Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-26 Testing and Measuring Instruments

A
A R B
,--- ---..,

G R
A
/ Insulation

High
G R
Binding
" ~'
RAG

~-
~)
I

:-..,...
-:.-
~-
~,

~
. RBG
~')
~-
-:.-
~-
~~-
)

resistance post
+ RBG
Guard B G
terminal B

(a) Three terminals (b) Equivalent (c) Practical version

Fig. 3.5.1 Three terminal resistance

• In the megaohm bridge, the high resistance to be measured is connected between

the two binding posts which are fixed to the metal plate.
• The two main terminals of
three terminal resistance are ;------=--~
Guard terminal Variable
ratio ann
connected in the bridge.
• The third terminal is the
common point of the
resistances R 1 and 'R 2 . This is
+
connected to the guard Amplifier and
null detector
terminal G on the front panel
of the bridge as shown in the
Fig. 3.5.2. Three-terminal Resistance
resistance multiplier
• This connection puts R 1 in
parallel with ratio arm
Fig. 3.5.2 Megaohm bridge with three terminal
resistance RA but since R 1 is resistor
very much larger than RA,
its shunting effect is negligible.
• Similarly R 2 ill parallel with galvanometer has no effect as R2 is much highe:
than galvanometer. It slightly reduces the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
• Thus the effect of external leakage path can be removed by using the guard ciro::...:
on the three termmal resistance.
• If guard circuit is absent, leakage resistances R 1 and R 2 would be placed direc£
across Rx and giving large error in the measurement.
• The megaohm bridge has a range from 0.1 MQ to 10 6 MQ.

1. What is megaohm bridge ? Explain its use in the measurement of high resistance.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-27 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Ill A.C. Bridges .

• An a.c. bridge in its basic form consists of four arms, a source of excitation and a
balance detector. Each arm consists of an impedance.
.
• The source 1s an a.c.
supply which supplies a.c. ~- Head phone as null
voltage at the required detector

frequency.
E
• The simple a.c. bridge is A. C.
supply
the outcome of the
Wheatstone bridge. The
impedances at audio and
radio frequency range can B
be easily determined by Fig. 3.6.1 A.C. Wheatstone bridge
such simple a.c.
Wheatstone bridge. It is shown in the Fig. 3.6.1.
3.6.1 Sources and Detectors

• For bridge measurements at very low frequencies, the power line itself may act as
a source of supply to the bridge circuit.
• For bridge measurements at higher frequencies electronic oscillators are used as a
source of supply to the bridge circuit. A typical oscillator has a frequency range of
40 Hz to 125 kHz with power output of 7 W.
• For the a.c. bridges commonly used detectors are as follows.
i) Headphones : The frequency range over which headphones can be used as
detector effectively is 250 Hz upto 3 to 4 kHz.
ii) Vibration galvanometers : For low audio frequency ranges and power
ranges, these detectors are extremely effective. These detectors can be
effectively used below 200 Hz with greater sensitivity than the headphones.
iii)Tuneable amplifier detectors : The transistor amplifier can be tuned
electrically to any desired frequency and then it can be made to respond to a
narrow bandwidth at a bridge frequency. The output of such amplifier is
connected to the indicating instruments. The frequency range for these
detectors is 10 Hz to 100 kHz.

3.6.2· Bridge Balance Equation

• For bridge balance, the potential of point C must be same as the potential of
point D. These potentials must be equal interms of amplitude as well as phase .
.,.
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-28 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• Thus the drop from A to C must be equal to drop across A to D, in both

magnitude and phase for the bridge balance.
... . .. (3.6.1)
• The vector notation indicates, both amplitude and phase to be considered.
... r1z1 = I 2 z 2 ... (3.6.2)
• When the bridge is balanced, no current flows through the headphones.
.
.... - - -
.. I 3 - I1 and I 4 = I2
- E - E
Now 11 - and I2 = . ... (3.6.3)
zl + Z3 z2 +Z4
• Substituting equation (3.6.3) into (3.6.2) we get,
-- --
E·Z1
-- E·Z2 .
I.e.
zl +Z 3 z2 +Z4

... zlz4 - z2z3 ... (3.6.4)

The equation (3.6.4) is the balancing equation in the impedance form.

• In th~ admittance form the condition can be expressed as,
yly4 = y2y3 ... (3.6.5)

• The admittance is the reciprocal of the impedance.

• Now in the polar form the impedances are expressed as,

where Z 11 Z2, Z 3 , Z 4 are the magnitudes and 8 1, 8 2 , e3 and 8 4 are the phase
angles.
• Note that the product of the impedances must be carried out in polar form where
magnitudes get multiplied and phase angles get added.
Substituting in equation (3.6.4) we get,
z1 .L e1 x z 4 .L 8 4 - z2 .L 8 2 x z3 .L 8 3

Z 1Z 4 .L8 1 +8 4 - Z 2 Z 3 .L8 2 +8 3 ... (3.6.6)

• The equation (3.6.6) gives the two conditions to be satisfied for the bridge balcq:lce.
• Equating magnitudes of both sides we get the magnitude condition as,

... (3.6.8)

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3 - 29 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• Equating phase angles we get,

..-l-e_l_+_e_4___ e_2_+_e_3--.
... (3.6.9)

Key Point Thus the products of the magnitudes of the opposite arms must be equal while
sum of the phase angles of the opposite arms must be equal.

• Thus the bridge must be balanced for both the conditions magnitude as well as
phase. The phase angles depend on the components of the individual impedances.
Key Point The phase angles are positive for the inductive impedances and negative for the
capacitive impedances.

