E&EMI&M 7-43 Basic Measuring Instruments

12wer audiofrequency range. Wi~ some little modifications, it can be used as a wattmeter
for the _power measurements.

Why PMMC instruments can nrt be used for a.c. m~asurements ?

The PMMC instrument cannot be used on a.c. currents or voltages. If a.c. supply is
given to these instruments, ~-altemapng torque will be develoE_ed. Due to moment of
- ' inertia of the~ moving system, the
. -
pointer will not follow the r!lpidly
• chan~g alternating torgue and will
.. fail to sh..QlV _an_~ readin~In order that
Pointer
- -
the instrument should be able to read
Moving coil
a.c. quantities, the magnetic field in the
~~--~~------~~--
r--- - . . ~ir gap must chan~e- alo~g with th~
~~ange in current. This principle is
used in the electrodynamometer type
instrument.
Instead ~ a pel'II2-an~t magnet, the
-
electrodynamometer typ_! instrument
Fixed coils
produce the necessary field flux.
-
uses the current under measurement to
.
Fig. 7.29 Electrodynamometer type instrument The Fig. 7.29 shows the
construction of the electrodynamometer
type instrument.

7.16.1 Construction
The various parts of the ·electrodynamometer type instrument are :
Fixed coils : The necessary field required for the operation of the instrument is
~uced by the fixed coils. A uniform field is obtained near the center of coil due to
::::--:sian of coil in tWo sections. Th~se coils are~r core~Fixed coils are wound with fine
~ for using as voltmeter, while for ammeters and wattmeters tt.
is wound with heavy
-..:-c. The coils arelisually varnished. They are clamped in place against the coil supports.
-_s makes the construction rigid. -= -

Ceramic is usually used for plOunting · supports. If metal parts would have been used
~- .. :: would weaken the field of the fixed coil..

~!oving coil : The moving coil is wound either as a self-suStaining coil or else on a
- _
- -::-..eb3llic former. If metallic former is used, then it would induce eddy Currents in it.
......
-,- :c:-struction of moving .coil is made light as well as ri&d. It is air cored.
::::::ntrolling : The controlling torque is 'provided by springs. These springs act as leads
- :..? - •.oving coil.
 E&EMI&M 7-44 Basic MeasurinQ(Jnstruments

Moving system : The moving coil is mounted on an alumil'liyJn_spi!)dle. It consists of

counter ~ights and pointer. Sometimes a suspension may be used, in case a high
=
accuracy is desired.
-Damping : The damping torque is pr~vide<;!.,~y a~r"':lp.:!ction, by a pair of aluminium
vanes which are attached to the spindle at the bottom. They move in sector shaped
chambers. As operating field would be distorted by eddy current damping, it is not
employed.
Shielding : The field produced by these instruments is very weak. Even .earth's
magnetic field considerably affects the reading. So shiel~ing is done to protect it from stray
magnetic fields. It i~ ~o:r:e lzy enc!o~ing__in_~ casinJL?f high ermeability aJJ.oy.
Cases and scales : Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in polished
wooden or metal cases which are rigid. The case is supported by adjustable levelling
screws.
A spirit level may be provided to ensure proper levelling.
"~1 For using electrodynamometer instrument as ammeter, fixed and moving coils are
~onnected in series and carry the same current. A suitable sh~~'L
t!i=-
s -=c:-::o=n-n=-=e-:-:ctr:e:"':ldrtr.:o~tfi~
· e:-::s~e-c~o~Il~s-
·roThtut current thi'ough them upto aesyealiiiiit. . .
y The electrodynamometer instruments can be used as a voltmeter by connecting the
.....,

fixed and moving coil~ in series with a high non-inductive res.is.tatt£e. It is most accurate
type of voltmeter .
For using electrodynamometer instrument as a wa~eter to m~asure the power, the
.,..l.
•
j!;~d _g>ils acts as a current ·coil and must be connected in series with the _l9ad. _The·
moving coil acts as a voltage coil or pressure coil and must be connected across the_s.!!£Ply
-=
terminals. The wattmeter indicates the supply power. When current passes through -the -
.....-
fixed .and moving coils, both coils produce the magnetic fields. The field produced by
fixed coil is proportional to the load current while the field produced by the moving coil is
proportional to the vdltage. As the deflecting torque is produced due to the interaction of
these two fields, the deflection is proportional to the power supplied to the load.

7.16.2 Torque Equation •

.
Let 11 - Instantaneous value of current in fixed coil.

12 - Instantaneous .value of current in moving coil.

Ll - Self inductance of fixed coils.

L2 - Self inductance of moving coil.

M - Mutual inductance between fixed and ·movil).g coils.
The electrodynamometer instrument can be represented by an equivalent circuit as
shown in the Fig. 7.30.
E&EMI&M Basic Measuring Instruments

The flux linkages of coil 1 are,

<1>1 = Lt it + M i2
The flux linkages of coil 2 are,

<l>z = L 2 i 2 + M i 1
d <l>t
Now el - dt

. and d<)>2
Fig. 7.30 e2 -- dt

Electrical input energy = e 1i 1dt + e 2 i 2 dt

•
- i I d<)>l + i2 d <)>2

- i 1 d ( L 1i 1 + M i 2 ) + i 2 d (L2 i 2 + M i 1)

The energy stored in the magnetic field due to L 1, L 2 and M is given by,

E nergy s t ored = 1 L 1·2 + 1 L 1·2 + 1. 1· . M

2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2

. stored energy = ·d [ l L 1. 2 + l L 1. 2 + 1. 1. M]
Change m
2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2

i 1 Mdi 2 + i 2 Mdi 1 + i 1 i 2 dM ... (2)

From the prL.'1ciple of conservation of energy,

Energy input - Energy stored+ Mechanical energy

... Mechanical energy - Enrgy input- Energy stored

Substracting (2) from (1),

Mechanical energy = ~if dL 1 + ~ i~ dL 2 + i~ i 2 dM

The self inductances L 1 and L 2 are constants and hence dL 1and dL 2 are zero.

