STEMS

A. AXILLARY BUD
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES  located in the axil.
 may become branches or may develop
a. Discuss the internal and external
into flowers.
morphology of stems.
B. TERMINAL BUD
b. Discuss the parts and functions of the
 present at the tip of each twig.
stems.
 produces tissues that extend the length
c. Discuss the specialized stems.
of a twig.

STEMS 4. STIPULES
 the organ of the plant that holds structures  paired leaf-like appendages at the base of
such as leaves, flowers, and fruits. the petiole
 important in photosynthesis because
leaves need to be held up to the sun to get 5. LEAF SCAR
light and because flowers need to be  scar left by a fallen leaf.
available to pollinators.
 also carry water and minerals from the 6. BUNDLE SCARS
roots to the leaves so that photosynthesis  scars that mark the location of the water-
can take place and food from the leaves conducting tissues located within the leaf
can be transported downward to be stored scars.
and distributed to the other parts of the
plant. 7. LENTICLES
 have nodes and internodes.  dark spots or elevations that allow gas
 node is the part of a stem to which leaves exchange in the stem.
are attached
 internode is the part found in between two
nodes.

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
 stems carry out the critical functions of
support and transport.

Parts and Functions of a Stem

1. NODE
 area or region where leaves are attached.
MONOCOT VS DICOT STEM
2. INTERNODE MONOCOT STEM
 area or region between nodes.  Most monocot plants do not attains big
 A stalk, called the petiole, attaches the leaf sizes.
blade to the stem.  stems do not produce cork
 surfaces of the stems are covered by an
3. BUD epidermis.
 angle between the petiole and the stem.
 stems elongate rapidly during growing
seasons but with little difference between
the diameters of the top and the bottom.
DICOT STEM
 Dicot stems are usually characterized by
distinctive nodes and internodes and
exhibit different types of leaf arrangement.
 Lenticels are prominent structure.
INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
 increase in the in the number and size of
cells in in the apical meristem or
promeristem results in the elongation of the
young shoot.
 With this increase in number and size,
differentiation occurs, i.e., the cells change
morphologically and physiologically from
the meristematic type where they came
from.
THREE TYPES OF PRIMARY
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
i. Protoderm
ii. Ground meristem
iii. Procambium
YOUNG DICOT STEMS (HERBACEOUS AND
WOODY)
 Primary growth brings about the elongation
of stems and establishes the basic patterns
of cells.
Dicot stems are composed of THREE main
regions:
1. EPIDERMAL REGION
 a single superficial layer of cells that covers
all other primary tissues.
 outer wall of cells exposed to air is usually
covered with a waxy substance called
cutin.
 made up of epidermal cells, guard cells,
and epidermal hairs or trichomes.
2. CORTEX
 a complex region derived from the ground
meristem, next to the epidermis.
 consists of large, thin-walled parenchyma
or may also acquire collenchyma,
schlerenchyma, and some secretory cells.
3. VASCULAR CYLINDER OR STELE
 the innermost tissue region of the stem
composed of the primary vascular tissues,
 primary phloem and primary xylem.
 In some, the primary vascular tissues may
be formed like separate rings.
 Each group is called a vascular bundle.
 A fascicular cambium is located in between
two bundles.
 centermost portion is the pith, composed
mostly of large parenchymatous cells with
numerous intercellular spaces.
OLD WOODY DICOT STEM
 In perennial dicots (shrubs and trees), the
vascular cambium and cork cambium
become active and give rise to new cells
after the primary tissues have been fully
formed.
 increase in diameter or thickness of stem is
called secondary growth.
 Herbaceous plants do not undergo this
type of growth.
 In a dicot stem, the fascicular cambium
becomes meristematic, forms a strip of
interfascicular cambium on either side, and
eventually forms a cambium ring that gives
rise to new cells on both sides.
 cut off on the outer side become secondary
phloem.
 new cells that are cut off on the inner side
of the cambium form the secondary xylem
or wood.
 cambium is more active on the inner side
and so the main bulk of the dicot stem is
composed of secondary xylem after the
secondary growth.
 Primary xylem remains more or less intact
in or around the center of the stem.
 primary and secondary tissues may still be
present in old dicot stems.
ANNUAL RINGS
 activity of the cambium in plants is not the
same throughout the year.
 depends upon the climatic condition of the
area.
 annual rings greatly differ in temperate and
tropical countries.
 In temperate countries, the cambium
during spring is more active and forms a
large number of vessels with wider cavities.
 wood formed during the spring is called
during springwood.
 During inactive periods, the vessels that
are produced are smaller in size.
 wood formed during these times is called
summerwood.
 two types of wood form concentric rings
known as annual rings or growth rings.
 Successive annual rings are formed every
year.
 In tropical countries like the Philippines, the
activity of the cambium does not vary
greatly, two pronounced seasons, the wet
and dry seasons.
HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD
 In old trees, central region of secondary
wood is filled with tannin and other
substances called heartwood.
 physiologically inactive in most plants.
 dark in color because of the presence of
tannins, oils, gums, resins
 functions for mechanical support.
 outer region of secondary wood is lighter in
color, physiologically active and known as
sapwood.
 transport water and minerals from roots to
the leaves.

MONOCOT STEM
 lack secondary growth.
 only have primary permanent tissues.

TYPICAL MONOCOT STEM IS COMPRISED

THE PERIDERM
 protective tissue that replaces the
epidermis upon maturity.
 Radial expansion resulting from secondary
growth eventually ruptures the epidermis of
stems and roots.
 ruptured epidermis is replaced by the
periderm, which is a suberized layer that
protects underlying tissues.
 periderm consists of three tissues, the
phellogen (cork cambium), phellem (cork)
and phelloderm (secondary cortex).
 cork cambium gives rise to the cork.
 Cork cells are dead, suberized and thick-
walled.
 They are impervious to water and may
slough off upon maturity.
 bark consists of all dead tissues outside
the cork cambium.
 composed of the epidermis, lenticels, cork,
and sometimes a hypodermis.
 bark has small pores for gas exchange
called lenticels.
OF THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES:
1. EPIDERMIS
 single-celled, outermost layer of the stem.
 Cuticle may be present or absent.
 Stomata may also be found.
2. CORTEX
 large, thin-walled undifferentiated
parenchyma cells.
 below the epidermis, a few layers of
collenchyma/schlerenchyma cells forming
the hypodermis may be found
3. VASCULAR CYLINDER
 vascular bundles are scattered.
 found in large numbers in the ground
tissue, and are greater in number towards
the periphery than in the center.
 vascular bundles called closed bundles
have one xylem and phloem with the
cambium layer absent.

