modified cementitious renders
using small quantities of highly processed synthetic material and having
shorter typical replacement intervals have correspondingly higher impacts.
And polymeric renders, which contain a much higher proportion of synthetic
material, will again have higher impacts.
The insulating lime render is one of the poorest environmental performers,
because of the thickness and resulting mass needed to obtain the required
thermal performance.
Refurbishment: external and internal wall insulation 29
(Rating from Insulation section)

Insulation used in Specification
Refurbishment:

external and internal
Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
wall insulation
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Bespoke timber cladding systems
Canadian Cedar cladding, A A A A A B A A A A A A A A 30 C A B A

timber framework BC B A A C B B A A A B C A A 30 C A B A
Timber cladding, timber framework ABC A A A A A A A A A A A C A 30 C A B A
Dry cladding systems

Aluminium/plastic board, ABC B B A A A C A B A A A A A 40 A B A B
aluminium framework
Aluminium/plastic board, A A A A A A B A A A A A A A 40 B B A B
steel framework BC B B B B A C A A B B B A A 40 B B A B
Epoxy resin laminate board, ABC C C C A A B B B C A A C A 30 C C B C
aluminium framework
Fibre cement board, aluminium AB A A A A A B A C A A A A A 40 A B A A
framework C B B B A A B A C B A A A A 40 A A A A
Terracotta rainscreen cladding, A A A A A A B A B A A A A A 30 A B A B
aluminium framework BC B B A C A C A B A B C A A 30 B B A B
Insulating render
Insulating lime render — C B B A C A C A A A A A C 30 C A A A
Internal wall Insulation

Steel framework, plasterboard ABC A A A A A A A B A A A A B 60 C A A A
Polymer-modified cementitious
render systems
Polymer-modified cementitious render, AB A A A A A A B B A A A A B 25 C A A A
glass wool mesh C B B B A A A A B B A A A B 25 C A A A
Polymeric coating systems

Polymeric coating, glass wool mesh A B B B A A B A A B A A B A 20 C C C C
BC C B C C A C A A B C C A A 20 C C C C
Traditional render
Sand/cement render, glass wool mesh ABC A A A A A A B C A A A A C 30 C A A A
30
Insulation
Insulation

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Corkboard insulation with density B B A A C A A A A A A A A £7–£11 C A C C
120 kg/m3
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) A A A A A A A A A A A A A £5–£7 C C C C
Extruded polystyrene (XPS) C C C A A A A A C A A A A £10–£12 C C C C
(HCFC free) with density
less than 40 kg/m3
Foamed glass insulation B A A A B A A A A A A A C £14–£17 C A A A
Glass wool insulation with density A A A A A A A A A A A A A £2–£10 C C C C
160 kg/m3 or less
Glass wool insulation with density B A A A C B B C A A B B A £11–£15 C C C C
over 160 kg/m3
Mineral wool insulation with density A A A A A A A A A A A A A £1–£15 B C C C
150 kg/m3 or less
Mineral wool insulation with density B A A A A B C A A A B C C £15–£30 B C C C
3
over 150 kg/m
Polyurethane insulation (PU) B B B C A C A A B C C A A £7–£8 C C C C
(HCFC free)
Recycled cellulose insulation A A A A A A A A A A A A A £2–£4 A C C C
Insulation 31
Insulation
Functional unit: 1 m2 of insulation materials Insulation is generally a material with very low density and only small masses
to provide a common thermal are needed to provide high levels of insulation. For this reason, the
performance, equivalent to 50 mm of contribution of the insulation to the impact of elements is generally small.
expanded polystyrene (EPS). However, for external and internal wall insulation (page 29) where the mass of
insulation is significant in comparison to the mass of other materials, and
when the selected insulation causes ozone depletion, the choice of insulation
will have a significant impact on the Summary Rating of an element.
Ozone-depleting insulation
Relative ozone depletion and climate One of the most important issues today relating to the environmental impacts
change impacts* of various blowing of insulation materials is the use of hydrochlorofluorocarbons, known as
agents HCFCs, to blow some foamed insulation products. These gases are used
Ozone Climate because they reduce the conductivity of closed cell foams and therefore
depletion change increase their thermal efficiency. They have replaced chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) which were used for the same reasons, but which have been phased
CFC-11 1 3400 out under the Montreal Protocol because of their effect on ozone depletion.
HCFC-142b 0.06 1600 However, as can be seen from the Table, left, HCFCs still deplete ozone and
HFC 0 300 are also very strong greenhouse gases. Because of this, the environmental
Pentane 0 0 impact of foams which use these gases are over three times greater than foams
Carbon dioxide 0 1 which use alternative blowing agents such as pentane or carbon dioxide.
* Ozone depletion and climate change impacts are explained in Because these ozone-depleting foams are so environmentally damaging, to
more detail in Appendix 2.
include them within the specifications for Insulation in the Table above would
completely skew the results: HCFC-blown foams would get C Summary
Ratings and all the other insulation would achieve A Summary Ratings. If
HCFC-blown foams were assessed using the Category range as used in the
Table, left, they would typically achieve E, F or G Summary Ratings.
Impacts of insulation
Low-density mineral wool, expanded polystyrene (EPS), corkboard and
The conductivities of the insulation recycled cellulose are all good performers due to their minimal processing
materials used are those which would be energy. Lower density mineral wools should be used in preference to denser
expected shortly after installation where mineral wools where possible as the environmental impact increases
good construction practice has been proportionally with their weight, particularly as their conductivity is relatively
followed. There is growing evidence to unaffected by density.
suggest that actual thermal performance Polyurethane (PU) and extruded polystyrene (XPS) are both very highly
can vary considerably, due to, for example: processed, but as polyurethane foams have lower conductivity, less foam is
● poor construction practice such as over- required to provide similar thermal resistance, resulting in a better
compression, leaving gaps, etc., environmental profile.
● the escape of HCFCs from closed cell
foams over very long timescales,
● moisture penetration,
● compression or contamination over time
by dust and dirt, particularly in lofts.
Until better information is available,

