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Bay Area Microwave Technology for Defense
Developments in the Cold War Years
E. James Crescenzi, Jr.
Central Coast Microwave Design; Cambria, CA, 93428
Abstract - The San Francisco Bay Area has long been
recognized for entrepreneurship in "high tech" industries, and
more specifically for innovative contributions to microwave
technology. This was particularly true with regards to the
application of this technology to defense requirements and
programs. This article will broadly review the development of
defense-related microwave technology and the associated
industry in the SF Bay Area, in the last 50 years.
Index Terms - History, defense industry, SF Bay Area.
I. INTRODUCTION
The defense industry in the SF Bay Area (and elsewhere in the
US) was the result of three primary influences: a) military
requirements and the associated demands placed on
technology, b) innovations and advances in applicable
technology, and c) the entrepreneurial, managerial, and
organizational contributions of institutions and industry.
The history of microwave technology in the SF Bay Area
certainly reflects these factors. The region has been widely
viewed as an exemplary center of entrepreneurial activity.
Considering the time period beginning 50 years ago, the overt
hostilities of the Korean War had ceased (1954), and we were
about to experience Sputnik (October 4, 1957). The Korean
War reinforced the criticality of air power (including air-to-air
conflict), and the later Vietnam experience demonstrated the
vulnerability of aircraft to ground-to-air missiles. The space
race began in this period, including President Kennedy's
declaration of the goal to place a human explorer on the moon,
to be followed by numerous public and covert space programs.
There was an ongoing effort to prepare for (and, if possible,
avoid) the fearsome possibility of a third world war with our
anticipated adversary being the Soviet Union. From a
microwave engineering perspective, there was a seemingly
endless stream of new programs and technology initiatives
involving advances in communications, radar, surveillance,
ECM (electronic countermeasures), and EW (electronic
warfare). Add to this mix of requirements the advances in
microwave technology including vacuum electronics (TWTs
and BWOs in the 50s and 60s), the availability of powerful
measurement tools (spectrum analyzers, sources, VNAs, etc.),
solid-state devices (Gunn diodes, GaAs FETs, LNAs, YIGs,
VCOs, mixers, etc.), hybrid integrated circuitry, MMICs,
receiver technology - a bountiful progression of advances, and
one has an amazing era of opportunity. These advances were
intertwined with a budding culture of entrepreneurial activity,
investment expansion, risk taking, and employment mobility,
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which later grew to culture-changing proportions in the 90s.
Indeed, the cold-war era came to an end (1991) and by the mid
90s the landscape was strewn with downsized or defunct
companies which had been dependent on the defense market.
This was conveniently followed by the dot-com era and later
manifestations of what we now refer to as "globalization".
II. THE BAY AREA TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY
Microwave and earlier radio technology in our area has its
roots extending back nearly a century [1]. The most famous of
our "microwave" companies pre-dating WWII include Litton
Electronics (1934), and Hewlett-Packard (1939). Although
the invention by Russell and Sigurd Varian of the klystron
occurred in 1937 (at Stanford), Varian Associates wasn't
founded until 1948. Dalmo Manufacturing (later Dalmo-
Victor) developed airborne and submarine antennas that were
widely applied in the WWII era. Many talented inventors and
academics moved to eastern laboratories during WWII, to
return after the war's conclusion with entrepreneurial zeal and
skill in obtaining government sponsorship for defense related
technology.
Certain institutions are widely recognized for their leadership
in the Bay Area. Hewlett Packard Co. was often cited as a
model to emulate in our industry for its technical leadership,
and for employee motivation and professionalism [2].
Stanford University (under Fred Terman's leadership) is
credited for pioneering the linkage between university
research and industry formation [3]. Of course, the history of
Silicon Valley later became dominated by computers and
semiconductor integrated circuits [4].
This paper will attempt to provide a perspective of the
microwave engineering experience in the San Francisco Bay
Area, and the local industry that served the defense market.
The author's first experience with this defense industry was as
a lieutenant in the USAF in 1962-65 when he was assigned to
monitor receiver equipment testing at Melabs, Applied
Technology Inc., and Watkins-Johnson Co. His government
supervisors made it clear that the Stanford Electronic Labs and
the several companies in the Stanford Industrial Park were at
the forefront of developments in electronic warfare. After
witnessing final testing of a millimeter-wave receiver at ATI
in 1965, the program/marketing manager (Larry Theilen) and
engineering manager (Franz McVay) announced they were
leaving ATI to form a startup, which was to be Avantek.