SPECIALIZED STEMS
 stems may be modified in various ways to
perform special functions are called
specialized or metamorphosed stems.
 may become adapted for functions other
than their primary functions of support and
transport of substances within the plant.
 may be modified in various ways to
perform these special functions.
 overall appearance may be different from
that of the typical aerial stem, but they all
have nodes, internodes, and axillary buds.
 Modifications of the stem may be observed
in underground, sub-aerial, and aerial
stems.
SPECIALIZED STEMS: FOR STORAGE
 thick and fleshy, with a lot of reserve
material
 function as organs of storage, and are also
used in vegetative
reproduction/propagation.
1. RHIZOME
 horizontal stem which grows near the
surface of the soil.
Example: Zingiber officinale
2. TUBERS
 enlarged ends of special underground
branches.
 tuber has several "eyes."
 "eyes" are actually nodes organized in a
spiral
 arrangement around the modified stem.
 Each "eye" consists of an axillary bud in
the axil in a scale-like leaf, can develop into
a new plant.
Example: Solanum tuberosum
3. BULB
 shoot system of onions is called bulb.
 a short, compact stem that bears a cluster
of
 broad, fleshy leaves.
 bulbs are short stems that are encased in
thickened and fleshy leaves.
Example: Allium cepa
4. CORM
 underground stem which is short, stout,
solid, and more or less rounded in shape.
 filled with stored food and grows in vertical
direction.
 Nodes are indicated by scale leaves.
 Small buds occur in the axil of some of the
papery scale-like leaves.
Example: Colocasia sp.
SPECIALIZED STEMS: FOR ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
 used for various vegetative propagation.
1. RUNNER
 slender prostrate branch with long or short
internodes, creeping on the ground and
rooting at the nodes.
Example: Fragaria × ananassa
2. STOLON
 slender lateral branch originating from an
underground stem and growing horizontally
outwards.
 branches may grow out in different
directions and lengths, emerge out of the
ground, and develop into new plants.
 stolon resembles a runner in all respects
except that it is subterranean, while the
runner is sub-aerial.
Examples: Mentha spicata, Jasminum
officinale
3. OFFSET
 originates in the axil of a leaf as a short,
more or less thickened, horizontal branch.
 elongates only to a certain extent and
produces at the apex a tuft of leaves and a
cluster of small roots below.
Examples: Pistia stratiotes and
Eichhornia crassipes
4. SUCKER
 also a lateral branch developing from the
underground part of the stem.
 grows obliquely upwards and directly gives
rise to a leafy shoot or a new plant
 Occasionally, it grows horizontally outward
only to a certain extent, but soon it turns up
Examples: Chrysanthemum indicum,
Musa sp., and subfamily
Bambusoideae.
SPECIALIZED STEMS: FOR PROTECTION,
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, AND SUPPORT
 In some plants the vegetative and floral
buds, which would normally develop into
branches and flowers, are greatly modified
to perform various functions
FOLLOWING KINDS:
1. TENDRILS
 thin, leafless, spirally curved branch by
which climbers attach themselves to other
objects.
Examples: Lagenaria siceraria,
Cucurbita maxima, and Momordica
charantia
2. SPINES AND THORNS
 modified into hard, straight, pointed
structures called spines and thorns.
 In Citrus limon, Rosa, and Citrus maxima,
the axillary bud is modified into a thorn.
 Spines sometimes may be modifications of
leaf parts e.g Cactaceae
3. CLADOPHYLLS
 stems are flattened and leaf-like in
appearance.
 the center of each cladophyll is a node,
bearing very small scale-like leaves with
axillary buds
Example: Asparagus officinalis
4. PHYLLOCLADES
 found in plants whose leaves are very
small, may fall off early, or modify into
spines.
 take over the functions of the leaves,
particularly photosynthesis.
Examples: Opuntia and other cacti
TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
 If a young stem is cut from a plant and
placed in a dye solution, the molecules of
the dye will be taken up by the xylem
tissues and transported upward.
 xylem cells transporting the dye can be
easily seen in transverse sections of the
stem.
 proves that water and minerals move from
the roots to all parts of the plant.
THREE LEVELS OF TRANSPORT OF
SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS:
1. PASSIVE AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 In passive transport, there is no
expenditure of energy.
 process is spontaneous.
 starts from the region of high water
potential (soil) to the region of lower water
potential (cell).
 In active transport, the cells spend energy
to carry substances into the cells.
Examples of these are ionic pump and
co-transport
2. SHORT DISTANCE TRANSPORT
 In plants, short-distance transport of
substances between cells within the same
tissue or organ takes place in three ways:
a. CELL-TO-CELL
 substances move out of the cell across
the cell wall and into its neighboring
cells
 b. SYMPLAST
 water and minerals move between
neighboring cells by passing across the
cytoplasm until they reach the xylem
tissues.
 continuum of cytoplasm between cells is
joined by channels called plasmodesmata
C. APOPLAST
 water and minerals move across
neighboring cells by passing through
the cell walls until they reach the
endodermal cells.
 Water escapes the Casparian strip of
the endodermal cells by rerouting,
passing through the cytoplasm and
finally into the xylem tissues.
3. LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT
 transport of organic substances like sugar
takes place in the phloem is called
translocation.
 sieve tubes and companion cells help in
the transport process.
 Phloem moves sap from a sugar source
like leaves to a sugar sink like the modified
roots.
 sugar source is that part of the plant which
produces sugar
 sugar sink mainly consumes or stores
sugar
 sugar must be transported to the cells of
the phloem.
 the sugar that enters the sieve tube
members generates osmotic potential and
water uptake.
 turgor pressure developed by water uptake
moves water and sugar down the phloem
until sugar is downloaded into root cells
and other cells requiring energy.
 buildup of high pressure in the leaf end and
its reduction at the root end keep the
phloem sap moving is known as the
pressure flow hypothesis.
LEAVES
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Discuss the internal and external
morphology of the leaves.
b. Discuss the significance of the stomata in
plants.
c. Identify the different types of specialized
leaves.
d. Discuss the water relations of the whole
plant.
e. Discuss the process of photosynthesis.
LEAVES
 Plants may be distinguished from one
another through leaf morphology.
 The variety of shapes, sizes, colors, and  part near the petiole.
textures of leaves is almost infinite.
 In monocots, the leaf base is expanded
 leaf may be regarded as the flattened, into a structure called the leaf sheath,
lateral, outgrowth of the stem or node with which partially or completely covers the
a bud in its axil. stem.