... Mechanical energy = i 1 i 2 dM

E&EMI&M 7-46 Basic Measuring Instruments

If Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and de is the change in the deflection then
~
Mechanical energy - Mechanical work done -
- TI de
... i 1 i:& _dM - r._!..< de
\.

dM
... TI - 1112de
0

This is the expression for the instantaneous deflecting torque. Let us see its operation
on a.c. and d.c.
D.C. operation : For d.c. currents of 11 and 12,

./

The con~olling torque is provided by springs hence

Tc - Ke
I

In steady state, Td - Tc
dM
r, I2 de - Ke
.
It 12 dM
... e =
K de
-
Thus the deflection is proportional to the product of the two ctUTents and the rate-of
change of mutual inductance.
A.C. operation : In a.c. operation, the total deflecting torque over a cycle must be
obtained by integrating Ti over one period.
Average deflecting torque over one cycle is,
. 1T
Td = f
T Ti dt
0
•

T = , Time period of one cycle.

T
... T
d = dMls·· d
de:T 1112 t
0

Now if the two currents are sinusoidal and displaced by.a phase angle<!> then
E&EMI&M 7-47 Basic Measuring Instruments

and i2 - 11112 sin (cot - <)>)

T
... Td - ~~·~JIm 1 sin rot· 1012 sin (rot-<!>) d (rot)
0

- (Iml 1m2 Jcos <!> dM

2 de

dM
= I 1 I2 cos¢> de

Where 11, 12 are the r.m.s. values of the two currents as,

and

As

Hence in steady state, Tc - Td

dM
... 11 ! :2 cos.<)> de - Ke '

I I dM
... e - .1 2 cos <I>
K de
~
Thus the deflection i.s decided by the product of r.m.s. values of two currents, cosine
of the phase angle (power factor) and rate of change of mutual inductance .
•
For d.c. use, th~ d~fl~tton isl pr2I?ortional to squa!_e of curr!t;!_ and the scale is
:1.0nuniform and crowded at the ends. For a.c. use the finstantaneous torque is proportional
~o the squa~e of the instantaneous curren4 T~~ i 2 is positive and as current va~es~the
-
deflecting torque also Y.eries~.
But moving system, due to inertia cannot follow rapid variations and thus finally
=teter shows the average torque.
Thus th~ deflect;!on is the function of the mean of the squared current. J'!le scale is
6 us calibra~d
. -
in terms of the square
.
root of the aver~ge current sgucged
.
i.e. r.m.s. value
:i the a.c. quantity to be meas~red.
If an electrOdJil:a.tri.ometer instrument is calibrated with a d.c. current of 1 A and
:ointer indicates 1 A d.c. on scale then on a.c., the pointer will deflect upto the same mark
:--..:t 1 A in this case will indicate r.m.s. value. ·
'
Thus as it is a transfer instrument, the~e is direct conne~tion .between a.c. and d .c.
::ence the instrument is often used as a calibration instrument.
. I .
The instrument can be u~ed as an ammeter to measure currents upto 20 A whjle using
~ a voltmeter it can ha¥e low sensitivity of about 10 to 30 0/V.
..
E&EMI&M 7-48 Basic Measuring lnstrume-r'!S

The Fig. 7.31 (a), (b) and (c) shows the connections of the electrodynamorr.e
instrument as ammeter, volhneter and the wattmeter.

Moving coil
'
11

t
Supply
12

Shunt
t
Load

! Fixed coils
! •
I

Fig. 7.31 (a) Electrodynamometer ammeter upto 100 rnA

Moving coil r2

t
Supply Fixed coils
I High
non
inductive

l resistance

Fig. 7.31 (b) Electrodynamometer voltmeter

\

11

...
•
Supply
t 12 Moving coil Load
l
l l
Fig. 7.31 (c) Electrodynamometer wattmeter

7 .16.3 Advantages of Electrodynamic Instruments

1) As the coils are air cored, these instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
-
2) They have a precision
.. ,,
grade accuracy
==- >
.
- ... t.
3) These instruments can be used on both a.c. and d.c. They are also used as a
transfer instruments.
4) Electrodynamometer volhneters are very useful where accurate r.m.s. values of
voltage, irrespective of waveforms, are required.
E&EMI&M 7-49 Basic Measuring Instruments

5) Free from hysteresis errors.

<
6) Low power consumpti<?n. f
7)
-
Light in .w eight.
I

7.16.4 Disadvantages of Electrod amic Instruments

1) These instruments have , qw sensitiv· due to a. low torque to weight ratio. Also
it introduces increased frictional losses. To get accurate results, these errors must
be minimized. ·
2) ore expensiv than other type of instruments.
3) These
- -
instruments
<

are sensitive to overloads and · mechanical impacts. Therefore

care must be taken wlUle.handling them..
~
w

4) They have a non-uniform seal~.

·- - ....__
5) The og~rating-_-
C!:l_rr
__e_ _-e-s«:_ ~~ents j s large* dl!.e !__o the fact th~t they have
n "r"t-o.....t-;thrr
weak magnetic
.
field .
c

- 16.5 Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

The various errors in ele~trodynamometer instruments are,
.
1.. Torque to weight _ratio : To have reasonable deflecting torque, ·m.IIJ.J . of the moving
_ must be large enough. Thus m.m.f. = NI hence current through moving coil sboulfl be
?~ or number of turns should be large. The current cannot be made very high because it
-.:; cause excessive heating of springs. Large number of turns hence is the only option
_:it iricreases weight of the coil. 1his makes the system heavy reducing torque to weight
--n. 1his can cause frictional errors in the reading.
2. Frequency errors : The changes in the frequency causes to chan e self indu ~
.,-
::lOving coil and fixed coil. This causes the error in e reading. The frequency error can
:educed by fuivmg eqtiat time constants for both fixed and moving coil cirCuits.