however, we are unable to consider these
variables.
32
Landscaping
Landscaping

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
Boundary protection
Brickwork wall, 1 brick thick C C C A C C C C C A C A B £160–£200 45 C A B A

Brickwork wall, 1/2 brick thick B B B A B B B B B A B A A £90–£159 30 C A B A
Drystone walling A A A A A A A B A A A A C £111–£230 60 C A C A
Galvanised steel post and wire strung A A A A A A A A A A A A A £8–10 20 C A A B
at 1 ft intervals
Galvanised steel railings B B B B A C A A C C B A A £90–100 45 C A A B
Galvanised wire chainlink fence with A A A A A A A A A A A A A £10–£12 30 C A A B
steel posts
Hedging or any living barrier A A A A A A A A A A A A A £16–£44 60 A A C A
Perforated concrete blockwork wall A B A A B A A A A A A A A 40 A C C A
Plastic coated chainlink fence with A A A A A A A A A A A A A £11–£13 20 C C A C
metal posts
Pre-treated timber close boarded A A A C B A A A A A A C A £16–£20 20 C B C A
fencing
Pre-treated timber palisade or picket A A A A A A A A A A A A A £14–£16 20 C B C A
fencing
Pre-treated timber post and panel A A A A B A A A A A A A A £25–£27 20 C B C A
fencing
Pre-treated timber post and rail A A A A A A A A A A A A A £8–£12 20 C B C A
fencing
Pre-treated timber post and trellis A A A A A A A A A A A A A £24–£26 15 C B C A
fencing
Stone and mortar wall B A A A A A C B A A A A C £112–£190 60 C A C A
Landscaping 33
Boundary protection
These ratings can be applied to boundary The perimeter of many gardens is long enough for the area of fencing or other
protection up to 2 m in height and where boundary protection to be comparable with the area of external wall of a
the specification is appropriate, to typical house. Boundary protection can therefore make a significant
balustrading. contribution to the overall impacts of a typical house.
As with many elements, performance generally reflects the mass of
material used. Stone walls, with low impacts from processing, still have the
highest impacts in terms of mineral extraction. The waste generated at the
end of life for the brickwork and stone and mortar walls is also high. The metal
chainlink and wire fences, despite metals having high impacts from
processing, still perform well because such low masses of metals are used. The
railings, which need a relatively higher mass of metal, have higher impacts.
All the timber used in these specifications has been pre-treated, ensuring
good protection against decay. Untreated timber could be used, with slightly
lower initial impacts; but it will have a shorter life and thus worse overall
performance over a 60-year life.
Living barriers, such as hedging or willow, are one of the best performers,
even taking account of a rigorous electrical trimming regime. In addition, they
will provide a very good environment for wildlife.
Landscaping