 primary organ of photosynthesis in plants.  In many dicots, the leaf base bears two
lateral outgrowths known as stipules.
 leaves originate on the shoot's apical
meristem as a bulge of tissue called leaf
primordia.
D. LEAF BLADE/LAMINA
 Leaf primordia develop into leaves through
cell division, growth, and differentiation.  green flattened portion which performs
most of the photosynthesis in the plant.

 strong or thick vein, known as the midrib,

runs through the leaf blade from its base to
the apex.

 midrib branches into thinner lateral veins

that give rise to still thinner lateral veins
called veinlets

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES

DIFFERENT PARTS

A. STIPULES

 outgrowths, usually  paired at the base of

some dicot leaves.

 Leaves with stipules are stipulate, and

those without stipules are exstipulate.

B. PETIOLE
PHYLLOTAXY
 stalk of the leaf which is attached to the
stem. • leaf arrangement on the stem

 petiole is absent, called sessile, and when

present, called petiolate.

C. LEAF BASE
 A. SIMPLE LEAF

 a single blade which may be entire, lobed,

or cleft but not down to the midrib

 Examples: santol, banana, and taro

B. COMPOUND LEAF

 blade divided into a number of segments

A. ALTERNATE OR SPIRAL called leaflets in various ways.

 single leaf is present at each node.  Examples: mahogany and rain tree

 most common arrangement

 Examples: lansones, sunflower, and  axillary bud is present in the axil of a

mango. simple and compound leaf, but is never
present in the axil of the leaflet of a
compound leaf.

B. OPPOSITE

 two leaves arise from each node opposite 1. PINNATELY COMPOUND: UNIPINNATE;
each other. BIPINNATE; TRIPINNATE

 may be at right angles to the upper or  the midrib, known as the rachis, bears
lower pair. leaflets arranged in a linear sequence. 

 Examples: guava  may be arranged in an alternate or

opposite manner and may be of the
following types:

C. WHORLED - unippinate

 more than two leaves at each node in a  leaflets are attached directly on the
circle or whorl. rachis. 

 Examples: yellow bell and dita  Examples: Emperor's candlesticks,

kamias, and fern species

LEAF TYPES
- bipinnate

 compound leaf is twice-pinnate.

  primary rachis branches into what is
known as the secondary rachis, to
which the leaflets are attached.
 Examples: Peacock flower,
 makahiya, and acacia
- tripinnate
 rachises of the first, second, and third
orders.
 Leaflets are attached to the tertiary
rachis.
 (Examples: malunggay)
2. PALMATELY COMPOUND LEAF
 leaflets are attached to the tip of the petiole
from which they radiate.
 Examples: octopus, Schefflera [five
fingers]) Primary leaflet (compound leaflet)
Secondary leaflet (pinnule or pinnula)
Rachis Petiole Figure 36. Parts of a
bipinnate leaf
LEAF VENATION
 arrangement of veins and veinlets in the
leaf.
 There are two types
1. NETTED VEINS OR RETICULATE: 
 has one or more large veins from which
smaller veins branch out and interconnect,
forming a network pattern.
 characteristic of most dicots.
 may be: Pinnately reticulate or Palmately
reticulate
a) Pinnately reticulate
one principal vein or midrib present, from which
smaller veins and their branches spread out in
all directions in the blade.
b) Palmately reticulate
several large veins radiating from around the
tip of the petiole.
2. PARALLEL VENATION
 veins run parallel to each other
 characteristic of monocots.
LEAF MARGIN
 vary as to the type of margin. 
 can be entire margin, serrate, double or
biserrate, runcinate, spinose, crenate,
lobed, pinnatisect, palmately lobed, lobed,
pinnately lobed, comb-like pinnate
  leaves are round-toothed with acute angles

ENTIRE  Example: Dead Nettle (Lamium incisum)

 no clefts and is entire:

 Examples: Honeysuckle (Lonicera implexa) LOBED

and Common Beech (Fagus silvatica)
 With curved or rounded edges.

 Examples: Coltsfoot (Tussilagofarfara),

SERRATE Wayfaring Tree (Viburnum lantana), and
Oak (Quercus)
 pointed teeth meet in an acute angle:

 Examples: Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica)

and Hop (Humulus lupulus) PINNATISECT

 Pinnately divided but not as far as the

midrib
BISERRATE
 Examples: Prickly Lettuce (Lactuca
 Smaller and larger teeth alternate serriola), Norway Maple (Acer platanoides),
and Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba)
 Examples: Birch (Betula pendula),
Hornbeam (Corylus betulus), and Hazel
(Corylus avellana)
PALMATELY LOBED

 more or less deep clefts are all pointing

RUNCINATE towards the leaf base

 have large teeth that are usually pointing  Examples: Larkspur; Monkshood
backwards and are themselves serrate (Aconitum carmichaelii); Tulip Tree
(Liriodendron tulipifera)
 Example: Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

PINNATELY LOBED
SPINOSE
 segments are arranged in pairs and the
 teeth are pointed, the parts between the clefts extend (nearly) to the midrib
teeth are rounded
 Examples: Pheasant's Eye (Adonis anona)
 Examples: Holly (llex aquifolium) and and Nigritella
Hellebore (Helleborus argutifolius)