-
3. Eddy current errors : In metal parts of the instrument the edd;y_ CUI'J'ents get
.iuced. The eddy_ currents interact with_the instru nuil!!.~urrenJ, to cause change in the
-=--:2ding torque, to cause error. Hence metal parts should ,be kept as minimum as

.::.::ble. Also the resistivity of the metal parts used must be high, to reduce the eddy
--=ents .
.t Stray magnetic field error :~ _to mov!!_lg_iro~~truments
the o~~ating field
- :--___;;,---:----------
::..ectrodynamometer instrume_!lt is very weak Hence external magnetic field can interact
_.......
~-. the operating field to cause change in the deflection, causing the error. To reduce the
_-: of stray magnencfielct7 the shields m~t be u~ed-for the instruments.
5. Temperature error: The temperature erro are caused duu o.-the..self-heating of the
which causes change in the ·resistance of the coil. Thus temperature compensating
;;=-.;;-:ors can be used in the precise instrument to eliminate the temperature errors.
E&EMI&M 7-50 Basic Measuring Instruments

)),_. Example 7.17 : A 20 A electrodynamic ammeter is controlled by a spring having a

constant of 5. 7295 x 10- 6 Nm/rad. The full scale deflection is 110°. Determine the
inductance of the instrument while measuring a current of 20 A. The mutual inductance at
0° deflection is 4 ~ and the change in mutual inductance is linear with the deflection.
Solution :For electrodynamic ammeters and voltmeters, ~ 1 = 12 = 1

... Td - 1
2
~~ while Tc = K e due to spring
... Ke - 12 dM
de

e - .!_
K
12 dM
de

(1wox 1 ~0 )
1
... -- x(20) 2 x dM
~
5.7295x10-6 de

. dM
•• -- 2.749x1o - 8 H/rad
de I

•
• • dM - dM · (110x
de xChange in e = 2.749x1o- 8 X 180
rt) = 5 . 2795~10-
8
H

:. Final inductance - Original inductance+ dM · 4x1o- 6 +5.2795xlo- 8

- 4.05279 J.LH
•

))1. · varies with deflectionFore ina degrees

•
Example 7.18 : certain electrodynamometer ammeter, the mutual inductance M
as,
M = -5 cos(e +45°) mH
Find the value of deflecting torque if d.c. current of 10 mA produces the deflection of
30°.
Solution : M = -5cos(e+45°)
dM
.•.
de
dM
de = 5sin(30°+45°) = 4.8296 mH/degree
•
Now for ammeter, 11 = 12 = I = 10 mA

:. Td- I 2 ~~=(10x10- 3 ) 2 x4.8296x10- 3

- 0.4829 ~Nm
E&EMI&M 7-51 Basic Measuring Instruments

,, . Example 7.19 : A 100 V electrodynamometer voltmeter uses spring control. It has initial
inductance of 0.5 H and full cale deflecting torque of 0.8xlo- 4 Nm. The full scale
deflecting current is 100 rnA. Determine the difference between d.c. and a.c. readings at
i) 100 V and ii) 50 V if the inductance varies uniformly over the full scale of 90°.
Solution : e = 90°· for full scale, Td = 0.8x10 - 4 _N m, I1 = I2 _= I= 100 IIV\. ,
Td - 12 dM
de
dM (0.8xlo-4) = 8 x 10-3 · H/ ra d"tans
.•. -
de (100xlo - 3 ) 2

... dM - ~~x efull = Sxl0 - 3 x[90°X l;O] = 0.01256 H

... Total M - Original M + dM = 0.5 + 0.01256 = 0.51256 H

i) v = 100 v
100
... R - V = 1000 .0 ... for d.c .
T- 100x1o-3

Z - R + j roM .. . for a.c.

--. Z . . 1000 + j (21t X 50 X 0.51259) = 1000 + j 161.0254 Q

--- 1 z 1 = ~(1000) 2 +(161.0254) 2 = 1012.8816 n

R 1000
:. ~.·oltmeter reading = . zX vde = 1012.8816 x100 = 98.7282 v

Jif:ference in d.c. and a.c. readings = 100- 98.7282 = 1.2718 V

ffi V =50V

I' V SO
- R- 1000 = 0.05 A ... current through instrument

dM = ~~X e' = 8x10-3 X 0 . 3926 = 3.1415x10- 3 H

E&EMI&M 7-52 Basic Measuring Instruments

.
• • M' = M + dM' = 0.5 + 3 .1415x1o- 3 = 0.50314 H

... Z' - R + j roM' = 1000 + j [2rrx50x 0 .50314] = 1000 + j 158.066 Q

.
•• IZ'l - ~(1000) 2 +(158.066) 2 = 1012.415 Q

R 1000
:. Voltmeter reading - Z' XVd.c. = .4 X50 = 49.3868 V
1012 15

:. Difference in d.c. and ·a.c.· readings = 50 - 49.3868 = 0.6131 V

7.17 Introduction to Energy

The energy is defined as the power delivered over a time interval. '
Energy = Power x Time
The electrical energy is defined as the work done over a time interval t and
mathematically expressed as,
,
t t
E - J Power(dt)=J vi?t ... (1)
0 0

Where v = Voltage in volts and i = Cur nt in amperes

The energy is measured in joules G) or watt-sec (W-s). Thus ener:gy of one joule means
the power of 1 watt over a time interval of 1 second.
An electrical energy can also be expressed in the unit watt-hour (Wh) or kilowatt-hou:
(kWh). Thus one kilowatt-hour energy means the expenditure of 1 kW power over a time-
-interval of 1 hour. The domestic electric energy expenditure is measured in kWh and
1 kWh is called 1 unit of energy.