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Perhaps no company better typified the accelerated growth the advancement of defense-related endeavors. Compact
and leveraging of microwave technology in the 70s and 80s. Software developed the most widely applied microwave
It was noted for technical excellence and aggressive software of the mainframe computer era (70s and early 80s).
marketing, but later succumbed to the severe boom and bust Numerous in-house microwave CAD programs were
cycle that became all too common in "Silicon Valley". contributed to microwave design in that period.
A comprehensive review of the developments in microwave TABLE 1
defense electronics in the SF Bay Area exceeds the scope of A PARTIAL LIST OF BAY-AREA COMPANIES INVOLVED IN
this brief paper. Rather, an attempt is made to list the DEFENSE APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY
companies headquartered in the Bay Area, and to review
highlights of pivotal programs and technologies, as Litton Electronics CPI
determined from interviews of associates and other local Hewlett Packard (Agilent) Ferretek
contributors. Much of the era precedes the widespread Stanford Research Institute - SRI Ferrotek
adaptation of electronic records and web-facilitated search Dalmo-Victor YIG-TEK
capabilities. Varian Associates Micro-Lambda
Lockheed Compact Software
Lenkurt (later GTE-Lenkurt) Comm. Trans. Corp - CTC
III. BRIEF REVIEW OF THE SF BAY AREA DEFENSE INDUSTRY Ford Aerospace (later Space Acrian
Systems, LORAL) OmniYig
Major government sources of funding for development of Applied Technology Inc. CTT
microwave components included the three branches of the Sylvania Electronic Labs Zeta Labs
armed services (Army, Navy, Air Force), the Defense (later GTE Government Systems) Applied Signal Technology
Advanced Research Programs Agency (DARPA), NASA, and Watkins-Johnson Dexcel
the intelligence agencies. Funding extended from basic Microwave Electronics Co. -MEC Microwave Technology-MwT
research to many developmental efforts. Perhaps the most (later Teledyne MEC) Akon
famous (and meritorious) microwave R&D program in the Melabs GHz Technology
Bay Area was the sponsorship by the US Army Electronic Eimac Celeritek
Research Laboratory of filter technology development at Alfred Electronics Harris Microwave
Stanford Research Institute (SRI), which resulted in the classic Farinon Electric Magnum Microwave
publication by Matthaei, Young, and Jones [5]. This work Physical Electronics Labs - PEL Microwave Power
laid the technical foundation for many entrepreneurial Stewart Engineering Pacific Measurements
activities. A history of passive component development is Aertech Labs Giga-tronics
provided in [6]. Relcom Condor Systems
UP Associates MMD (Microwave Modules
Major programs were often aimed at the development of Argo Systems & Devices)
specific operational systems. Funding from a broad array of Avantek Pacific Monolithics
government offices was essential to university laboratories, as SLAC Spinnaker Microwave
well as to the core research activities of small and large ESL Cougar
companies. Most company R&D department managers were Addington Labs Stellex (now MA-Com)
familiar with several government sponsors. They would visit California Microwave Endgate (Endwave)
potential sponsors to generate interest in their core Western Microwave Marki Microwave
capabilities, prepare white papers, and respond to government Wiltron (Anritsu) Conductus
RFQs (requests for quotes). Competition for funding was Systron Donner Omega Microwave
intense, particularly for larger programs associated with major Stanford Telecom
military systems. For example, each new aircraft would
typically require a specialized avionics suite which resulted in Most companies were founded on the basis of excellence in
large development and manufacturing programs. Many of the particular specialties - a niche. For example, Watkins-
Bay Area companies had core expertise in certain technologies Johnson originally produced very low noise traveling wave
that resulted in component and subsystem products that were tubes. Argo Systems was noted for IFM receivers; Applied
typically sold to larger companies who specialized in turn-key Technology for airborne radar warning receivers; ESL offered
systems. Examples of component (or device) - oriented outstanding signal processing and direction finding systems;
companies includes Varian Associates, Watkins-Johnson Co., Sylvania Electronic Labs excelled in ground-based and
and Avantek. System-oriented examples include Lockheed, submarine-based reconnaissance systems; Avantek offered
Ford Aerospace, Applied Technology, ESL, etc. Table 1 lists excellent transistor amplifiers and oscillators; Aertech Labs
a sampling of our many companies. Several (UP and Wiltron, led in tunnel diode amplifiers; YigTek in yittrium iron garnet
for example) served primarily commercial markets, but their filters and oscillators; Ford Aerospace in complex satellite
instruments and basic technology contributed significantly to communications systems, etc., to note a few examples. Others

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companies are difficult to categorize. Litton Industries, for
example, began as a tube company and expanded to include
solid-state devices and full systems capabilities (and grew
through many acquisitions). Most successful companies
evolved and expanded into multiple areas.