COMB-LIKE PINNATE
CRENATE
 leaflets are arranged like the teeth of a
comb
 Example: Yarrow (Achillea atrata)
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF LEAVES
 leaf's internal structure is closely related to
its many functions.
 Most leaves have an outer layer of
epidermis, which protects the internal
chlorophyll- containing cells involved in
photosynthesis and the vascular systems
that bring in water and minerals and
transport photosynthetic by- products to all
parts of the plant.
INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF A DICOT
LEAF
 cross-section of a dicot leaf blade shows
the following parts:
1. UPPER EPIDERMIS
 single layer of similar cells covering the
upper surfaces of the leaf, with waxy
cuticle, to prevent excessive loss of water
from the leaf surface.
 consists of closely-packed cells and usually
contains no chloroplasts.
 Stomata are usually absent.
2. MESOPHYLL: 
 ground tissue lying between the upper and
lower epidermises.
 consists two types of tissue: a. palisade
parenchyma and b. spongy parenchyma
A. Palisade parenchyma;
long, cylindrical, compactly-arranged cells with
numerous chloroplasts.
may be one to several layers.
functions are to absorb light and manufacture
food.
B. Spongy parenchyma
 lower part of the mesophyll consists of
oval, circular or irregularly shaped cells that
contain chloroplasts.
 intercellular spaces present in this layer.
3. VEINS
 cylindrical strands of vascular tissues that
occur mainly in the mesophyll
 Veins of various sizes (vascular bundles)
are in all directions for distribution of water
and food. consists of xylem and phloem.
 Xylem cells have angular walls and are
always present towards the upper
epidermis.
 Phloem cells are less distinct, thin walled
and located below the xylem, towards the
lower epidermis.
4. LOWER EPIDERMIS

 has thinner cuticle and its pores or stomata

is larger in number.

 small pores control the exchange of gases

in and out of the leaf and the loss of water
vapor.
THE STOMATA
 stoma is surrounded by two kidney-shaped
cells called guard cells.   Plants must be able to prevent excessive
loss to prevent wilting. 

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF MONOCOT  Ninety percent (90%) of water loss in

plants occur through the stomata.
LEAF
 Stomata are mostly located in the lower
 similar to a dicot leaf in having an upper epidermis of the leaf, where temperature is
and a lower epidermis, mesophyll, vascular lower, preventing the clogging of the
tissue, etc. stomata.

 upper and lower epidermis may have an  Up to 10,000 stomata can be found for
equal number of stomata and the cuticle every square-cm area of the lower
may be of the same thickness. epidermis.

 mesophyll of monocots is not generally

differentiated into palisade and spongy
mesophyll.

 mostly consists of spongy parenchyma

cells with chloroplasts that are irregularly-
shaped.

CROSS SECTION MIDRIB

 central or main vein of a leaf.

 Guard cells regulate the size of the
 bound by the upper and lower epidermis. stomata. 

 Next to the epidermis are the collenchyma  The stomata is the structure thru which
cells, followed by parenchyma tissues. gases enter and move out of the leaf.

 vascular bundles are crescent-shaped or
circular in cross-section. In the circular
vascular tissues, the phloem surrounds the
xylem.
 Factors responsible for the opening and
closing of the stomata: response internal
concentration of CO2, high temperatures,
blue light of the visible spectrum, low
humidity, and hormones such as the
abscisic acid (ABA).
 Water uptake in plants is brought about by  Example: water hyacinth
the influx of K+ ions into the guard cells,
followed by water molecules, resulting in
the opening of the stomata. 
3. SUPPORT
 The exit of K+ ions also leads to the exit of
water, making of the guard cells shrink,  presence of tendrils, hooks, and supporting
resulting in the closing of the stoma. leaf bases, as in the banana plant.

 Examples: rattan, patola, and squash

 When the guard cells are turgid, the

stomata opens; when flaccid, the stomata
closes. 4. PROTECTION

 usually open during the day and closed at  presence of bud scales, motile leaves,
night. spines, stipules, and bracts.

 Some plants adapt to existing  Examples: century plant, and cacti)

environmental condition by closing stomata
on summer days (photorespiration), like the
C4 and CAM plants.
5. STORAGE

SPECIALIZED LEAVES  desert plants with succulent leaves that

retain water in their large, thin walled
 most conspicuous part of a plant. parenchyma cells

 show a variety of forms and  Examples: cacti and aloe

specializations.
 Some plants store food in their leaves, as
 considerably modified to perform functions in the bulbs of onions.
other than photosynthesis.

 modifications are as follows:

 6. ATTRACTION

 petalloid flower bracts or brightly-

1. REPRODUCTION variegated leaves of some plants.

 plantlets or buds may grow along the   Examples: Dona Aurora, Anthurium and
notches, bases, apices and tips of blades Bougainvillea)
and petioles.

 Example: Kataka-taka leaves)

7. ABSORPTION

 insectivorous leaves; uncutinized leaves

2. AERATION especially in some aquatic plants.

 enlarged petiole for buoyancy

 Examples: digman and pitcher plants
RELATIONS OF THE WHOLE PLANT
 Of the water absorbed by the plant, less
than 10% is retained for growth and
biochemical processes.
 Most of it is transpired to the atmosphere.
 Topics covered:
 the process of transpiration;
 and the role of vapor pressure differences
in directing the exchange of water between
the leaves and the atmosphere;
 and the role of environmental factors in
regulating the rate of water loss through
transpiration.
TRANSPIRATION
 loss of water from plants in the form of
water vapor.
 a small amount of water vapor may be lost
through small openings, as in the lenticels
of the stem, the greatest amount may
escape from the leaves (90%).
 presence of the waxy layer in the epidermis
of the leaves helps plants conserve water.
 prevents loss of water from the underlying
tissues.   These factors influence the rate of water
 Epidermal cells and the overlaying cuticle
are occasionally interrupted by the
presence of small pores called stomata.
 Each pore is surrounded by a pair of
specialized cells called guard cells. They
serve as valves that control the size of the
pore or stoma.
 Stomatal transpiration accounts for 90-95%
of the water lost from leaves.
 5-10% occurs through cuticular
transpiration.
 Though cuticle is composed of waxes and
other hydrophobic substances, small
quantities of water vapor can still pass
through.
 Cuticular water loss can vary from species
to species
 two methods measuring transpiration in
plants: weight loss and gas exchange.
 weight loss method can be demonstrated
by sealing a well-  watered potted plant to
prevent evaporation through the pot or soil
surface.
 The potted plant can then be weighted at
intervals.
 weight loss is attributed to the loss of water
via transpiration through the plant.
THE INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY, TEMPERATURE
AND WIND VELOCITY ON TRANSPIRATION
 rate of transpiration is influence by factors
such as humidity, temperature, and wind
velocity.
vapor diffusion between the substomatal
air chamber and the atmosphere.
 Humidity is the actual amount of water in
the air.
 It has a significant effect on the water
potential.
 Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual
water content of the air to the maximum
 amount of water that can be held by air at
that temperature.
 It can also be expressed as the ratio of the
actual vapor pressure to the saturation
vapor pressure.
 Temperature modulates transpiration rate
through its effect on vapor pressure and,
consequently, on the vapor pressure
gradient.
 As temperature increases, water loss from
in leaves also increases.
 Wind velocity can also modify the effective
length of the diffusion path for exiting water
molecules.
 Before reaching the bulk air, water vapor
exiting the leaf must diffuse not only the
thickness of the epidermal layer. As wind
speed increases, it tends to cool the leaf,
but may cause excessive loss of water.
GUTTATION
 exudation of water in the form of droplets
from the leaves of plants through
hydathodes located at the margin of the
leaf.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 the biological process by which green
plants convert light energy into chemical
energy to be stored in food molecules.
 light, chlorophyll pigments, water, and
carbon dioxide must be present.
 Except for a few exceptions, all living
things are dependent on the products of
photosynthesis for their energy, for the raw
materials necessary for growth and repair,
and for the oxygen necessary for life.
 Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll
generates electrons and protons from
water molecules
 Some of this light energy is stored in a
compound called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and oxygen is released as a by-
product.
 ATP drives the reduction forward with
combined carbon dioxide by e and H+ to
form water and carbohydrates or other
compounds at the same oxidation level.
 A simple equation of the process is given
below:
THE NATURE OF LIGHT AND PIGMENTS
 Light is the energy carried by particles
called photons.
 Photons have wavelengths.
 The longer the wavelength, the less energy
is stored.
 When light strikes an object, it may be
absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
 Reflected light gives an object its color.
 Green light rays are not absorbed by the
pigments and instead are reflected back to
our eyes.
 Absorbed light can provide the energy that
drives the chemical reactions, just like in
photosynthesis. atle Snertnm
 energy level, where it becomes very
unstable and reactive.