For inductive branch, X1 = 2nfL .Q

1
For capacitive branch, Zc = R- j X c = IZ c1 L- e where X c = 2nfC Q

1. Write a note on sources •and detectors used in the a.c. bridges.

2. With a neat a.c. bridge network, derive the gen~ral equation for bridge balance.

ID Maxwell's Bridge
• Maxwell's bridge can be used to measure inductance by comparison either with a
variable standard self inductance or with a standard variable capacitance.

v1 / ; ;----- i "'-- ----------- ----- - ---r----

/ R1 2 R2 V2 v
''
-~ B
A.C. Q~tt------i Detector t - - - - . ------- --- V ·
supply I i 3 ( cuL3 )

~
/
f Hz /

R3 v4 12,14 11 ,13

Rx __________tI_____--
________________ +
'
' '
,,' c 1 i 3 (R 3 +r) = i4 Rx

'

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 3.7.1 Maxwell's inductance bridge

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 •

Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-30 Testing and Measuring Instruments

. -
3.7.1/ Maxwell's Inductance Bridge

• Using this bridge, we can measure inductance by comparing it with a standard

variable self inductance arranged in bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 3.7.1 (a).
• Two branches consist of non-inductive resistances R 1 and R 2 . One of the arms
consists variable inductance L 3 with series resistance r. The remammg arm
consists unknown inductance L x. )
• At balance, we get condition as,
I

Rl - .'..\ (3.7.1)
[(R 3 +r)+jmL 3 ]

... R 1 [Rx +jmLx] = R 2 [(R 3 +r)+jmL 3 ] 1.e.

R 1R x + j m R 1L x = R 2 (R 3 + r) + j co R 2 L 3
• Equating imaginary terms, we can write, R 1 Lx = R 2 L3

...
... (3.7.2)

• Equating real terms, we can write, R 1 Rx= R 2 (R 3 +r) -

R
- R~(R3 + r) ... (3.7.3)

• Under the balanced condition, the vector diagram for Maxwells inductance .b ridge
is as shown in the Fig. 3.7.1 (b).

MaxweWs Inductance Capacitance Bridge

• Using this bridge, we can measure inductance by comparing . with a variable

standard capacitor. The bridge circuit diagram is as shown in the Fig. 3.7.2 (a).
• One of the ratio arms consists of resistance and capacitance in parallel. Hence it is
simple to write the bridge equations in the admittance form.
• The general bridge balance equation is, Zl Zx = z2 Z3

... .
Z X -
z2 z3 = z 2 z 3 Y
1 . .. (3.7.4)
zi
1
where i.e. R 1 in parallel with C1

TU
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3 - 31 Testing and Measuring lnstrur:nents