Minerals extraction
Summary Rating
Currently recycled
Freight transport
Water extraction
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Acid deposition
Waste disposal
Summer smog
Human toxicity
Recycled input
Eutrophication
Recyclability
Ecotoxicity
Cost
External surfacing: hard
Asphalt paving over prepared sub-base C C C A A C B A C C C A A £12–£17 30 C B B A

Brick pavers laid over prepared B C C A B A B A B A B A B £41–£48 30 C A A A
sub-base
Chipped wood or bark over prepared A A A A B A A A A A B C A £4–£8 5 C B B B
sub-base
In-situ concrete laid over prepared C C A A A B C B B A C A C £65–£77 25 C A A A
sub-base
Concrete pavers over prepared B A A A B A B B A A B A B £19–£27 30 C A A A
sub-base
Concrete paving slabs laid over prepared B A A A C A C B A A B A B £16–£23 25 C A A A
sub-base
Glass aggregate made from waste A A A A A A B A A A A A A £10–£20 10 B A A A
over prepared sub-base
Granite setts over prepared sub-base B A A A A A B B A A A A B £67–£72 40 C A A A
Gravel over prepared sub-base A A A A A A B A A A A A B £6–£9 10 C B B B
Pre-treated softwood timber decking A A A A C A A A A A B B A £30-60 20 C A B A
on concrete foundations
Proprietary grass concrete paving B A A A B A B C A A B A B £115–£159 30 C A A A
Stone paving flags over prepared B A A C A A B A A A B A B £73–£86 40 C A A A
sub-base
External surfacing: soft
Bark or wood chipping mulch A A A A A A A A A A A B A £1–£3 5 C C C C

Glass aggregate made from waste, A A A A C A B A A A B A A £8–£15 10 A A A A
used as mulch
Grass turf (includes mowing) A A A A B A A B A A A A A £4–£7 30 B A A A
Gravel or stone chipping mulch B A A A A A B B A A A A B £1–£3 10 C A A A
Low maintenance planting A A A A A A A A A A A A A £8–£17 15 B A A A
River pebbles A A A A C A A A A A B A A £2–£5 30 C C C C
Landscaping: external surfacing
Functional unit: 1 m2 of external surfacing This element has been split into two types: hard landscaping — suitable for a
drive or pathway, and soft landscaping — suitable for areas with little traffic.
However, the ratings are given for surfacing overall.
The areas of driveways, paths and landscaping completed by housebuilders
can be comparable to the areas of external walls for some houses. The choice
of specification of these areas can therefore significantly affect the overall
impacts of a typical house.
Planting does particularly well, even allowing for maintenance such as grass
mowing and watering. As with most of the elements involving heavyweight
materials, the materials with low impacts from processing such as stones tend
to perform better than the more processed materials such as asphalt.
35
Appendix 1
Life-cycle assessment
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a method used to measure and evaluate the