 Each photosystem has only one chlorophyll

a molecule and hundreds of chlorophyll b
molecules and carotenoids that help
harness light energy.

 take place on the surface of the thylakoid

membrane of the chloroplast.

 Chlorophyll converts sunlight energy into

chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).
 Chlorophyll absorbs violet, blue, and red
 two reaction centers (antennal center) in
light, but reflects green. 
the  chloroplast, photosystems I and II
 two most common types of chlorophyll are
chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which are
both indispensable in the light reaction.

 Carotenoids absorb blue and green light

and are visible in the fall; when plants stop
producing chlorophyll, leaves take on a
yellow or red color.

 Phycocyanins absorb green and yellow

light.

 Xanthophyll, a type of carotenoid, reflects

yellow light in leaves in the fall.

 photosynthesis is divided into two phases:

the light-dependent and the light-
independent гeacions.

 known as the Calvin cycle

 products of the light reaction, ATP and

NADPH, are necessary for the light-
independent phase to occur.

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS  ATP and NADPH are stored in a more

permanent form as sugar in a series of
 When chlorophyll absorbs a photon of light, chemical reactions involving carbon
one of its electrons is boosted to a higher fixation.
  A typical flower is composed of different
parts, each with its own function/s.

 arises from the axil of the leaf.

 A typical complete flower consists of four

whorls: calyx, corolla, stamen, and pistil.

FLOWERS FLORAL PARTS AND CLASSIFICATION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES  plants reproduce their own kind.

a. Discuss the floral parts of the plants.  Reproduction in plants is more varied and
complex than human reproduction.
b. Discuss the different classifications of
flowers.  Plants exhibit both the sexual and asexual
forms of reproduction
c. Discuss inflorescence.
 The parts of the typical flower are the
d. Discuss the manner of reproductions of following: pedicel, receptacle, sepal, calyx,
flowers. petal, corolla, perianth, pistil, ovary, style,
stigma, and stamen
e. Analyze the development of pollen grains
and ovules.

f. Analyze the process of pollination and

fertilization in plants.

g. Compare monoecious and dioecious

plants.

PEDICEL
FLOWERS
 the stalk that holds the flower
 part of the shoot system specializing in
sexual reproduction.

 all flowers share certain basic features. RECEPTACLE

 enlarged tip of the pedicel form which the
floral parts arise
SEPALS
 One of the several leaf-like structures that
make up the outermost circle of the floral
parts
 Usually green in color
 Protects the flower while it is still a bud
 CALYX - collective term for all sepals
PETALS
 One of the colored leaf-like structures that
occurs in one or more circles within sepals
 COROLLA - collective term for all
petals
PERIANTH
 Collective term for the sepals and petals
PISTIL OR CARPELS
 seed -bearing organ of the flower, usually
pear-shaped and found at the center of the
flower
 Composed of the ovary, style and stigma,
collectively called gynoecium
 When the carpels are united, the
gynoecium is described as syncarpous;
when free, the gynoecium is described as
apocarpous
Ovary
 Enlarged basal part of the pistil
 Can have one or more locules containing
ovules that develop into seeds after
fertilization
a. OVULES 
Small, round oval-shaped bodies inside
the locules of the ovary
Contain the egg cell and other related
cells
B. LOCULE
The cavity within the ovary
STYLE
 The long and slender neck-like part
extending from the ovary
 Passageway for the pollen from the stigma
to the ovary
STIGMA
 Sticky part found at the tip of the style to
which the pollen adheres after pollination
Stamen
 Essential male part of the flower consisting
of an anther and a filament
 Anther and the filament are collectively
called androecium
a. ANTHER
 Where pollen grains are produced 1. REGULAR FLOWER

Supported by the slender filament and  A flower in which the corolla is made up of
usually consists of four pollen sacs similarity-shaped petals equally spaced
and radiating from the center of the flower

B. FILAMENT
2. IRREGULAR FLOWER
The slender stalk that supports the
anther  A flower in which one or more members of
at least one whorl are of a different form or
size from other
CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERS
 Three types: Papilionaceous;
Caesalpinaceous and Orchidaceous
Presence or absence of floral parts

1. COMPLETE FLOWER

 Has all the four essential floral parts: the

sepal, petal, stamen and pistil

2. INCOMPLETE FLOWER
a. Papilionaceous
 Lacks one or more of the four floral parts
 Standard petal or banner is usually the
largest and most striking

 Two wings or alae are lateral and a keel is

3. PERFECT FLOWER present 
 With both the stamen and pistil (may lack  Example: Lablab purpureus and Vigna
petals and sepals) unguiculata ssp. Sesquipedalis flowers
 Also called bisexual flower