tc - - -- - - - - - i3 = i1
A.C. I

supply
f Hz

~~~----~~----------14
(Rx) i 4 1R1

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 3.7 .2 Maxwell's inductance capacitance bridge

Now · ... (3.7.5)

1 .
As as -. =- J
J
• Substituting all the values in equation (3.7.4) we get,
. L x = R 2 R 3 [ - l + JCD
R x + JCD . C1] I.e. R x + JCO R 2 R -=--
. L x = --=- 3
+ J'R 2 R 3CD C 1 ... (3.7.6)
. Rl , Rt
• Equating real parts,

.. . (3.7.7)

• Equating imaginary parts, w Lx = R2 R3 w C 1

I Lx = R2 RJ cl ... (3.7.8)

• The resistances a~e expressed in ohms, the inductances in henries and capacitance
in farads.
• The quality factor of the coil is given by,
CD Lx -- CD R2R3Cl
Q =
(R~~J J
Rx

.. Q -- CD RlCl .. . (3.7.9)
I
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-32 Testing and Measuring Instruments

3.i .2.1:: Aadvantages of using Standard known Capacitor

1) The capacitors are less expensive than stable and accurate standard inductors.
2) The capacitors are almost lossless.
3) External fields have less effect on a capacitor. The standard inductor requires well
shielding in order to eliminate the effect of stray magnetic fields.
4) The standard inductor will not present its rated value of inductance unless current
flow through it is precisely adjusted.
5) The capacitors are smaller in size.
• 'I:his bridge is also called Maxwell Wien bridge.

Advantages of Maxwell Bridge

1) The balance equation is independent of losses associated with inductance.

2) The balance equation is independent of frequency of measurement.
3) The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to read the inductance directly.
4) The scale of R 1 can be calibrated to read the Q value directly.
5) When the bridge is balanced, the only component in series with coil under test is
resistance R2 . If R2 · is selected such that it can carry high current, then heavy
current carrying capacity coils can be tested using this bridge.

Limitations of Maxwell Bridge

'

1) It cannot be used for the measurement of high Q values. Its use is limited to the
measurement of low Q values from 1 to 10.
2) There is an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. Getting the
balance adjustment is. little difficult.
3) It is unsuited for the coils with low Q values, less than one, because of balance
convergence problem.
4) The bridge balance equations are independent of frequency. But practically, the
properties of coil under test vary with frequency which can cause error.
• Commercial Maxwell bridge measures the inductance from 1 - 1000 H, with+ 2 %
error.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-33 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Example 3.7.1 The arms of an a.c. maxwell's bridge are adjusted as :

Arm AB : Nonreactive resistance of 700 Q
Arm CD :Nonreactive resistance of 300 Q
Arm AD : Nonreactive resistance of 1200 Q in parallel with capacitor of 0.5 ~LF.
If the bridge is balanced under this condition, find the components of the branch BC.
Solution : The bridge is shown in the Fig. 3.7.3. .
From the bridge, A

C 1 - 0.5 J-LF, R1 = 1200 Q

R2 - 700 Q, R3 = 300 Q
R1
1200 Q
From bridge balance equation,

Key Point If the branches are not given in standard form as they are assumed for deriving
bridge balance equation, derive the bridge balance equation again from the basic condition
zl z4 = z3 z2.
' . . .
Example 3.7 .2.. The arms of an a.c. Maxwell's bridge are arranged as follows . . :1-B and BC are
non-reactive resistor of 100 Q each. DA is a standard variable inductor L1 of resistance
32.7 Q and CD comprises a standard variable resistance R in series with a coil of
unknown impedance. Balance was obtained with L1 = 47.8 mH and R = 1.36 Q. Find the
resistance and inductance of coil.
Solution : The Maxwell's bridge is as shown in the Fig. 3.7.4.

The balance is obtained when A

L 2 = 47.8 mH and R 2 = 1.36 Q.

At balance,

100(r1 + jwL 1) = 100[(R2 + r2)+ j(J)L2]

Equating real and imaginary terms, we
get,

Fig. 3.7.4 Maxwell's bridge

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-34 Testing and Measuring Instruments

:. Inductance of coil in branch CD is L 2 = L 1 = 4.7 mH

Resistance of coil in branch CD is given by
r2 = r1- R 1 = 32.7 - 1.36 = 31.34 Q.

1. Draw the Maxwell's induction-capacitance bridge and derive the bridge balance equation. Also give
its advantages and disadvanages.
2. Derive the bridge balance condition for the Maxwell's inductance bridge.

BJ Hay's Bridge Dec.-12

• The limitation of Maxwell's bridge is that it cannot be used for high Q values. The
Hay's bridge is suitable for the coils having high Q values.
• The difference in Maxwell's bridge and Hay's bridge is that the Hay's bridge
consists of resistance R 1 in series with the standard capacitor C1 in one of the ratio
arms.
• Hence for larger phase angles R 1 needed is very low, which is practicable. Hence
bridge can be lised for the coils with high Q values.
• The Hay's bridge is shown in the Fig. 3.8.1 (a) .
•
• Under balanced condition, the phasor diagram is as shown in the Fig. 3.8.1 (b).

A. C.
supply
f Hz

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 3.8.1 Hay's bridge

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-35 Testing and Measuring Instruments

The various constants of the bridge are :

zI = R I - j X Cl =R I - j( Ol~ I )
Z4 = Zx = Rx + j (w Lx)

• At the balance condition, zl Zx - z2 z3

..

... .. . (3.8.1)

• Equating the real parts of both sides,

L o
RxRI +ex = R2R3 0 0. (3.8.2)
1
0

• Equating the imaginary parts of both sides of equation (3.8.1),

wR 1L - Rx - 0 ... (3.8.3)
X cue I 0

• To obtain Rx and Lx, solve equations (3.8.2) and (3.8.3) simultaneously.

From equation (3.8.3), roR 1 Lx - l.e. • 0. (3.8.4)

• Substituting in equation (3.8.2),

Rx 1
RxRl + = R2R3 l.e. Rx R,+ = R2R3
w2RIC12 w2RICI2

1+w 2·R 12 e I 2
... Rx -- R2R3
0 •
w2Rlel2 -

w2 R 1 c;R 2 R 3
2 2 2 . .. (3.8.5)
1+w R 1 C 1