environmental burdens associated with a product system or activity, by
describing and assessing the energy and materials used and released into the
environment over the life-cycle of the product. The LCA method can be
broken down into three stages.
● Methodology definition
● Inventory analysis
● Impact assessment
Methodology definition
The first step in an LCA study is to consider the product system in question,
and define the methodology, functional unit and boundaries for the study.
This Guide uses the approach described in the BRE Methodology for
Environmental Profiles of construction materials, components and buildings
(Howard et al 1999). This Methodology is the result of a four-year project
funded by DETR and UK construction materials manufacturers. The industry
actively supported this work because they recognised that a single, ‘level
playing field’ methodology was necessary for the great range of products and
types of materials used in UK construction. The Methodology defines a
common basis for comparison as a square metre of construction element, eg
alternative specifications for an external wall, satisfying building regulations,
and built using good workmanship with good maintenance. In LCA jargon,
these are known as ‘functional units’ and they are equivalent in their role in
the building. The Green Guide uses the BRE Methodology’s Cradle to Grave
boundary. In other words, the data used incorporates the impacts from the
cradle, ie extraction (and including planting, where appropriate),
manufacturing, transportation, construction, maintenance, repair and
replacement over a 60-year building life, demolition, and finally to landfill or
incineration, ie the grave.
Inventory analysis
Inventory is a list of all the burdens: the inputs and outputs or emissions from a
process. Using the BRE Methodology, inventory analysis takes account of
any recycled input, any recycling or reuse of products after use, and allocation
of environmental burdens to any co-products from product systems, such as
the co-production of sodium hydroxide when manufacturing chlorine or the
slags from metal refining.
Impact assessment
Once the Inventory has been produced for a product system, the burdens can
be classified, ie they are assigned to the relevant environmental issues to
which they contribute. For example, the emission of methane contributes to
Examples of how environmental impacts both global warming and summer smog. When all the burdens have been
are ‘characterised’ and ‘normalised’ classified, they are then characterised. For each environmental issue, the
Using the United Nations’ Intergovernmental characterisation process evaluates the strength of the classified burdens using
Panel on Climate Change’s 100-year Global a common unit.
Warming Potentials, compared with carbon Because each issue has its own unit, it is still hard to compare the different
dioxide (CO2), methane has an effect issues. The characterised impacts for each issue are therefore compared with
21 times greater for the same mass of the corresponding impacts of a ‘norm’ — the Environmental Profiles
emission.
Methodology uses the impacts of one UK citizen. This process is known as
The units we use to measure global
normalisation.
warming are kilograms of CO2 equivalent
(kg CO2 eq100 years) so a classified emission Each impact is now a dimensionless proportion of the corresponding
of 1 tonne CO2 and 1 tonne methane would impact for one UK citizen and constructions can now be analysed by
be characterised to 1000 kg CO2 eq100 years comparing their normalised impacts in the selected environmental issue
and 21 000 kg CO2 eq100 years, respectively. categories.
The total climate change impact for the
UK is approximately 721 million tonnes of
CO2 eq100 years. Divided by the UK population
(approximately 65 million), this gives climate
change impact for one UK citizen of around
12 300 kg CO2 eq100 years. The normalised
impact of the emission of 1 tonne methane
described above would therefore be
21 000/12 300 = 1.7.
37
Appendix 2
Environmental issue categories
Climate change
Nine out of the 10 hottest years on record ‘Global warming’ is associated with problems of increased desertification,
occurred between 1983 and 1998. rising sea levels, climatic disturbance and spread in disease. It has been the
subject of major international activity, and methods for measuring it have
been presented by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Gases recognised as having a ‘greenhouse’ or global warming effect include
CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, methane and carbon dioxide. Their relative global
warming potential (GWP) is calculated by comparing their global warming
effect after 100 years to the simultaneous emission of the same mass of carbon
dioxide.

UK oil reserves are estimated to provide This issue reflects the depletion of the limited resource that fossil fuels
33 years’ consumption at current rates. represent. It is measured in terms of the primary fossil fuel energy needed for
each fuel.
Ozone depletion
Under the Montreal Protocol, CFC Ozone-depleting gases cause damage to stratospheric ozone or the ‘ozone
manufacture is banned after 2000 and layer’. There is great uncertainty about the combined effects of different gases
HCFCs will be phased out by 2015. in the stratosphere and all chlorinated and brominated compounds that are
stable enough to reach the stratosphere can have an effect. CFCs, Halons and
HCFCs are the major causes of ozone depletion. Damage to the ozone layer
reduces its ability to prevent ultraviolet (UV) light entering the earth’s
atmosphere, increasing the amount of harmful UVB light hitting the earth’s
surface.
Freight transport
The movement of freight causes congestion, noise, and discomfort to those
local to transport routes such as roads, ports or flight paths. All transport
modes are included with the same weighting, and the issue takes account of
both the distance travelled and the mass carried. This issue does not reflect
the impacts of energy use or emissions from each type of transport, which are
accurately accounted for within other relevant categories, eg fossil fuel
depletion.
Human toxicity
The emission of some substances such as heavy metals can have impacts on
human health. Assessment of toxicity has been based on tolerable
concentrations in air, air quality guidelines, tolerable daily intake and
acceptable daily intake for human toxicity.
Waste disposal
This issue reflects the depletion of landfill capacity, the noise, dust and odour
from landfill (and other disposal) sites, the gaseous emissions and leachate
pollution from incineration and landfill, the loss of resources from economic
use and risk of underground fires, etc.
Water extraction
This issue reflects the depletion, disruption or pollution of aquifers or
disruption or pollution of rivers and their ecosystems due to over abstraction.
Acid deposition
Acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) react with water in the atmosphere
to form ‘acid rain’, a process known as acid deposition. When this rain falls,
often a considerable distance from the original source of the gas, it causes
ecosystem impairment of varying degree, depending upon the nature of the
landscape ecosystems. Gases that cause acid deposition include ammonia,
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen fluoride, nitrous oxides and sulphur oxides.
Eutrophication (or ‘over-enrichment of water courses’)