B. Caesalpinaceous
4. IMPERFECT FLOWER  Standard petal is the smallest and
innermost 
 Bears either the stamen or pistil
 Two wings and two keels are almost the
 Flower may be staminate or pistillate  same in size and shape
 Called a unisexual flower  Example: Delonix regia and Caesalpinia
pulcherrima
SIZE AND SHAPE OF FLORAL PARTS
C. Orchidaceous 2. HYPOGYNOUS

 The flower has three petals; one is very  Ovary is superior with the stamen, petals
much different in size and shape and is and sepals arising from a level below the
called the of labellum  base of the ovary

 Example: Phalaenopsis spp., Cattleya,

Dendrobium
3. EPIGYNOUS

SYMMETRY  Ovary is inferior with the stamens, petals

and sepals arising from the level above the
1. RADIAL SYMMETRY base of the ovary

 Flower is divisible on more than one axis

into the equal halves that are mirror images
of each other

 Known as regular or actinomorphic

symmetry

2. BILATERAL SYMMETRY
PLACENTATION
 Flower is distinctly divisible into rights and
left sides, i.e, divisible into mirror images Part of the ovary where the ovule is attached
on only one axis
1. MARGINAL 
 Known as irregular flower or zygomorphic
symmetry  The ovules are attached to vertical rows or
rows along the ovary wall

2. PARIETAL 

 In a compound pistil, the carpels are joined

margin to margin and the placenta is
situated on the ovary walls
POSITION OF THE OVARY

1. PERIGYNOUS
 Ovary is half-interior but the bases of the
stamens, petals and sepals develops as
floral cup around ovary
3. BASAL
 Found in both simple compound carpels
with one locule in the ovary. The ovule is
 attached to the base of the base of the
ovary

4. AXILE

 The ovules are attached to the middle of

the ovary, where the septate of a
compound pistil are joined

KINDS OF INFLORESCENCE
1. SPIKE

 Elongated axis

 Flowers are sessile or without a stalk

 Example: Piper nigrum

2. SPADIX 
FUSION OF FLORAL PARTS
 Spike with a fleshy axis , enclosed by a
large, often brightly colored bract called
1. ADNATION 
spathe
 Unlike parts like peta;s, sepals and
 Example: Zantedeschia aethiopica,
stamen, pistil are fused 
Anthurium 

2. CONNATION
3. CATKIN
 Like parts are fused 
 Spike with a long and pendulous axis

 Bears unisexual flowers only

INFLORESCENCE  Example: Acalypha hispida
 May produce flowers singly at the end of
the main shoot at the end of a branch
shoot or in the axis of leaves
4.  RACEME
 May also occur in group or clusters
 Elongated axis 
 Breas a number of flowers with are all stalk
the lower flowers having longer stalks than
the upper
 Example: Cassia, Aloe
5. PANICLE 
 Main axis of the flower is branched and the
lateral branched bear the stalked flowers
 Example: Oryza sativa L. and Moringa
oleifera
6. CYME
 Main axis ends in a flower that opens
before the flowers below or on its side
open
 Growth takes place with the growth of one
or more laterals
 May be with or without stalks
 Example: Gypsophila paniculata
7. CORYMB
 Main axis is comparatively short
 Lower flowers have longer stalks than the
upper so that all the flowers are brought
more or less at the same level
 Example: Caesalpinia pulcherrima
8. UMBEL
 Primary axis is shortened and bears at its
tip a group of flowers which have pedicels
of more or less equal lengths, that they
appear to spread out from a common point
 Example: Lantana camara
9. CAPITULUM OR HEAD
 Main axis is suppressed becoming almost
flat
 Flowers (florets) are also without any stalk
that they become crowded together on the
flat surface of the receptacle
 Composed of ray flowers along the margin
and disk flowers crowded at the center of
the flower
 Example: Helianthus annus, Zinnia,
Gerbera and Bellis perennis
OTHER TYPES
1. CYATHIUM
 Consists of a cup-shaped involucre formed
by fused heads
 Example: Euphorbia sp.
2. VERTICILLASTER
 With a cluster of sessile flowers in the axil
of a leaf forming a false whorl at the node
 Example: Coleus sp. 
3. HYPANTHODIUM
 Fleshy receptacle forms a hollow cavity
which is more or less pear-shaped and has
a narrow opening. Flowers are borne on
the inner wall of the cavity 
 Example: Ficus nitida

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
 Organs essential for sexual reproduction
are the stamen (androecium) and pistil
(gynoecium)
1. THE STAMEN 
 Each stamen consist of and anther and a
stalk called filament
 Anther has four elongated and connected
lobes called pollen sacs
 Each pollen sac contains a mass of
dividing cells called microsporocytes
2. THE PISTIL
 The structure of the pistil depends on the
number and arrangement of carpels
 Consists of three parts
a. Ovary 
b. Style 
c. Stigma
THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN GRAINS AND
OVULES: THE POLLEN GRAINS
 The anther contains microspore mother
cells, (antherian)
 The microscope mother cells divide and
then undergo meiosis resulting to quarter
or tetrad of cells called microspore tetrad 
 The microspore tetrad separates from one
another. Each one forming a thick wall and
its haploid nucleus undergoing mitotic
division 
 The final product is the pollen grain with
two nuclei . The young nuclei becomes the
tube nucleus and the other nuclea
becomes the generative nucleus
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN GRAINS AND  After the fusion, the polar nuclei form
endosperm that will act a food supply unit
OVULES: THE OVULE
for a seed dormancy
 Cavities in the ovary may contain
protruding masses of tissues (the ovule),
which will develop into seeds after
fertilization

 Each ovule is attached through a stalk

called the funiculus to the ovary at the
region called the placenta 

 In each ovule, one cell is much different

from the surrounding cells and usually
much larger (megaspore mother cells)

 These megaspore mother cells undergo

meiosis and produce four haploid
megaspores. The the three out of these
four are aborted and only one will
functional and will undergoes three round
of mitotic division to yield eight haploid POLLINATION
nuclei in the embryo sacs
 Process of transferring pollen grain from
 The two layers of cells in the integuments the stamen to the stigma of a flower
cover an ovule 

 The gap in the integument is the micropile

through which the pollen enter then go Two types of pollination:
embryonic sacs
1. SELF-POLLINATION
 The integument layer will become the seed
boat   Is the transfer of pollen from the stamen to
the stigma of the same flower or to the
 The 8 nuclei inside the embryo sacs are stigma of another flower of the same plant
disposed as follows. The three near the
micropile are the results of the three mitotic
divisions of the megaspore mother cells
2. CROSS-POLLINATION
 The one is the egg nucleus and two are
called synergy in which it will disintegrates
 Is the transfer of pollen from the anther to
later
the stigma of flowers found in separate
plants
 The three at the end of the opposite of the
micropile are called natal antipodal cells or
the antipodals. These antipodals are also
disintegrate 