• Substituting equation (3.8.5) in equation (3.8.4) we get,

w2 R 1 .C ~ R 2 R 3

....
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-36 Testing and Measuring Instruments

...
. .. (3.8.6)

• Using equations (3.8.5) and (3.8.6) the unknown resistance and the inductance can
be calculated.
• The expressions are frequency (CD) sensitive and hence source frequency must be
accurately known.
• From the phase angle
balance equation, the
opposite sets of phase
angles must be equal.
As Z 2 and Z 3 are
purely :resistive, the
inductive phase angle 1
must be equal to the we 1
capacitive phase angle. .•..
(a} (b)
• The inductive and Fig. 3.8.2
capacitive phase angles
can be determined from the impedance triangles shown in the Fig. 3.8.2.
XLx - CD Lx.
tan 8L - - =Q ... (3.8.7)
Rx Rx
Xcl - 1
tan ec -- - ·.·. (3.8.8)
Rl wC 1R 1

• The two angles must be equal at bridge balance.

Q = 1 ... (3.8.9)
CD C 1R 1

• Substituting in the equation (3.8.6) we get,

R2 R3 Cl

1+( ~r
... (3.8.10)

• For a large value of Q, 1/Q 2 becomes small and can be neglected.

... I Lx = R2 R3 cl I ... For high Q

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-37 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• This is same as Maxwell's bridge equation.

• The commercial Hay's bridge measure the inductances in the range 1!-lH -100 H
with + 2 % error.

3.8.1 Advantages of Hay•s Bridge

i) It is best suitable for the measurement of inductance with high Q, typically greater
than 10.
ii) It gives very simple expression for Q factor in terms of elements in the bridge.
iii) It requires very low value resistor R 1 to measure high Q inductance.

3.8.2 Disadvantage of Hay•s Bridge

• It is only suitable for measurement of high Q inductance.

• Consider expression for unknown inductance.

L X -- R2R3C1

I+(~y
• For high Q inductances, (l!Q 2 ) term can be neglected. But for low Q
measurements, ( l! Q 2 ) term is significant, hence can not be neglected. Hence Hay's
bridge is not suitable for the measurement of low Q inductances. In such cases,
Maxwell's bridge is preferred.

F.iiiiiiiiii~ir.ii:il Calculate the unknown inductance and resistance measured by Hay's bridge.
The bridge elements at the balancing condition are
Rl = 5.1 kQ, c, = 2 J-lf R 2 = 7.9 kQ R3 = 790 Q
I I

The supply angular frequency is 1000 rad/sec.

Solution : From the Hay's bridge balance equations,

w2 R 1 c; R 2 R3
1 +CD2 R 2I C l 2

_ (1000)2 x5.lx10 3 x(2xl0- 6 ) 2 x7.9x10 3 x790 = .212 kQ

1
2
1 +(1000) 2 (5.1x10 3 ) 2 (2xlo- 6 )

1
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-38 Testing and Measuring Instruments

7.9x10 3 x790x 2xlo- 6

and - - - - --- = 118.83 mH
1 + 104.04

Thus the unknown inductance and resistance are 118.83 mH and 1.212 kQ .
In a balanced network, AB is a resistance of 500 Q in series with an inductor
of 0.18 H, BC and DA are non-inductive resistances of 1 kQ each and CD consists of a
resistance R in series with a capacitor C. A potential difference of 5 V at a frequency of
5000/ 2n is applied between points A and C. Determine the values of R and C.
Dec.-12, Marks 8

Solution : The bridge is shown in the c

Fig. 3.8.3.
z2 - z 3 = 1 k.Q
Z 1 - R 1 +j(mL 1)

= 500+J·( 2n: X 5000

1t X 0.18
2
J 5000 H
2n z
= 500+j900 Q
R 1 =500 Q
Z4 = Rx -jXcx
A
At a balance condition,
Fig. 3.8.3
ZlZx = z2z3
... [Rx -{ Ol~x )] [500+j 900) = 3
lxl0 xlx103

500 900
... 500 R - . [
X J me X - 900 R ] +
X mC X
- 1 X 10 6

9 0
500Rx +
(J)
~X -- 1x10 6

500 --
-900Rx 0
mCx

From equation (3 .8 .12), R

...'x = ·5555
Qm C and use m
. m
. equation
. (3 .8 .11)
.,
X

500x 0.5555 + 900 _ x 106

... 1 1.e. mCx = 1.1777x1o-3
mCx mCx

lU
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-39 Testing and Measuring Instruments

1.7777xlo- 3 = 0 _235 F
... ex -- ... co = 2nf
( 2nx S~~OJ ~
0.5555
... Rx -- = 471.7 Q
5000
2n x x 0. 235x 10-6
2n

' '
Review Question
•,

1. Discuss briefly how Hay's bridge can be used for the measurement of inductance.
2. Why Hay's bridge 'is not suitable for the measurement of low Q values.
3. State the advantages and limitations of Hay's bridge.

IIJ Schering Bridge

.
• It is one of the most widely used
a.c. bridges for the measurement of
unknown capacitors, dielectric loss
and power factor.
A. C.
• The Fig. 3.9.1 shows the connections supply
of Schering bridge.
• The C x is perfect capacitor to be
measured. R x is series resistance.
• c2 is standard air capacitor having
Fig. 3.9.1 Schering bridge
very stable value.
• R 3 and R 4 are noninductive resistances while C 4 is variable capacitor.

• From the general balance equation, Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z3

I .
Z1 = R - j ,
X (J) c X

... ?:4 -

'u
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-40 Testing and Measuring Instruments

...
_(l+ro R~
2
en R 3 (- rob 2 J
- (R 4 - jroR~ C4 )

. 1
RX - j
(I)
cX

• Equating real and imaginary parts,

... (3.9.1)

]
I.e.

... (3.9.2)

• The equations (3.9.1) and (3.9.2) gives the required values of Cx and Rx.

Power Factor and Loss Angle

i) Power factor (p.f.) : The power factor of the series RC combination is defined as
the cosine of the phase angle of the circuit.
R
p.f. = COS <P X = X
. Zx

• For phase angles very close to 90°, the reactance is almost equal to the impedance,
Rx - Rx
... p.f. = -
~.)
XX
( (!)

[ P· f. = (J) R X ex
tU

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3 - 41 Testing and Measuring Instruments

ii) Loss angle (8) : For a series combination of Rx and ex, the angle between the
voltage across the series combination and voltage across the capacitor ex is called loss
angle o.
• This is shown in the Fig. 3.9.2 (a).
I Rx .
N
ow tanu =
s::
r( OJ ~X ) = OJ Rx ex

I ( W~x) v
Fig. 3.9.2 (a)

• Thus loss angle can be measured, knowing the values of CD, R 4 and C 4 .

iii) Dissipation factor (D) : For Rx -Cx series circuit, it is cotangent of the phase
angle <j) x .

... 1 1
D =cot~ = - - -- - =wRx ex =CDR4 C4