Nitrates and phosphates are essential for life, but in increased concentrations
in water, they over-encourage the growth of algae, reducing the oxygen
within the water leading to increasing mortality of aquatic fauna and flora and
to loss of species dependent on low-nutrient environments. Emissions of
ammonia, nitrates, nitrous oxides and phosphorus to air or water all have an
impact on eutrophication.
Ecotoxicity
The emission of some substances such as heavy metals can have impacts on
the ecosystem. Assessment of toxicity has been based on maximum tolerable
concentrations in water for ecotoxicity.
Summer smog (or ‘low-level ozone creation’)

Because the reactions depend on sunlight and are common in polluted
atmospheres, this issue is known as ‘summer smog’.
In atmospheres containing nitrogen oxides (a common pollutant) and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone creation occurs under the
influence of radiation from the sun. Different VOCs, such as solvents,
methane or petrol, react to form ozone at different rates. Although ozone in
the upper part of the atmosphere is essential to prevent ultraviolet light
entering the atmosphere, increased ozone in the lower part of the atmosphere
is implicated in impacts as diverse as crop damage and increased incidence of
asthma and other respiratory complaints.
Minerals extraction
This issue reflects the total quantity of mineral resource extracted. This
applies to all minerals, including metal ore, and applies to both UK and
overseas extraction. The extraction of minerals for building in the UK is a high
profile environmental topic but the minerals themselves are not considered to
be scarce. Instead, this issue is a proxy for levels of local environmental impact
from mineral extraction such as dust and noise. It assumes that all mineral
extractions are equally disruptive of the local environment.
Further information
Further information on these issues, and the way they have been measured
and assessed is included in the BRE Methodology for Environmental Profiles of
construction materials, components and buildings.
39
Contacts and further information
● For further information on the environmental assessment of housing read:

Rao S, Yates A, Brownhill D & Howard N. EcoHomes: the environmental
rating for homes. Garston, CRC, 2000.
● For further information on the BREEAM portfolio of environmental
assessment tools for buildings, contact the BREEAM Office,
Tel 01923 664462 or visit http://products.bre.co.uk/breeam
● For further information on Environmental Profiles, visit
www.bre.co.uk/envprofiles
● For further information on software tools offering more detailed analysis of
building designs, including operational impacts of a building, visit
www.bre.co.uk/envest
● For further information on the sourcing of sustainable timber, contact
Forests Forever, Tel 020 7839 1891 or visit www.forestsforever.co.uk
● For further information on green specification for offices, read
Howard N & Shiers N with Sinclair M. The Green Guide to Specification.
Garston, BRE, 1998.
● For further information on sourcing of reclaimed and recycled materials,
visit the Materials Information Exchange at www.bre.co.uk/waste
The following publications offer useful advice on the environmental

impacts of individual materials:
● Green Building Digest, issued by Department of Architecture, Queens
University Belfast. Tel: 028 9033 5466 www.qub.ac.uk/arc/research/gbd
● Woolley et al. Green Building Handbook. London, E & F N Spon, 1997
(compendium of the first 12 editions of Green Building Digest).
● Woolley et al. Green Building Handbook. Volume 2. London, E & F N Spon,
2000 (compendium of editions 13 to 20 of Green Building Digest).
● Anink, Boonstra & Mak. Handbook of Sustainable Building. London,
James & James, 1996.
Key references
All figures in this report, unless otherwise referenced, are derived from the
following publications, either directly or through analysis carried out by BRE
in research for this and other projects.
Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe and the European Centre for