7.18 Single Phase Energymeter

Induction type instruments are most commonly used as energy meters. Energy mete:
is an integrating instrument which measures quantity of electrici . Induction type ::
- - - ---..
energy meters are Universally used or . omes c an industrial applications. Th~,se . mete::
record the energy in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
The Fig. 7.32 shows the induction type single phase energymeter.
E&EMI&M 7-53 Basic Meas u r

w >
To recording
•
mechanism

-
I

.
t>
(
!2 b
Pressure 1
t> .. M2
(
coil b
I
t>
(
'
>L . .
. 1
Cu shading
- suoply ~ - bands Load
Shunt magnet

~2
I I L2
LJ r..............
··...···. ······..·.·.·....·.··.....
.. . .. ····.·.....·:.1
.... . -
Braking
magnet
..... r i:... ..............
I
.
.... ..... :1
-' I T
Disc
...........
.. .. . . . ...... ....
. . ... . .....
.. .
r.:l '

' Current ...

c;;;
._,::> ~1
•
<
< ~ M1
f.::>
11
coil
(Less tum)

Series magnet

Fig. 7.32 Induction type single phase energymeter

_: · ·:orks on the principle of induction i.e. on the production of eddy currents in the
~ -~g system by the alternating fluxes. These eddy currents induced in the moving
- -- interact with each other to produce a driving torque due to which disc rotates to
~ -.;i the energy .
./
.: :he energy meter there is no contr!Jlling to~que and thus due to driving torque only,
-~ _:_._'1U_Q].l.S rotation _of the disc is ~rodUceG."'To have-c<;>Itstant" ~speed rotation biiking
---- -
or w

--s-..zt is provided. ·
- --
- Construction
'l- ere are four main parts of operating mechanism,
: Jriving system 2) 11oving system 3) Braking system 4) Registering system.
:, Driving system : It consists of two electromagnets w hose core is made up of silicon
• ;:-R- l I

-=.. ~""'1.L.Lations. The coil of one of the electromagnets, called current coil, is excited by

.
_.:. ;:-...:..--rent which produces flux further. The coil of another electromagnet is connected
-
___:_._ 5S :..;..,.e supply and it carries current proportional to supply voltage .. This coil is called

s>.rre coil. These two electromagnets are called series and shunt magnets respective!) . -
 E&EMt&M 7-54 Basic Measuring Instruments

.. ,J:p
~.
flux produced by shunt magnet is brought in exact quadrature with supply_
voltage with the help of copper shading bands whose position is adjustable.
'
s-ys\em. -. \ . ign\ a\urffimum nl.sc moun\ec\ in a ugn\ alloy sbatt is \:he main
'l.) M()v\.n.g
part of moving system. 'J1lis disc is po1;iitioned in between series and shunt magnets. It is
-
supported between jewel bearings. The moving system runs on hardened steel pivot. ~
,.... . -
.
pinion engages the shaft with the counting mechanism. There are no springs and no
---
,

I : "' . · · --~
controlling torque.
Braking system : A permanent magnet is placed near the aluminium disc for
. 3)
br~g mechanism TI:ti.s magnet repioduc-ed its t>W'ir field. 'Fhe dise-m0-ue · the field of
~~ magn~t ~ a r · _ g tof:5lue_,is oi?tained. The position ~f this magnet is adju~ble
and ':hence
. - ·- ' --
braking torque is adjusted by shifting this magnet tq diffe!ent radial positions .
-
~ magnet is called ·Braking ma~=J -
4) Registering mechanism : It records continuously a number which is proportional to
the revolutions made by the alun:linium disc. By a suitable system, a train of reductiqn
I -
gears, the pinion on the shaft drives a series of pointers. These pointers rotate on ;-o~9-
dials which are equally marked with equal diyisions.
Practically the poi.nte~-type registering mechanism is used~Z!?e pointer indicates one
~Wh when the disc completes certain number of revolutions\ The second dial represents
10 kWh, third 100 kWh while on the other sides, dials measulmg 1/100 and 1/10 kWh are
also provided. The Fig. 7.33 (a) shows the pointer type register while the Fig. 7.33 (b)

1000 100 10 kWh

1 1
100 10
.. kWh

(a) Pointer register

1000 100 10

1
kWh 100 -101

(b) Cyclometer register

•
Fig. 7.33 Registering mechanisms used in induction energymeter
E&EMI&M 7-55 Basic Measuring Instruments

•
shows the cyclometer type register. In some meters the cyclometer type registering
mechanism is used. ,

7.19 Theory of Single Phase Induction Type Energymeter 4

Since the pressure coil is carried by shunt magnet M2 · which is connected across the
supply , it carries current proportional to the voltage. Series magnet M 1 carries current coil
·.vhich carries the load current. Both these coils produce alternating fluxes <l>sh and <l>se
f

:espectively. These fluxes are proportional to currents in their coils. Parts of each of these
- .____
::.uxes link with the disc and induces e.m.f. in it. Due to these e.m.f.s eddy currents are
~<ruceed
.. in the disc.
-..._ .... ,.. eady
The . - - ~ react with
current induced by the electromagnet

-
=:clg!}etic field 12roduced by M1. Also eddy currents induced by electromagnet M1 react
-:fu magnetic field produced by M 2 . ~us each portion of the disc experiences___2
.=-~cal fo~ce and due to motor action, disc rotates. The .speed of disc is controlled by
n P C shaped magnet called braking mag!};et. When disc rotates in the au gap, eady
--=.e~ts are induced in disc which oppose the cause .p roducing ~em i.e. ~elati~~-·motion of .
.:....._' with respect to magnet. Hence braking torque Tb is generated. Thjs is proportional to
-=eed.-N of disc. By adjusting position of this magnet, desired speed of disc isohtained.
- -=--~dle is connected to recording mechanism through gears which record the . enerpr
:Jlied. . · ·
-.
,.,___......