tan~ x J
~X
x (
I OJ

The quality factor Q = XIR = 1/w CR hence dissipation factor is reciprocal

· ~ ·~ ,!~'-' . r, ••• ~~'!'

KeY:
. P:oinf
. ..., '

of quality factor Q and gives the information about quality of the capacitor.

• Thus if the resistance R 4 is fixed, then the dial of capacitor e 4 can be directly
calibrated to give dissipation factor D i.e. quality of the capacitor.
• As the term CD is present in the equation, the calibration of C 4 dial holds good for
only one particular frequency. The different frequency can be used but a correction
should be made to multiply the C 4 dial reading by the ratio of the two
frequencies.
• Similarly if the resistance ratio is maintained at fixed value, the dial of e 3 can be
graduated in terms of direct readings of ex.
• Commercial Schering bridge measures the capacitors from 100 pF - 1 ~LF, with
+ 2 % accuracy.
Key _Point The bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with very
~igh precision.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-42 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.9.2 (b) at the balance condition.
12 (direction)

G
Current
through c4 ~----1
V2 wc 4

'
''
''
'
''

c
v1 = r2 ( w~2)
Fig. 3.9.2 (b) Phasor diagram of Schering bridge

• 11 is chosen reference. V1 is drop across Rx and Cx.

1
• Thus OA = f 1 R x and OB =I 1 ( ) and I 1 leads capacitor drop by 90°.
0) ex
• Thus OC = V1 is OA+OB .

~
• VI = !2 ( w
2 }.e. drop across C2 . So current 12 leads V2 by 90°.

• Then V2 =I 1 R 3 which is ODin phase with 11. And V1 +V2 =Vis supply voltag;::
OE.

• V2 is also drop across R 4 and C 4 .

• Let OF is current through R 4 thus OF = V2 I R 4 in phase with V2 while OG :..

current through c4 which is v2 c4 Q) and is leading v2 by 90°.
• The OH =I 2 which is vector sum of OF and OG.

Example 3.9.1 The Schering bridge has the following constants :

Arm AB - Capacitor of 1 J.,Lf in parallel with 1.2 k Q resistance
Arm AD- Resistance of 4.7 k.Q
Arm BC - Capacitor of 1 J.,LF
Arm CD- Unknown capacitor Cx and Rx
The frequency of supply is 0.5 kHz. Calculate the unknown capacitance and its dissipation
factor.

,.
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-43 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Solution: From the given information,

R1 - 1.2 kQ C 1 = 1 ~F
R2 - 4.7 kQ c 3 = 1 M-F
From the balance equations,
R 2 C 1 _ 4.7x10 3 xlxlo - 6
RX = = 4.7 kQ
C3 lxlo- 6

= 0.255 J..LF

The dissipation factor,

D - wCx Rx = 2n f Cx Rx
- 2nX 0.5 X 10 3 X 0.255 X 10- 6
X 4.7 X 10 3 = 3.765
Example 3.9.2 The bridge is balanced at 1000 Hz. It has following components :
Arm AB = 0.2 J..Lf pure capacitance
Arm BC = 500 Q pure resistance
Arm DA = 300 Q parallel with 0.1 J..LF
Find the constants of arm CD, considering it as a series circuit.
Solution: The bridge lS shown m the B

Fig. 3.9.3.
o - j Xc 1 = o - j ( ro~ 1 )
z1
zl - -

z2 -- R2 and z3 - R3
- II Xc3 A Detector c
1 1
... y3 --
R3 +j( Xc3 )=d"3 +j(wC 3)
and z 4 -- Zx
The basic balance equation is,
Fig. 3.9.3
zlz4 - z2z3
.. z2z3 -- z2 - R2
z4 - -
z1 ZtY3
- rob1 [ d-3 +jroC 3 ]
.,.
1
ow, -- =J
J

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 . ..
Electromc Instruments and Measurements 3-44 Testing and Measuring Instruments

_ 0+)2nx1000x0.2x10- 6 xSOO _ 0+ j 0.6283

...
1 +j2nxlOOOxO.lxl0- 6 3 4
3.33xlo- +j6.283xlo-
300

0 6283 90
- · L o = 185.407 L + 79.32° = 34.36 + "182.i9 Q
3.3888x 10- 3 L + 10.68° J

... Zx -- 34.36 + j182.19 Q L e.

Rx -- 34.36 Q

and XL - 182.19 Q
- = 2 nfLx
182 19
... Lx - · = 0.029 H = 29 mH
2nx1000

Solved Examples on Bridge Circuits

Given the Maxwell bridge as shown in the Fig. 3.10.1, find the equivalent
series resistance and inductance of R x and L x at balance.

E=6V Detector
f = 1 kHz

Fig. 3.10.1
Solution : ZJ -- Rt II XcJ
. c = ~
...
60
1
yl -- -+JCO + j ( 2nx 1000 x 1 x 10-6 )
I
Rl

-- 1.66 X 10-3 + j 6.283 X 10- 3 .

z2 - 100 Q
z3 - 1000Q
z~ -- Rx+jXL=Zx

From the basic balance equation,

Z 1Z4 = Z2 Z3

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-45 Testing and Measuring Instruments

...

- 166 + j 628.3 .Q = RX + j XL .Q

... Rx - 166 Q
... XL - 628.3 =. 2nf Lx
628 3
... Lx - · = 0.099 H
2nx 100.0

~iii IWB~~~ An a.c. bridge circuit for measurement of effective inductance and
capacitance of an iron cored coil is as follows :
Arm AB : The unknown impedance, Arm BC : A pure resistance of 10 Q , Arm CB : A
loss free capacitance of 1 J.,LF and Arm AD : A capacitance of 0.135 M-F in series with
842Q resistance. Obtain the balance equations of the bridge and determine the unknown
parameters in the arm AB.
Solution : From the given information the bridge is as shown in the Fig. 3.10.2.

o.135 J.tF } z 2

842Q

Fig. 3.10.2
The general balance equation is,

Let the frequency is CD rad/ sec.

... z 2 _ [842 _. 1 J= 842 _ . 7.4074x1o 6 · Q

J ro 0.135xlo-6 J w
z3 - 10 + j 0 = 10 L0° Q
z4 - o - ·j 1 =- j 106 = 106 .L -9oo .Q
wx1x1o- 6 ro w

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS"' - An up thrust for knowledge .

Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-46 Testing and Measuring Instruments

6
842 _ j 7.4074 X 10
[1 O]
= - - - - - -co--=----- 8420-j 7.4076x107 1 L +90o
10 6 co 106
L-90°
co

_ _j 7.4076x1o7· . c.o ] . 8420 7.4076x 10

7
8420 +J = JC.O +- --6 -
co [ 106 10 6 10 .

- 74.076+jco 8420x1o-6

Comparing Z 1 with R1 +jco L 1

:. R1 = 74.076 Q and L1 = 8420 ~-tH = 8.42 mH.
These are the unknown parameters of arm AB.
In a Maxwell's inductance comparison bridge arm ab consists of a coil wi'th
inductance L1 and resistance r1 in series with a non-inductive resistance R. The arm be
and ad are each of non-inductive resistances of 100 Q. Arm ad consists of standard
variable inductor L2 of resistance 32.7 Q . Balance is obtained when L2 = 47.8 rnF-I and
R = 1.36 Q . Find resistance and inductance of the coil in arm AB.
Solution : A Maxwell's inductance comparison bridge is as shown in the Fig. 7.30.