 The remaining nuclei or called polar nuclei

are together fuse with the male nucleus
other than the one who fuses the egg 

POLLEN TUBE GROWTH AND FERTILIZATION
 First, the pollen grain on the stigma will
absorb water and will swell which
elongates and germinates that forms a
pollen tube. 
 The pollen tube grows down to or through
the style by enzymatically digesting some
styler cells and finally enters the ovary
 The pollen tube will enter in micropile (the
gap between the integuments of an ovule
and releases into the embryo sacs of the
two sperm nuclei from the pollen)
 One haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the
haploid egg nucleus forming a diploid
zygote (2n)
 The second sperm nucleus fuses into two
polar nuclei that resulting into two
endosperms and form 3n
 This known as triple fusion
 The fertilization and triple fusion result in
what we called double fertilization
MONOECIOUS AND DIOECIOUS PLANTS
MONOECIOUS 
 Both the male and the female flowers are
found in one plant 
 Example: Cucurbita maxima, both the male
and female reproductive in one plant
DIOECIOUS
 The male and female flowers are borne
separately
 Example: Carica papaya, the male plant
bearing the male flowers and the female
plant the female flowers
FRUITS
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Discuss the different kinds and layers of
fruits
b. Discuss fruits that develop from accessory
parts
FRUITS
 The mature ovary of a flower
 Contains the seeds
 Arise from flowers
 Product of development of the ovary wall
 Function is to protect the seeds as they
develop and help in their dispersal

KINDS OF FRUITS
A. FLESHY FRUITS
 Mesocarp is fleshy upon maturity
 Three kinds
1. Simple fleshy fruit
2. Aggregate fruit
3. Multiple fruit

 Mature ovary wall of the fruit is called

pericarp
 It is made of three distinct layers:
 Exocarp
 Mesocarp
 Endocarp
 Some fruits contain only the ovary and its
1. SIMPLE FLESHY FRUIT
seeds
 Develops from a flower with a single pistil
 Fruits may be classified into various ways
and has one or more carpels
based on several characteristics:
 Four categories:
 Fleshy fruits
a. Berry
 Dry fruits
b. Pepo
c. Hesperidium
d. pome

a. BERRY
 Formed from a compound ovary with few to
many seeds
 The entire pericarp is fleshy
 Examples: Vitis vinifera, Solanum
lycopersicum, Antinidia deliciossa and
Lansium domesticum
 Some berries are derived from flowers with
inferior ovaries; other parts of the flower
also contribute to the flesh
 Examples: Musa sp.
b. PEPO
 Type of fleshy fruit with a thick hard rind
 Examples: Cucumis sativus, Citrullus
lanatus and Cucurbita maxima
c. HESPERIDIUM
 Berry-like fruit covered with a thick,
leathery skin containing oil and locules
filled with fleshy outgrowths containing
juice
 Example: all citrus fruits such as Citrus
limon, Citrus x sinensis and Citrus x
aurantiifolia
d. POME
 Formed from a compound ovary in which
the receptacle becomes thick and fleshy
 The endocarp around the seeds is papery
and leathery
 Examples: Malus domestica and Pyrus
communis L.
e. DRUPE
 A single seed enclosed by a hard, stony
endocarp
 Usually develops from a superior ovary
containingg a single ovule
 Example: Cocus nucifera, Prunus dulcis,
Mangifera indica and Spondias purpurea
2. AGGREGATE FRUIT
 Derived from a single flower with several to
many pistils
 Individual pistil develops into small fruitlets,
but they mature as a single fruit in a single
receptacle
 Example: Fragaria x ananassa, Annona
muricata, Magnolia grandiflora, and
Annona squamosa
3. MULTIPLE FRUIT
 Derived from several to many individual
flowers in a single inflorescence
 Each flower has its own receptacle but as
the flower matures separately into fruitlets,
they develop together into a single, large
fruit as in aggregate fruits
 Example: Ananas comosus, Fiscus carica
and Artocarpus altilis
B. DRY FRUITS
 Mesocarp is definitely dry at maturity
 Two types of dry fruits:
1. Dry, dehiscent fruits
2. Dry, indehiscent fruits
1. DRY, DEHISCENT FRUIT
 Distinguished from one another by the
manner in which they split
 Four types:
a. Capsule
b. Legume
c. Silique
d. follicle

d. FOLLICLE
 One carpel fruit splitting only along one
a. CAPSULE side
 More-than-one-carpelled fruit with 2 or  Examples: Plumeria rubra, Asclepias
more placentae syriaca and Magnolia grandiflora
 Example:Papaver somniferum and
Gossypium herbaceum 2. DRY, INDEHISCENT FRUITS
 Single seed is fused or attached in varying
degrees to the pericarp
 Do not split open upon maturity
 Five types:
a. Achene
b. Caryopsis
b. LEGUME c. Samara
 One carpeled fruit splitting along two sides d. Schizocarp
 Also called a pod e. Nut
 Example: Phaseoulus vulgaris, Pisum
sativum, Leuracaena leucocephala and
Arachis hypogaea

c. SILIQUE
 A long, two-locular fruit splitting, with each
half separating from the other, leaving a
thin septum
 Examples: family Brassicaceae e.g.
Brassica oleracea va. Capitata, Brassica
rapa subsp, chinensis, Brassica juncea
and Raphanus sativus
a. ACHENE
One seeded fruit with the seed connected to
the pericarp only at one endpoint
Examples: Helianthus annus, Zinnia elegans
and Cosmos bipinnatus
b. CARYOPSIS Composed of:
One seeded fruit with the seed united to the 1. EMBRYO
pericarp by all sides Baby plant inside the seed
Examples: all members of the Poaceae family,
Zea mays, Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa L.,
and Hordeum vulgare

c. SAMARA
Pericarp around the seed extends out in the
form of a wing or membrane which helps in the
2. SEED COAT OR TESTA
dispersal
Outermost protective covering that consists
Examples: Pterocarpus indicus, Toona
of the testa and tegmen. The scar on the
calantas and Acer platanoides
seed coat, the hilum, represents the point of
attachment to the placenta on the fruit wall
d. SCHIZOCARP
Made up of two or more one seeded carpels
that separate from each other when dry
Examples: Daucus carota, and Pimpinella
anisum

e. NUT
One seeded fruit similar to achenes but are
3. ENDOSPERMS
generally larger and whose pericarp is much
 Responsible for the storage of food in the
harder and thicker
seed. If the endosperm is absent, food is
Examples: genera Quercus, Corylus and
stored in the cotyledons
Canarium ovatum
 If the environment are favorable endosperm
will use the stored cotyledons to grow
SEEDS
healthy