A simple functional diagram of driving mechanism is shown in the Fig. 7.34.

lp ~sh or ~P

Pressure
tv Coil
Shading A
0

band D

! Disc

Torque Torque
(due to les) (due to Iep)

=-=· 7.34 Functional diagram of induction type energymeter __

...__
E&EMI&M 7-56 Basic Measuring Instruments

The current I p produces the total flux <l>pt which has two components <1>g and <l>p. The
major portion is <1>g which flows through the side gaps as the reluctance of this part is very
small. ~e <l>p flows across the air gap and across the disc and is responsible to produce
the eddy e.m.f. Eep in the disc which produces the eddy current I ep in the disc. The <l>p is
sn1all and is in phase with Ip· It is proportional to lp and hence to supply voltage V as it
produces I p through pressure coil. <l>p lags the supply voltage V by an angle slightly less
than 90°.
The current coi~ carries the load current I and produces the flux <l>s . This is
p:oportional to I and in phase with it. This flux is responsible to induce eddy e.m.f. Ees in
the disc which produces the eddy current Ies in the disc. 1his interacts with the flux <l>p to
produce the torque while the eddy current I ep interacts with <Ps to produce the torque.
These two torques are opposite in direction and the net torque produced is the difference
between these two torques.
•
7.19.1 Torque Equation
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 7.35.

- ----------- goo
w.r.t. V

J-

·,

Fig. 7.35 Phasor diagram of single phase induction type energymeter

Let,
V - Supply voltage.
I - Load current.
- Current coil current.
E&EMI&M 7-57 Basic Measuring Instruments

Ip - Pressure coil current.

.:1 - Phase angle between V and I p .

6 - 90°

Eep - Eddy e.m.f. induced due to <Pp.

Ees - Eddy e.m.f. induced due to <l>s .

a - Phase angle of eddy currents.

Iep - Eddy current due to E ep·

I es - Eddy current due to Ees.

The current I p lags V by 6 and 6 is made goo using copper shading bands. The current
I lags V by <1> which depends on the load. The flux <l>s ·and I are in phase. The Eep lags <l>p
by goo while Ees lags <l>s by goo. The eddy currents I es and l ep lags E es and E ep
:-espectively by angle a.
The interaction between <l>p and I es produces torque T1 .
. While the interaction between <l>s and lep produces torque Tz. 1
:. T1 oc <l> p Ies cos( <l>p 1\ Ies) and Tz oc <l>s Iep cos( <l>s 1\ I ep)

<l>p Aies = a+<j> and <l>s 1\ Iep = 180-<!>+a. ... 6= 90°

:. Td oc T1 -T2 a. {[<l>p Ies cos(a+<!>)]-[<l>s Iep cos(180-<j>+a)]}

Now <l>p oc V, <l>s oc I, les oc <l>s oc I , Iep oc <l>p oc V

:. Td oc V I[cos(a+<!>)-cos(180-<j>+a)]
oc VI [(cos a cos <j>-sina sin<!>)-(cos(180 -<I>) cos a. -sin(180 -<!>)sin a)]
oc VI[cosa cosq>-sina. sin<j>-cos(180-<j>) cosa.+sin(180-<l>) sina]
oc 2 VI cos a cos <1> ... cos(180 -<!>)=-cos<!>, sin(180 -<!>)=sin <1>

I Td = K3 VI cosoJl (a is constant) ... (1)

Key Point: Thus the deflecting torque is proportional to the true power in the circuit.
If 6 is considered,

I- ... (2)

3ut practically .:1 is achieved to be exactly goo with the help of copper shading bands
-"-:at Td is proportional to power in the circuit.
E&EMI&M· 7-58 Basic Measuring Instruments

The braking torque 1s due to eddy currents induced in the aluminium disc. The
magnitude of eddy currents is proportional to the speed N of the disc. Hence the braking
.torque Tb is also proportional to. the speed N .
.
•
• • l.e. ... (3)

For the steady speed of rotation, Td =Tb.

.•. K 3 VI cos <j> = K4N

... IN = K VI cos$=K[Power] ... (4)

t t
Total number of revolutions= J N dt = J K (Power) dt
0 0
'

t
... Total number of revolutions - K J P dt = Kx Energy ... (5)
0

Thus the number of revolutions of the disc in a given ti.m e is the energy consumption
by the circuit in that time.

K = Meter constant =
N
energy
-
Number of revolutions
kWh
·;... (6)

Thus the number of revolutions of the disc per kWh

.
of energy consumption
.
is called
the meter constant.

7.20 Errors and Compensations

There are various errors present in the single phase induction type energymeter. The
driving system can cause the ·errors due to inaccurate phase angles, abnormal frequencies,
effect of temperature on the resistance and unsymmetrical magnetic circuit. The braking
system also can cause error due to change in the strength of the braking magnet, change
in resistance of the disc, abnormal friction of moving disc etc. To get accurate reading,
these errors are required to be compensated. Hence soine adjustmehts are pr<;>vided in the
energymeter to minimize these errors.

7.20.1 Lag Adjustment or Power Factor Adjustment

It is absolutely necessary that meter should measure correctly for all power factor
conditions of the loads. This is possible when the flux produced due to current in the
pressure coil lags the applied voltage by 90°. But the iron loss and resistance Qf winding
do not allow the flux to lag by exact 90° with respect to the voltage.
 ..-'\
E&EMI&M 7-59
.,. : Basic Measuring Instruments

The arrangement used to adjust this angle to be 90° is called lag adjustment. A
magnetic shunt circuit is introduced in the device which all.o ws the main portion of the
shunt magnet flux to bypass the gap in which the disc rotates. It is possible to produce an
m.m.f. in the proper phase relation to the shunt magnet flux to bring <l>sh i.e. <l> p in exact
quadrature with the voltage. This is shown in the Fig. 7.36 The lag coil is used in addition
to shunt coil. The lag coil is few turns of fairly thick wire placed around the central limb
of the shunt magnet. The part of shunt flux i.e. <l>p links with the lag coil to induce an
e.m.f. in it. This produces the lag coil current IL. This current produces a m.m.f. ATL in
phase with I L • Thus now the phase of <l>p is decided by the combined m.m.f. of lag coil
and shunt coil. This can be adjusted by adjusting the re~istance connected across the lag
coil. Whe~ resistance increases, current and m.m.f. of lag coil decreases which decreases
:he value of the lag angle of coil hence <Psh lags behind the voltage by exactly 90°.