Under balance condition, we can write,
... (3.10.1)

But impedance of branch ab is given L1• r1

by, A. C. 1--------itB
supply
f Hz
... (3.10.2)

Similarly, the impedance of branch be

and cd are given as,
z3 = 100 Q and Fig. 3.10.3

Z 4 =100Q ... (3.10.3)

The impedance of branch ad is given by,
Z2 = [32.7+jcoL 2 ] ... (3.10.4)

Putting values in equation (3.10.1), we get,

[(~+r 1 )+jco LJJ(100] = [32.7 +jw L 2 ][100]
Le. ... (3.10.5)

Under balanced condition, L 2 = 47.8 mH and R = 1.36 Q.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-47 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Hence putting values in equation (3.10.5), we get,

(1.36+r1 )+jroL 1 = 32.7+jro(47.8x1o- 3 )

Equating real terms, we get,

1.36+r1 - 32.7

r1 - 31.34 Q

Equating imaginary terms, we get

ro L 1 - w(47.8xlo-3 )
I.e. L1 - 47.8x1o- 3 H = 47.8 mH
Thus the values of resistance and inductance of the coil in arm ab are 31.34 Q and
47.8 mH respectively.

The four impedances of an a.c. bridge are

ZAB = 400L. 50° Q, ZAD = 200L. 40° Q,
z Be = 800 L. -soo .Q, Zco = 400 L. 20 ° Q
Find out whether the bridge is balanced under these conditions are not.
Solution : For an a.c. bridge, the balance conditions are given by,

zl z4 - z2 z3 ... Condition of balance for magnitudes

L.81 + L84 - L. 82 +L.83 ... Condition of balance for phases.
A
Consider the basic a.c. bridge
with four impedances as shown
:n the Fig. 3.10.4. z1 = 400.Lsoo Q
Applying the condition of A. C.
Supply
~alance for the magnitudes, we
f Hz
get,
z3 = BOO.L-50° Q
Z1 · Z 4 = z2 · z 3 ... (3.10.6) z4 =400.L20° Q
_e. (400) (400) - (200) (800) L-------------~ c
Fig. 3.10.4
_e. 160000 - 160000

That means condition of balance for magnitudes is satisfied.

Applying the condition of balance for phases, we get
L.81 +L.84 - L.82 +L.83 ... (3.10.7)

L.H.S. = L.8 1 +L8 4 - [50°+20°]=70°

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-48 Testing and Measuring Instruments

R.H.S. = L8 2 +L8 3 = [40°- 50°] = -10°

As the values on L.H.S. and R.H.S. of equation (3.10.7) are not equal, the condition
of balance for phases is not satisfied.
Thus for above given conditions, the bridge is in unbalanced condition because
eventhough condition of balance for magnitudes is satisfied; condition of balance for
phases is not satisfied.
:example
t ' ,'"' • I,_·
3jo.s An a.c. bridge circuit working at 1 kHz have its arms as follows.
Arm AB : 0.2 ).!F capacitance Arm BC : 500 Q resistance Arm CD : Unknown impedance
Arm DA : 300 Q resistance in parallel with 0.1 11F capacitor.
Find R and Lor C constants of the arm CD considering it as a series circuit.

Solution : Consider the basic a.c. bridge as shown in the Fig. 3.10.5.

Detector

Fig. 3.1 0.5

The branch AB consists C 1 = 0.2 J.lF. Hence impedance of branch AB i.e. Z.1 is given
by,

... z1 = - j 795.77Q = 795.77 L - 90° n

Similarly, branch AD consists parallel combination of R2 = 300 Q and C 2 = O.l!J.F.
Hence, impedance of branch AD i.e. Z 2 is given by,
-J
R2

...

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3 - 49 Testing and Measuring Instruments

300
..
•
z2 =
l+j(2xnxlx10 3 xO.lx1o-6 x300)
300 300
- -
1 +j 0.1885 1.0176 L + 10.695°

... z2 = 294.81 L- 10.67° Q

For balance, the condition is given by,

Hence under balance condition impedance of branch CD i.e. Z 4 = Zx is given by,

- z2 .z3
Z4 -
zl
Substituting values of Z 1 , Z 2 and Z 3 , we get,
z _ (294.81 L - 10.67 °) (500)
4
- 795.77 L - 90°

Z 4 = 185.2356 L 79.33° Q

Thus positive angle of impedance Z 4 indicates it is an inductive impedance of series

R-L circuit. Thus we can write,
Z4 = R 4 + j XL 4 = (34.2967 + j 182.03) Q

Thus inductive reactance can be written as,

XL 4 = wL 4 = 2nfL 4 = 182.03

... 2 x nx1 x 10 3 x L 4 = 182.03

... L4 = 28.97 mH
And R4 = 34.2967 Q
Thus branch CD is a series R-L circuit consisting R 4 = 34.2967 Q and
L4 = 28.97 mH.
The a.c. bridge is used to measure an unknown inductance Lx that has
inherent resistance R x . The bridge parameters are R1 = 20000 Q , R 2 = 50000 Q ,
c2 = 0.003 ~I (J) = 10 6 rad/sec. cl is adjustable from 10 pf to 150 pF and R4 is
adjustable from 0 to 10000 Q .
a) Show that equations for resistive and reactive balance are independent of each other.
b) Determine largest values of Rx and Lx those are measurable with given parameters.

1"
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-50 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Solution : From the given information, the a.c.

bridge is as shown in the Fig. 3.10.6.

Rl -- 20 k.Q, R2 = 50 k.Q
A. C.
c2 - 0.003 ~J.F, cl = 10 pF to 150 pF supply rv
f Hz
ro = 10 6 rad/ sec., R4= 0 to 10 kQ
When R 4 = 10 k.Q and C 1 = 150 pF, value
of Rx will be larger. Then condition of balance
is given by, Fig. 3.10.6

But

1 1 1 + jwC 2 R 2
and Z2 - R2 - j = R2 + - - -
wC2 jwC 2 jroC 2

Hence we can write,

R1 J(R)=(1+jroC 2 R2J(R + "roL)

( 1 + jroC 1 R 1 4 jroC 2 x J x

Simplifying we get,
R4 - ro 2R1C2 (RlR4C1 - Lx) ... (3.10.8)

R1 (Rx C2 - R4 C1)
and ... (3.10.9
R2C2

... R2R4C2 - R1RxC2 - R1R4C1

R4 (R 1C 1 + R 2C2)
... Rx --
R1C2

10 X10 3 [50X 10 3 X 0.003 X 10- 6 + 20 X 10 3 X 150 X 10- 12 ]

... Rx -
20 X 10 3 X 0.003 X 10- 6

... Rx -- 25.5 .Q

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=..ectronic Instruments and Measurements 3-51 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Using equation (3.10.8), we can write,

R4 - w2 R 1C 2 (R 1R4 C 1 - Lx)

R4
... - R1R4C1 - Lx
w2R1C2

R4 1
... Lx - R1R4C1 - --
R4 R2C1
o/R 1C 2 w2R1C2

1
Lx - 10 X 10
3 50 3
X 10 X 150x 10- 12

L = 74.998 mH.
The four arms of the Maxwell's capacitance bridge at balance are :
Arm AB : Unknown inductance L1 having an inherent resistance R1,
Arm BC : A non-inductive resistance of 1000 Q,
Arm CD : A capacitor of 0.5 ~F in parallel with a resistance of 1000 Q,
Arm DA : A resistance of 1000 Q Determine the values of R 1 and L1 . Draw the phasor
diagram of the bridge.