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

a. Discuss the morphology, development,
germinations, dormancy and dispersals of
seeds

SEEDS
1. Products of a fertilized ovule in
Main Difference between Cotyledons and
angiosperms, are formed within the ovary
Endosperms
 COTYLEDONS – is the embryonic leaf of
(right after the fertilization, the pollen grain will
the seed which develop in the first true leaf
land on the stigma and will travel and reach the
of the embryonic plant
ovule. It will fertilize the ovule and changes will
 ENDOSPERMS – nutritive tissue which
take its place. As a result, when the pollen
stores nutrients require for the development
fertilized the ovule or ovary, the seeds form)
of embryo during seedlings
 SEEDS MORPHOLOGY
1. DICOTYLEDONOUS SEEDS
 Two cotyledons enclosed in a seed coat
 In the seed coat, a scar called the hilum
and a small pore, the micropyle, can also
be seen
 Embryo consists of an axis with its pointed
end called the radicle and the leafy end,
the plumule
 Seed has two fleshy cotyledons with lots of SEEDS DEVELOPMENT
food materials  Series of changes takes place in the ovule,
Examples: Phaseolus vulgaris, Arachis resulting to seed is formation
hypogaea seeds and Mangifera indica  Fertilized egg cell or ovum grows and gives
rise to the embryo and the definitive
nucleus to the endosperm

Other changes that also take place:

1. The two integuments develop into two seed
coats, of which the outer one is called the
testa and the inner one, the tegmen
2. There is usually an outgrowth of the funicle,
which grows up around the ovule and more
or less completely envelopes the seeds

2. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEEDS
 Each grain is a small, one seeded-fruit
 Seed coat and wall of the fruit are fused
together
 Endosperm forms the main bulb of the grain
and housed the food storage tissues
 Embryo is very small and lies at one end of
the endosperm
 Consists of only one cotyledon known as
the scutellum
 Growing shoot tip of the embryonic axis is
called the plumule and the root tipe, the
SEEDS GERMINATION
radicle
 Embryo lies dormant in the seed but when
 Monocotyledonous seeds are mostly
supplied with moisture, the embryo
endospermic
 becomes active and tend to grow into a
small seedling
 Process by which the dormant embryo
wakes up, grows out of the seed coat and
establishes itself as a seedling is called
germination
 Two kinds of gemination
 Epigeal Germination
 Hypogeal Germinaton
1. EPIGEAL GERMINATION
 Cotyledons come up above the ground and
the embryo resumes its growth
Examples: Sandoricum koetjape and Vigna
radiata seedlings
2. HYPOGEAL GERMINATION
 Cotyledons remain underground or on the
surface
 The epicotyl, portion of the axis lying
immediately above the cotyledons,
elongates and pushes the plumule upwards
Examples: Cocos nucifera, Zea mays and
Mangifera indica seedlings
SEEDS DORMANCY
 Maintained by either physiological or
mechanical barriers
 Seeds may remain dormant until cracks in
the seed coat are created through
mechanical abrasion by rock particles in the
soil, alternate thawing and freezing or, in
some cases, bacterial action
 May also be maintained by the growth-
inhibiting substances present in the seed
coat
 Inhibitors prevent germination, unless there
has been sufficient rainfall for seedling to
become established
 Malus domestica, Pyrus communic L.,
Citrus fruits, Solanum lycopersicum and
other fleshy fruits contain inhibitors that
prevent the germination of the seed within
the fruits
 Dormin is one hormone that may prevent
the germination of seeds
SEEDS DISPERSAL
 The spread or dissemination of fruits and
seeds to distant places
 Several agents that help in fruit and seed
dispersal:
 Dispersal by wind
 Dispersal by animals
 Dispersal by water
 BY EXTERNAL AGENTS
1. DISPERSAL BY WIND
 Seeds and fruits have various adaptions
which help them to be carried away by wind
to short or long distances from the parent
plant: wings; parachute mechanism; censer
mechanism; hairs; papery seeds; and light
seed
a. WINGS
 Some seeds develop one or more
appendages in the form of thin, flat,
membranous wings
 Are also light and dry and usually float in
the air and are dispersed by the wind
Examples: Acer circinatum and Moringa
oleifera
b. PARACHUTE MECHANISM
 Modified hair-like structure known as pappi,
which opens in an umbrella-like fashion
Examples: members of family Compositae,
Taraxacum officinale
2. DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS
 Many fruits and seeds are provided with
hooks, barbs, spines, stiff hairs and sticky
glands on their surfaces with which they
adhere to the body of wooly animals as well
as clothing
 Many fleshy fruits are widely-distributed by
birds
 They feed upon the pulpy fruits and drops
or excretes them in other locations, where
these seeds then germinate
3. DISPERSAL BY WATER
 Usually develop floating devices in the form
of a spongy or fibrous outer coat or
impervious pericarp, such as in Cocos
nucifera
 Some seeds are just too small and light that
they can float on water
Examples: Nymphaea nouchali, Cocos
nucifera, Arachis hypogaea and many
Rhizophora seeds

c. CENSER MECHANISM
 some fruits, when shaken by the wind
discharge their seeds into the air
Examples: Aristolochia elegans and Clitoria
ternatea

d. HAIRS
SELF-DISPERSAL
 Some seeds are provided with hairs, either
 Disperse their own seeds by forceful
in one or two tufts or all over the body
ejection or explosive mechanism
Examples: Saccharum spontaneum, Asclepias
Examples: Acasia confuse and Impatiens
syriaca, Gomphocarpus physocarpus,
balsamina
Chrysopogon acicularus and Cyperus
esculentus

e. PAPERY SEEDS
 Very light and paper-like
Example: Mansoa alliacea

f. LIGHT SEEDS
 Very very light seeds of some Poaceae
family (grasses)
 Ganda ni
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