.
~pt
IP

T
r_- IL
~
... ~ I> ..
>
Shunt
coil
v

~
- ~
Lag coil

Resjstance > r-- I>

< .........
<l>g
-.
- ~

~~p
6isthelag
I I ·angle

Disc
.
/ adjusted by ATL

Fig. 7.36 Lag adjustment

Instead of lag coil and resistance; many time 'copper shading. bands are placed on the /.'

-=-~:ral limb of the shunt magnet. These bands are adjustable. By moving these l?ands
_::=-tg the axis of the central limb, the lag adjustment can be achieved. When bands are
=.:--:ed upwards, the· e.m.f. ~duced in them increases increasing the m.m.f. produced,
-e-:re lag angle increases. When bands are moved down, the m.m.f. produced .by the
=-:.ds decreases which decreases the lag angle. 'f4us the <l>sh can be brought in exact
~...::.irature with the. voltage V.

:his adjustment is also called power factor adjustment, quadrature adjustment or

- -::.ctive load adjustment.

'
E&EMI&M 7-60 Basic Measuring Instruments

7.20.2 light Load Adjustment or Friction Adjustment

\
Inspite of proper design of the bearings and registering mechanism, there .is bound _to
exist some friction. ·Due to this, speed of the meter gets affected which cause the error in
the measurement of the energy.
To compensate for this, a metallic loop or strip is provide~ between central limb of
shunt magnet and the disc. Due to this strip an additional _troque independent of load is
produced which acts on the disc L~ the direction of rotation. This compensates for the
friction and meter cru."L be made to read accurately. 1his is shown as~ in the Fig. 7.37.

I
t·/
.
Coppershading
bands!

I I
I I

-...... ./

V/~ v 'l'///l L2 (Shading loop)

Disc I I

Fig. 7.37 Shading loop for friction adjustment

The shading loop L2 is also called light load plate.

The interaction between the portions of the flux which are shaded and unshaded by
this loop and the currents they induce in the disc generates a small 'driving torque whose
value can be adjusted by lateral movement of the loop L 2 . This additional driving torque
overcomes the frictional error. This torque is practically independent of the load and
depends on line voltage hence remains constant. The friction error is dominant at rated
voltage and very low current i.e. at light loads. The shading loop can be moved laterally to
adjust the speed to provide necessary compensation.

7 .20.3 Creeping Adjustment

In some meters, the disc rotates slowly and continuously when there is no load. The
'
rotation of disc without any current through current coil and only due to excitation of
pressure coil is called creeping. This is due to friction overcompensation. The torque
produced due to light load adjustment may keep disc rotating. To prevent creeping, two
holes are drilled in the disc, 180° opposite to each other. When the hole comes under ·the
shunt magnet pole, it gets acted upon by a torque opposite to its rotation. This is shown in
the Fig. 7.38.
E&EMI&M . 7-61 Basic Measuring Instruments

Shunt
magnet
pole

k-- Eddy currents

Hole in disc
under shunt
magnet pole
Fig. 7.38 Creeping adjustment

When a hole comes under the shunt magnet, the circular eddy current paths in the
.:.isc get distorted. This distortion is responsible to produce torque in opposite direction to
-":le rotation of the disc. This stops creeping. The torque is not very large so as to cause
2:rors under normal operating conditions.
In some cases, a small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the disc. The force of
.:.::raction of the braking magnet on the iron piece is responsible to prevent rotation of disc
-::-:. no loads.

- .20.4 Overload Compensation

When the disc rotates in the field of series magnetic field under load conditions, it cuts
:::-.e series flux and dynamically, e.m.f. is induced in the disc. This produces eddy currents
..=:. the disc which interacts with series magnet flux to produce braking torque. This is
-:-:-oportional to · square of the current. This is called self braking torque and at large loads
......::s value is very high, causing serious errors in the measurement. To minimize this braking
-:que, the full load speed of the disc is kept very low about 40 r.p.m. The current coil
~es flux is kept minimum compared to shunt magnet flux.

Practically an overload compensating device in the .form of a saturable magnetic shunt

-:- the series magnet core is used. This is shown in the Fig. 7.39.
E&EMI&M 7-62 Basic Measuring Instruments

Magnetic
shunt

, ~ Series magnet
/
Fig. 7.39 Overload compensation

At high loads, magnetic shunt saturates and diverts some of the series magnetic flux.
This compensates for the self braking torque.

7.20.5 Voltage Compensation

When supply voltage varies, the energymeter can cause errors. This is because of two
reasons, •

i) Nonlinear magnetic characteristics of shunt magnet c,o re.

ii) The braking torque which is proportional to square of the supply voltage.
The voltage compensation is provided by the saturable magnetic ~hunt which diverts a
large proportion of the flux into the active path when the supply voltage increases. The
compensation can be provided by increasing the side limb reluctance, by providing holes
in the side limbs.

7.20.6 Temperature Compensation

As temperature increases, the resistance of the copper and aluminium parts increases.
This has following effects, ·
i) .. ~mall reduction in shunt magnet flux.
ii) Reduction in angle of lag between V and <l>p.
iii) Reduction in torque produced by all shading bands.
iv)Increas~ in eddy current resistance path.
v) Decrease in angle of lag a. of the eddy currents.
These various effects neutralize each other and hence errors due to temperature ate not
serious. But at low lagging power factor loads, such effects may c~use serious errors. These
effects are compensated by providing a temperature shunt on the brake magnet. Special
magnetic materials such as Mutemp is used for the shunt whose permeability decreases
considerably as temperature increases. This provides temperature compensation and does
not allow the disc to rotate faster as temperature increases.
 E&EMI&M 7-63 Basic Measuring Instruments

7.20~7 Main Speed Adjustment

•
The measurement of energy is dependent on the speed of the rotating disc. For
accurate measurement, speed of the disc must be also proportionate. The speed of the
meter can be adjusted by means of changing the effective radius of the braking magnet
Moving the braking magnet in the direction of the spindle, decreases the value of the
effective radius, decreasing the braking torque. This increases the speed of the meter.
While the movement of the braking magnet in the outward direction ·i.e. away from the
centre of the disc, increases the radius, decreasing the speed of the disc. The fine
adjustments of the speed can be achieved by providing an additional flux divertor.
..
.y< Advantages of Induction Typ~ Energymeter
"

The various advantages of induction type energymeters are,

1. Its construction is simple and strong.
.... ........ 1

2. It is cheap inc~.

3. It has high torque to weight ratio, so frictional errors are less and we can get
accurate reading.
4. It has more accuracy.
5. It requires less maintenance.
6. Its range can be extended with the help of instrunp.ent transformers.