Solution : From the given information, the Maxwell's capacitance bridge is as shown in
the Fig. 3.10.7.

A. C.
supp ly
f Hz

R4
1000 Q

Fig. 3.10.7

The equation for balance is,

Le . [R, +

...

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-52 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Equating real terms, we get,

RtR4 - R2R3
(1 000) (1 000)
... - - 1000 .Q
1000
Equating imaginary terms, we get
wL 1R 4 - wR 2 R 3 R4 C 4
... L1 - R2R3C4 = (1000)(1000) (0.5 x 10- 6 ) = 0.5 H
' .
Example 3.10.8 A sheet of bakellite 4.5 mm thick is tested at 50 Hz between electrodes
0.12 m in diameter. The Schering bridge employs a standard air capacitor C 2 of 106 pF
10 0
capacitance, non-reactive resistance R 4 of( ~ )Q in parallel with variable capacitor C 4

and a non-reactive variable resistance R 3 . A balance is obtained with C 4 = 0.5 JJ,F and
R3 = 260 Q .
Calculate capacitance, power factor and relative permittivity.
Solution : For Schering bridge the equations at balance are,
rl = C4 R
c2 3
and C
1 =
R4 C
R3 2

... 0.5 X 10- 6 X 260 = 1 .23 X

10 6 .Q
106 X 10- 12
- (lO~~t n) x 106 x 10- 12 = 129.77 pF
The power factor of the sheet = WC 1 r1 = 2 X n X 50 X 130 X 10- 12 X 1.23 X 10 6·
= 0.05
The capacitance C 1 A = ErE 0
d
Hence relative permittivity is given by,
130 X 10- 12 X 4.5 X 10- 3
- 5.9
2
8.854 X 10- 12 X ( ~X 0.12)

example,> 3.io.~ A condensor brushing forms arm AB of a Schering bridge and a standard
. ' • • 1. • - · ,J ,_ .....

capacitor of 500 pF and negligible loss forms arm AD. Arm BC consists a non-inductive
resistance of 300 .Q . When the bridge is balanced, arm CD has resistance of 72.6 .Q zn
parallel with a capacitance of 0.148 JJ,F. The supply frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate the
capacitance and dielectric loss angle of capacitor.

TO/
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3 - 53 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Solution : The bridge can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.10.8.

•
•

A. C.
supply 8
50 Hz

Fig. 3.10.8

The unknown capacitance in the Schering bridge is given by,

72 6
C1 = c2 R4 =
R3
o.s x 10- 9 x · - 121 pF
300

The dielectric loss angle of capacitor is,

8 = tan -l (coC 4 R4 ) = tan -l (2 X 1t X 50 X 0.148 X 10- 6 X 72.6) = 0.1934
tiilliiiiiiiii.C!:~~·~· The four arms of Hay's bridge are arranged as follows :
AB : Coil of unknown impedance.
BC : Non-reactive resistance of 100 Q.
CD : Non-reactive resistance of 833 Q in series with 0.38 1-1F capacitor.
DA :·Non-reactive resistor of 16800 Q .
. .
If the supply frequency is 50 Hz, determine the inductance and resistance at the balance
condition.
8
Solution : From given data,. l:fay's bridge
can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.10.9.
At f =50 Hz, reactance offered by C 4 is,
.
-J -J c
- jXc4 - - A
co c 4 2nfC 4
.
-J c4 = 0.38 ~lF ·
- 6 R2
2x nx SOx 0.38x 10- R4 =
= 16800 Q
833 Q
D
... - j Xc4 - - j 8376.57?9 Q

... z4 -- R4 - j Xc4
A. C. supply@ 50 Hz
-- 833 - j 83765759 Fig. 3.10.9
T.
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-54 Testing and·Measuring Instruments

... Z4 = 8417.8924 L- 84.32°

Now in general for a.c. bridge, the condition of balance is given by,

zl z4 -- z2 z3
... zl -
-
z2 z3 16800) (1 00)
- 8417.8929 L - 84.32° = 199 .5749 L- 84 ·32°
- (
z4
...
Comparing imaginary terms on both the sides,
2nf L 1 - 198.595
198.595 _ 198.595 = 0. 6321 H
2n f 2xnx 50
Comparing real terms on both the sides,
R1 = 19.7524 Q
Thus, under balanced condition at 50 Hz, arm AB consists pure resistance
R 1 = 19.7524Q in series with inductance L 1 = 0.6321 H.

3.11 Q-Meter May-10, 12, Dec.-11

• The Q-factor is called quality factor or the storage factor. It is defined as the ratio
of power stored in the element to the power dissipated in the element.
• It is also defined as the ratio of reactance to resistance of a reactive element.

• Thus for inductive reactance it is the ratio of XL to R while for capacitance

reactance it is the ratio of X c to R.
• It is the magnification provided by the circuit.

• The Q-meter is an instrument which is designed to measure some of the electrical

properties of the coils and capacitors. It is a useful laboratory instrument.

3.11.-1:-, Working Principle of Q-Meter

• The working of. the Q-meter is based on the characteristics of a series resonant
circuit. The series resonant circuit has a characteristics that the voltage across the
coil or capacitor is equal to the applied voltage times the Q-factor of the circuit.
• A series resonant circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.11.1 (a) while the voltage and
current relationships at the resonance is shown in the Fig. 3.11.1 (b) .
•

.,.,
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements · 3-55 Testing and Measuring Instruments

...
I R
EL
XL
... I
........
;'" ;'" ...-
...-
EL I
1 IXL .
+
Ec Xc c 0
IR /
I

/ E I

t ..... .....
..... ..... /
/
/
/
/
At resonance
XL==Xc
Ec /
r =E/R
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.11.1 -Series resonant circuit

• At the resonance,

I Xc =XL] • .. . (3.11.1)

Ec - I Xc =I XL . .. (3.11.2)
E- IR ... (3.11.3)
where E = Applied voltage, I = Circuit current, Ec = Voltage across capacitor,
Xc = Capacitive reactance, XL = Inductive reactance, R = Resistance of coil
• The Q-factor is defined as,

Q =XL = Xc = Ec .. . (3.11.4)
R R E

• From equation (3.11.4) we can see that if the applied voltage E is maintained
constant and at known level then a voltage across capacitor is Q times E and
hence a voltmeter across the capacitor can be calibrated directly interms of the
circuitQ.
----···- ~
'
3.11 ..t:t Practical Q-Meter

• The practical Q-meter circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.11.2.

Circuit
Oscillator Ec I 0
meter

Multiply Q by meter Resonating

(Thermocouple meter) capacitor

Fig. 3.11.2 Practical Q meter

• It consists of a wide range RF oscillator having a frequency range from