Numerous bay-area companies have gone through name
changes, acquisitions, and/or mergers, so that most of the
names listed in Table 1 are no longer current [7]. Corporate
turmoil is such an inherent feature of the Bay Area psyche that
many of the companies listed in Table 1 no longer exist as
separate entities. Only a small number of microwave
companies in the Bay Area are currently defense-focused.
IV. SIGNIFICANT MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGIES
Microwave technology in the Bay Area is part home-grown,
part imported, and often reflects a diffuse heritage. The
mobility of key scientists and engineers and collaborations at
SRI and elsewhere accelerated this process. A review and
ranking of the most significant technologies is beyond the
scope of this paper, but a few examples are offered as
illustrative. Our heritage in vacuum electronics ("tubes") is
particularly outstanding [1], and includes such famous
contributors as Charles Litton and Russell and Sigurd Varian.
Many tube advances occurred during the pre- and post-WWII
era, although significant development continues to this day.
TWTs were the multi-octave preamplifier of choice in the 50s
thru mid 70s. An example of a particularly sophisticated
application was the SHRIKE anti-radiation missile
preamplifier assembly that included three phase and amplitude
matched TWTs (manufactured in significant quantity by W-J).
While W-J was noted for low noise TWTs, others including
Varian and MEC (Teledyne) led in high power TWT
technology widely applied in jammer systems. High power
vacuum electronics continues to be a productive industry,
whereas solid-state devices are now used for low noise and
medium power applications.
Many of our local companies contributed to the development
and product evolution of solid-state amplifiers, oscillators,
tunable filters, receivers, and various complex systems. The
early work at SRI [5] included electronically tunable filters
based on Yittrium Iron Garnet (YIG) resonance, which was
adapted and creatively improved by numerous individuals and
companies. Initially these were combined with TWTs to
advance surveillance receiver sensitivity and immunity to
interference by strong signals, and later with Gunn diodes and
bipolar and field-effect transistors as tunable solid state
oscillators with high spectral purity. Amplifiers, oscillators,
and mixers were critical elements in both commercial and
defense applications. Work on thin film circuit fabrication at
UP Labs and outside our region (specifically from TI's MERA
program) was quickly adapted and improved by such bay area
companies as Avantek (staffed by ex-HP and TI engineers)
3
and by W-J. The emergence of three terminal active devices
(Si bipolars and later GaAs FETs) was key, as these devices
were far more applications-friendly than earlier two-terminal
devices (Gunn, avalanche, varactor and tunnel diodes, for
example). There was a huge emphasis on populating systems
with solid-state amplifiers (to replace TWTs) and oscillators
(to replace BWOs) in the 70s and 80s.
An example of the creative interplay between device, circuit,
and process technology is the development by J. Sterrett and
co-workers (Avantek, early 70s) of the "unit amplifier" - a
feedback amplifier that operated to >500 MHz and was easily
mass produced using a Si bipolar transistor die and a small
thin-film integrated circuit, in a low cost hermetic package.
Whole product lines of unit (or "cascadable") amplifiers
evolved at several companies. These building block (lower
cost) products contrasted with the more complex and often
specialized multi-stage amplifier assemblies that were
developed for many military applications. Examples include
low-noise radar amplifiers, and medium power TWT
replacement amplifiers, and wideband (2-8, 6-18 GHz) amps
for various avionics systems. The wideband solid-state
amplifier industry generally integrated transistor die in multi-
stage thin-film hybrid assemblies. The compact interdigitated
3 dB coupler invented by J. Lange at TI facilitated this
approach, which was widely exploited by Bay Area
companies. During the 70s and 80s, in-house device
fabrication (in particular GaAs FET and MMIC) was widely
considered essential to leverage proprietary device capability
into unique products. Over a dozen GaAs fabs existed at one
point in the Bay Area, although only a few specialized low-
volume capabilities exist here today.
The emergence of "subsystem" (multi-function assembly)
capability became especially critical for miniaturization and
performance enhancement for airborne and missile
applications. The APR-38, and AMRAAM systems, for
example, benefited greatly from this integration effort.
Components properly integrated without coaxial cables
achieved new levels of electrical performance, as well as size
and weight reduction. The challenge of evolving from
producers of components to integrators of higher level
functionality proved to be particularly critical for a company's
growth and survival. Interestingly, this evolution often
involved interdisciplinary contributions (mechanical design,
materials science, CAD, automated test, reliability,
interconnect technologies, mass production disciplines, etc.)
that went beyond what one classically considered as
"microwaves". Mastering such subsystem capability proved
essential if annual sales were to reach $1 OOM.