_;j,2 Disadvantages Qf Induction Type Energymeter

1. The main disadvantage is that it can be used only for a.c. circuits.
2. The creeping can cause errors.
3. Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit may cause errors.

i.23 Calibration of an ·Energymeter

Calibrating the energymeter means to find out the error in the measurement of energy
.=- energymeter.
•
Every energymeter has its own characteristic constant specified by the manufacturer
,!

.-..ich relates the energy measured in joules and the number of revolutions of the disc. For
_ .a:nple say 'x' revolutions corresponds to the measurem~nt of 'y' joules. But practically
=:: value of 'x' is very large and cannot be measured in the laboratory. Hence using this
:-~tant, energy recorded for certain less number of revolutions say 5, is calculated in the
.-::::c.tory for the calibration purpose. This energy is denoted as Er- Thus Er can be
::=....::.:lated from 'x' as,
5x
joules
.Y
 E&EMI&M 7-64 Basic Measuring Instruments
A
- I To have zero error, the actual energy
consumed by the load for the time
- corresponding to the 5 revolutions must

v
t I Energymeter Load
be same as Er. This energy is called
actual energy consumed or the true
l- energy denoted as Et. Experimental set
up used in the laboratory to obtain the
value of Et is shown in the Fig. 7.40.
Fig. 7.40

For various loads, the time required to complete the 5 revolutions of disc is measured
with the help of stop watch. The voltage and current readings are observed on the
ammeter and voltmeter connected in the circuit. The readings can be tabulated as : --

Sr. No. Voltage (V) Current (A) Time for True energy
revolutions
Et =VI t J
1
2
3 .
.
Now Er is fixed for the 5 revolutions, while Et is obtained practically. Hence error for
each load condition can be obtained as,

• % error = Er -Et
x 100
Et

-· The graph of % error against the load current I can be obta~ed, which is called
- · calibration curve for the energymeter. When there is no load, I = 0 and hence true energy
Et is also zero. While Er is also zero. Hence the error_is also zero. Thus-calibration curve
passes through origin. The errors can be positive or negative. Such a curve is.shown in the
Fig. 7.41.
Error

+ve
%error

-ve
% error

Fig. 7.41 Calibration curve

 E&EMI&M 7-65 Basic Measuring Instruments

Once the calibration curve is obtained, by observation of the curve, in which range of
the load current error is severe, can be easily predicted. And if error is not within the
permissible limits then by using the various adjustments discussed earlier, the error can be
minimised.

))J_. Example 7.20 : An energymeter is designed to make 100 revolutions of the disc for one
unit of energy. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it when connected to a load
carrying 20 A at 230 Vat 0.8 pf for an hour. If it actually makes 360 revolutions, find the
percentage error.
Solution : I = 20 A, V = 230 V, cos<!>= 0.8, t = 1 hour = 3600 sec
K - Meter constant = 100 rev /kWh
\ True energy = VI cos <j>xt = 230x 20x 0.8x 3600
- 13.248xl06 J i.e. watt-sec ... 1W=1J/s
13.248xl06
kWh = 3.68 kWh
3600x10 3

Number of revolutions = 360

360
... Er - 100 = 3 ·6 kWh

... %error - Er -Et xlOO = 3.6- 3.6~ X 100

Et 3.68
.
- -2.174%

Negative sign indicates that Er is less than Et and the meter is slow. '
Example 7.21 : The meter constant of a 230 V, 10 A watt-hour meter is
1800 revolutions per kWh. The meter is tested at half load and rated voltage . and uuity . .
power factor. The meter is found to make 80 revolutions in 138 seconds. Determine the
meter error at half load.
X. ution : K = 1800 rev /kWh, V = 230 V, I= 10 A, cos<!>= 1, Half load
10
I HL - 2 = 5 A, t = 138 sec

..• Et - VI HL cos <j>x t = 230x 5x 1 x 138 = 158700 J i.e. watt-sec.

158700
- kWh = 0.04408 kWh
3600x10 3

Number of revolutions 80
Er - = = q.o4444 kWh
K 1800
 E&EMI&M 7.-66 Basic Measuring Instruments

.•. % error = ErE~ Et x 100 = 0·04~~~4~~~08 x 100 = 0.817%

As Er is more than Et , meter is fast.

))~ Example 7.22 : A 230 V, single phase watt-hour meter has a constant load of 4 A
passing through it for 6 hours at unity pf. If the meter disc makes 2208 revolutions; during
this period, what is the meter constant in revolutions/kWh. Calculate the power factor of the
load if the number of revolutions made by the meter are 1472 when aperating at 230 V, 5 A
for 4 hours.

Solution : V = 230 V, I= 4 A, t = 6 hours, cos <P = 1, N = 2208 rey

Et - VI coscpxt =230x4x1x6 = 5520 Wh = 5.52 kWh

... N 2208
K - Et =
552
= 400 rev/kWh ... Meter constant.