Plastics in the Environment. Plastics in perspective. Brussels, APME, August 1991.
http://lca.apme.org
BRE. The BRE Database of Environmental Profiles, www.bre.co.uk/envprofiles
British Geological Survey. United Kingdom minerals yearbook 1996. British Geological
Survey. 1997.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association. Environmental impact
of building and construction materials. London, CIRIA, June 1995:
● Volume B Mineral products,
● Volume C Metals,
● Volume D Plastics and elastomers,
● Volume E Timber and timber products,
● Volume F Paints and coatings, adhesives and sealants.
Department of Energy. Energy use and energy efficiency in UK manufacturing industry up
to the year 2000. Volume 2. London, The Stationery Office. 1984.
Department of Energy and Department of Industry. Energy Audit Series. London, The
Stationery Office.
● Glass Industry, No 5, June 1979.
● The Cement Industry, No 11, July 1980.
● The Iron and Steel Industry, No 16, April 1982.
Department of the Environment. Housing and construction statistics 1988–1998.
London, The Stationery Office.
Department of the Environment and The Welsh Office. The Building Regulations 1991,
Approved Document E, 1992 edition. London, The Stationery Office, 1991.
Department of the Environment and The Welsh Office. The Building Regulations 1991,
Approved Document L, 1995 edition. London, The Stationery Office, 1991.
Department of Trade and Industry. The digest of UK energy statistics. London,
The Stationery Office, 1998.
Department of Transport. Transport statistics of Great Britain 1995. London,
E & F N Spon. Spon’s architects’ and builders’ price book 1999 (Tender Index 325).
London, E & F N Spon, 1999.
Ecobilan. European ecolabel for paints and varnishes. Pilot project carried out by the
Ecobilan for the Ministry of Environment in France.
Environmental Toxicology International. All fired up-burning hazardous waste in cement
kilns. Seattle (USA), Environmental Toxicology International Inc.
EUMEPS, Syndicat National des Plastiques, Alveolaires (SNPA). Expanded
polystyrene and the environment. Paris, Syndicat National des Plastiques, Alveolaires (SNPA),
1990.
Eyre N J & Michaelis L A. The impact of UK electricity, gas and oil use on global warming.
Strategic Studies Department, Energy Technology Support Unit, 1991.
Forests Forever/TTF. Directory of national forest policies. London, Forests Forever/TTF,
1997.
Friends of the Earth. The good wood guide. Friends of the Earth Handbook. Friends of the
Earth, 1996.
Government Statistical Service. The digest of environmental statistics, No 20. London,
Howard N, Edwards S & Anderson J. The BRE Environmental Profiles Methodology for
construction materials, components and buildings. Garston, CRC, 1999.
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Minerals, metals and the environment. Oxford,
Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
Metallgesellschaft AG. Metal Statistics 1981–1991. 69th edition. Frankfurt-am-Main,
Metallgesellschaft AG, 1992.
NETCEN. UK greenhouse gas emission inventory, 1990–1995. Salway, NETCEN, 1997.
Norman C K. UK Year Book of Timber Statistics 1983–85. London, Timber Trade
Foundation, 1987.
Norsk Hydro AS. PVC and the environment. Oslo, Norway, Petrochemical division, Norsk
Hydro AS, September 1992.
Ove Arup. Occurrence and utilisation of mineral and construction wastes. London, Arup
Economics and Planning, 1991
UK Iron and Steel Statistics Bureau. UK Iron and Steel Industry Annual Statistics 1991.
Location, publisher?
West J M. The reduction of carbon dioxide emission and energy consumption in the
manufacture of cements: a review. Garston, BRE, April 1991.

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Whilst every care has been

BRE material is also published quarterly on CD Construction Research Communications

Christopher Mills, NHBC Director, Technical Services

Why this book?

UK energy consumption 1995 UK waste generation Industry (including building

Municipal and commercial

Information presentation within The Green Guide

Environmental issues covered in The Green Guide

Environmental issues and production of building materials concerns

How Green Guide ratings are assessed

Profiles have therefore been presented in a straightforward way, to enable

demand for a Summary Rating, reflecting overall environmental performance.

Weighting of environmental issues

The information on recycling has been presented as A B C ratings calculated

Reclaimed or recycled materials

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling

Framed wall construction

Brickwork outer leaf, insulation, A A A A A A B A A A A A A £50–£70 60 C A A A

Framed wall construction

Insulation used in framed construction

Use of reclaimed materials

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling

Brickwork outer leaf, aerated blockwork B B A A A B B B A A A A A £49–£71 60 B A A A

Cavity and solid masonry wall construction

Insulation used in cavity wall construction

Use of reclaimed materials

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling

Pitched roof construction

Clay tiles, battens, sarking felt on A A A C B A A A A A A A A £32–£67 60 C A C A

Pitched roof construction

Use of reclaimed materials

Insulation used in pitched roof construction

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling

Chipboard or OSB decking on timber A A A A A A A A A A A B A £43–£58 30 A B C B

Flat roof construction

Insulation used in flat roof construction

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling

Concrete ground floor

Chipboard or OSB decking on insulation C C C C A C A A C C C C A £42–£70 20 C A A A

Concrete ground floor construction

Use of reclaimed materials

Insulation used in ground floor construction

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling

Chipboard or OSB decking on timber B C C C A B A A C C C C A £31–£67 20 A A C A

Suspended timber ground floor construction

Use of recycled materials

Insulation used in ground floor construction

Typical replacement interval

Energy saved by recycling