V. EXAMPLES OF SIGNIFICANT DEFENSE PROGRAMS
The number of defense programs that resulted in contracts to
microwave companies in the Bay Area surely numbered in the
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thousands. Only a few are listed in Table 2, for which the
selection process was primarily the author's personal
knowledge and that of associates interviewed in preparation of
this article. They provide some insight into the types of
programs that supported our local industry. Highly classified
programs (particularly space programs) are surely under
represented in the list.
Survival in the defense industry often depended on being
awarded major programs with follow-on manufacturing. Few
companies could exist on development contracts alone,
although the development efforts were a critical element of
these high tech businesses. Of equal importance to winning
programs with large follow-on potential was avoiding costly
development efforts that incurred delays or cancellation of
production. The defense business was often a high risk
venture.
TABLE 2
EXAMPLES OF MAJOR DEFENSE PROGRAMS WITH
SIGNIFICANT IMPACT IN THE SF BAY AREA
* ALR-46 Radar Warning Receiver (RWR)
* 466L & FLR- 12 ground based surveillance systems
(1960s)
* QRC259 reconnaissance system
* B-52 EW upgrade programs
* Shrike Missile AGM-45
* USAF F4G Wild Weasel ECM suite (APR-38)
* ALR-69 RWR
* ALQ1 19 & ALQ13 1 jamming pods
* Space Shuttle Avionics
* Standard Missile, AIM-7, RIM-7
* AMRAAM (AIM- 120) air-to-air missile
* ALQ- 151 ASPJ (airborne self protection jammer)
* HARM High-speed Anti-Rad. Missile (AGM-88)
* AN/SLQ-32 Navy EW System
* F 15E ALQ- 135 (countermeasures system)
* F16 Radar (APG-66 and APG-68)
* ALQ-126 jammer system
* TPQ-36, TPQ-37 mortar locating radar.
* AN/TRC- 170 Troposcatter microwave terminals
* Global Positioning Satellite (GPS)
* MMIC Program (DARPA)
* Aegis SPY- ID (ship phased array radar system)
* Voyager Satellite
* DSCS-3 (Defense Strategic Comm. Satellite)
* Patriot Missile radar
* B lB Avionics Suite
It was typical for the critical specifications and goals of new
defense programs to exceed the current state-of-the-art! The
contractor was expected to devise new approaches and designs
that one could reasonably project as accomplishing the new
goals. One program that was particularly challenging was the
low noise preamplifier for the F16 radar. It required achieving
a noise figure several tenths dB below the then current art,
while also incorporating an integral protective limiter (with
associated insertion loss). Several companies competed
vigorously for the honor of achieving the new benchmark, and
manufacturing the preamplifiers while avoiding a loss proved
to be challenging. Missile electronics were particularly
competitive, as the follow-on production awards could be
large and continue for decades. The AMRAAM program, for
example, resulted in advances in subsystem integration which
achieved new functionality in small space with light weight.
Platforms such as this often involved multiple product
improvement phases that extended operational effectiveness.
VII. Conclusion
Engineers who worked in the microwave industry in the SF
Bay Area contributed to many notable technical advances, and
participated in an era of vigorous entrepreneurial activity.
This article has attempted to provide a general review of the
activity of the last 50 years, and to offer a perspective about
the overall professional experience of microwave engineers.
A few observations about current microwave defense industry
opportunities will be included in the oral presentation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge contributions to this article
by Frank Emery, Keith Gilbert, Barry Bakner, Rick Gold, and
Gary Policky.
REFERENCES
[1] Ward Winslow, The Making of Silicon Valley: A One Hundred
Year Renaissance, The Santa Clara Valley Historical
Association, 1995.
[2] David Packard, The HP Way - How Bill Hewlett and I Built Our
Company, Harper Collins Publishers, 1995.
[3] C. S. Gillmor, Fred Terman at Stanford - Building a Discipline,
a University, and Silicon Valley, Stanford University Press,
2004
[4] Michael S. Malone, The Valley of Heart's Delight: A Silicon
Valley Notebook,, John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
[5] G. L. Matthaei, Leo Young, E. M. T. Jones, Microwave Filters,
Impedance-Matching Networks, and Coupling Structures,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.
[6] Harlan Howe, Jr., "Passive Components: A Brief History",
Microwave Journal, Nov. 2005.
[7] The list of companies in Table 1 is sure to be incomplete.
Apologies are offered to those who were overlooked.