V = 230 V, I= 5 A, t = 4 hours, N = 1472

Et - VI cosq>x t =230x5xcosq>x 4 =4600 coscp.Wh
•
- 4.6 cos $kWh

For N - 1472,

E - N = 1472 = 3 68 kWh
r K 400 ·

But Er - Et
•
•• 4.6 cos cp -- 3.68·
3.68
..• cos$ - = 0.8 lagging /) .
4.6

. ,,.. Example 7.23 : The meter constant of 5 A, 220 V, d.c. watt-hour meter is
3275 revolutions per kWh. Calculate the .speed of th~ disc at full load. In a test rl!-n at haij
load, the meter takes 59~5 sec to complete 30 revolutions. Calculate the error of the meter.

Solution : I= 5 A, V = 220 V, cos q> = 1 as d.c., K = 3275 rev /kWh

Energy consumed in one minute is,
..
1
E = VI coscpx t =220x5x1x Wh = 0.018333 kWh
60

:. Revolutions in one minute = Ex K=0.018333x 3275 ..

= 60.04 r.p.m.
:. Speed of disc = 60.04. r.p.m. = 1 r.p.s.
At half load, I= 5/2 = 2.5 A, t = 59.5 sec
 - ,

E&EMI&M 7-67 Basic Measuring Instruments

•
•• Et ·- VI cos<j>xt = 220x 2.5x 1 x59.5 J i.e. watt-sec
- 0.00909027 kWh
N -- 30 revolutions

. N 30
•• Er - K = 3275 = 0.0091603 . kWh

... %error - Er -Et x100 = 0.77%

Et

As E r is more than Et , meter is fast.

,,,_. Example 7.24 : A correctly adjusted 240 V, induction watt-hour meter has meter
constant of 600 revolutions per kWh. Determine the speed of the disc for a current of 10 A,
at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. If the lag adjustment is altered so that the phase angle
between flux and applied voltage is 86 °, calculate the error introduced at ,
1) unity pf, 2) 0.5 pf lagging.

Solution. : The energy consumed in one minute is,

. . . 1
E =VI ~os<j>x t = 240x10x 0.8x
60
= Wh = 32 Wh = 0.032 kWh
Revolutions in one minute= ExK=0.032x600 = 19.2
: . .Speed of disc = 19.2 r.p.m.
When lag adjustment is altered,

Speed N - KVI sin ( .1- <!>)

Ll - 90° for correct lag adjustment.

... N - KVI cos <1> for correct lag adjustment.

Given, Ll - 86°
i) Unity p.~., <I> - oo

.•. %error

ii) 0.5 p.f. lagging, <1> = 60°

.•. %error = sin(86o-60o)-cos(60o) x 100 = -t2.326%

coo(W 0 ) ·

* Example 7.25 : A 240 V, 5 A, 1-phase_energy _meter has a registration constant of

1200 revolutions per kWh. It ·is tested by means·of a 240 V, 5 A wattmeter having 500 scale
divisions which can be read to 0.1 division and a stop watch, which can be read to 0.01
second having negligible error. When tested at full .load, the meter makes 40 revolutions in
 •
E&EMI&M 7-68 Basic Measuring Instruments

· 99.8 seconds. If the human error in timing be taken as + 0.05 second, estimate the limits
· within which the error of the meter may lie. The wattmeter is accurate to within 0.05 % of
its full scale reading.
Solution : V = 240 V, l = 5 A, K = 1200 rev /kWh, N = 40
N 40
Er - K = kWh = 0.03333 kVVh ... Energymeter
1200

w - Vx i =240x5 = 1200 .w
Total divisions -- 500
1200
... 1 division - = 2.4 WI division
500
~

Wattmeter error -- + 0.1x 2.4 = + 0.24 W

Construction error of wattmeter=+ 0.05% of full scale

:. Total wattmeter error = + 0.24 + 0.6 = + 0.84 W

:. Wattmeter reading = 1200 + 0.84 W
Human error=+ 0.05 sec
Stopwatch error= + 0.01 sec
Total timing error = + 0.05 + 0.01 = + 0.06 s
:. Stop watch reading = 99.8 + 0.06 s
Energy obtained from wattmeter = Wx stop watch

- (1200+ 0.84] (99.8 + 0.06]

- 119915.8824 J, 119604.2184 J
- 0.033309 kWh, 0.0332233 kWh
0.033333-0.033309
... %error - x100
0.033309 )
-- + 0.072%
0.033333-0.0332233
v<
and %error - x100
0.0332233

- + 0.331 %'
.·. Error is between the limits 0.331 % to 0.072 %.
E&EMI&M Basic Measuring Instruments

7.24 Induction Type Wattmeter

~1.-Jgq:~e
wattmeter works on the principle o( [nducti'Dt i.e. on the
production the moving system by the alternating fluxes. ·These eddy
currents induce c with the_ inducing flux to produce the deflecting torque. This
t-ype of wattmeter can be used only for a.c. systems wrule the dynamometer type
w attmeter can be used for both a.c. and d.c. systems.

7.24.1 Construction
It consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silicon steel laminations,
0ne of the two magnets is called series magnet which carries the coil called current coil.
. ~ ~-~--~--
=ne other magnet is called shunt magnet which carries the coil called ~ssure coil or
.??t~tial coil. Tp.e pressure- colfCaiTfes the ~;-rrent which is proportional to the voltage
~e. load. Th~ current coil carries the current which is proportional to the lo,?d
_:rrrent. Using the copper shading bands provided on the shnnt magnet, the flux produced
=~ the shunt magnet is brought in exact quadrab.Lre with the supply voltage.

Key Point: Thus the shunt magnet flux lags the supply voltage by exactly 90°.
'
The light aluminium or copper disc is the main part of the ~oving system. It is
- ::sitioned between shunt and series magnets so t.h.at it can cut the flux from both the
\
=2-gnets. \ t---
Tilis type of instrument uses springs to produce the controlllng torque and permanent
u

-; p_1ets to produce the darnping torque. ·

:.Opper
Shunt Pressure
magnet coil Pressure coil

I
I

L L
0 / 0
R A R A
- D Supply D
Disc ' voltage
--= 1
I
Coppe!:.......
shading
band

Current
coil

Series
magenet Current
Series coil
-.age net

Fig. 7.42 Types of induction type wattmeters