50 kHz to 50 MHz.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-56 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The oscillator is used as a source and it delivers a current to a very low value
shunt resistance RsH. Therefore it represents a voltage source of magnitude E with
a very small internal resistance.
• The voltage across the shunt resistance is measured by a thermocouple meter,
marked as 'multiply Q by' meter.
• The voltage across the resonating capacitor which is also called tuning capacitor,
is measured by an electronic voltmeter. This voltage is denoted as Ec·
·- ..
Key Point The scale of the electronic voltmeter is calibrated directly in Q values.

• To make the measurement, the unknown coil is connected across the testing
terminals T1 and T2 .
• The circuit is tuned by using one of the following methods :
i) By setting oscillator to a given frequency and varying the internal resonating
capacitor.
ii) By presetting the capacitor to a desired value and adjusting the frequency of
the oscillator.
The Q reading on the output meter must be multiplied by the index setting of the
'Multiply Q by' meter to obtain the accurate reading.

• The Q reading on the output meter is called 'circuit Q' because it includes the
losses of resonating capacitor, voltmeter and insertion resistor of the overall circuit
• The effective Q value of the coil is higher than the circuit Q value. This difference
is generally small and can be neglected. But when the resistance of the coil is
. relatively small as compared with insertion resistance, this difference is dominant.
• The inductance of the coil can be calculated from the known values of
frequency (f) and the resonating capacitor (C) as,

1 1
L = H ( XL = Xc and 2n f L = nf C at resonance )
2 2
(2nf) C
... (3.11.5)

. .
3.11.3;. Different Connections in Q-Meter

• There are three different methods for connecting the unknown components to the
testing terminals of Q-meter.
• The different connections in Q-meter are :
i) Direct connection ii) Series connection iii) Parallel connection

,.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-57 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The type of component and its size determines the type of connection to be used
in Q-meter.

Direct Connection
• The method discussed above in basic practical Q-meter, of connecting a
component across the testing terminals is called direct connection in Q-meter.
• The circuit is resonated by either adjusting frequency or the tuning capacitor.
• The indicated value of Q is modified by setting of the 'multiply Q by' meter.

Series Connection
.
• The senes connection IS
used to measure low T1

impedance components, L
Working
small resistances, small coil
R Tuning Q
coils and large capacitors. capacitor
C1,C2
Voltmeter

• The series connection is

Switch
shown in the Fig. 3.11.3. s
• The component to be RF
oscillator
measured is denoted as Z.
It is connected in series Fig. 3.11.3 Measurement of low impedance by Q meter
with the working coit
connected across the testing terminals T 1 and T2 . This working coil 1s available
with the instrument itself.
• The switch S called shorting strap is provided across the low impedance.
• The two measurements are carried out with the meter :
i) First the low impedance is shorted using the switch S and the circuit is
resonated to establish the reference condition. The corresponding values of
the tuning capacitor C 1 and the circuit Q-meter Q 1 are noted down.
ii) Secondly the switch is kept opened. The circuit is resonated again with the
help of tuning capacitor. The value of tuning capacitor C 2 and Q-meter Q 2
are recorded.
1
• For the resonance, X Cl = XL i.e. =coL .. ' (3.11.6)
wc 1
• Neglecting the resistance of the measuring circuit,
coL 1
Ql = -R - - -
wRC 1 ... (3.11.7)

l l.l
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-58 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• In the second measurement, unknown coil is in series with the working coil.
1 1 1
... Xs = X c2 - XL = - wL = - - ... (3.11.8)
OJ c 2 we 2 we 1
- cl- c2
... ... (3.11.9)
WCtC2

Key Point If C 1 > C 2 , the X 5 is inductive and ife 1 < e 2 , X 5 is capacitive.

• The resistive component of unknown impedance can be obtained as,

XI
Rl -- and R 2-
- x2
Q2
Q1

x2 XI
Rs - R2- Rl -- ... (3.11.10)
Q2 Ql
.1 1 1
... Rs - as (X= - ) .. . (3.11.11)
we 2Q 2 we! Q 1 we

C 1Q 1 -C 2Q2
... Rs -
- ... (3.11.12)
wei C2Q 1Q2

• If the unknown is purely resistive, the tuning capacitor would not have changed
and hence C 1= C2 then,

... ... (3.11.13)

• If the unknown is small inductor, then use equation (3.11.9) with X5 = wL 5 ,

...

• The Q of the coil can be obtained as,

-Xs = e l- e 2 we1C2Q 1Q2

X-__::.--=- =------=--
Rs wC 1C 2 (C 1Q 1 - C 2 Q 2)

... ... (3.11.14)

• If the unknown is large capacitor then then use equation (3.11.9) with X5 = WC1 ,
5

n.1 •
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-59 Testing and Measuring Instruments

.•. ... (3.11.15)

3.11.3.3 Parallel Connection

• The parallel connection is used to measure high impedance components such as
high value resistors, certain inductors and small capacitors.
• The unknown component is connected in parallel with the measuring circUit.
• The parallel connection is shown in the Fig. 3.11.4.

T, Key •
L
Working Q
coil High Volt
R RP impedance meter

RF
oscillator

Fig. 3.11.4 Measurement of high impedance by Q meter

• The unknown high impedance ZP has two components XP and RP.

• Again two measurements are taken.

i) When the key is not inserted, the high impedance is out of circuit. So without
high impedance, circuit is resonated and the readings of tuning capacitor C 1
and Q meter Q 1 are noted down.
ii) With key closed, the unknown impedance get connected in parallel with
working coil. Again resonance is obtained and the values C 2 and Q meter
Q 2 are recorded.
• For first measurement, unknown is out of the circuit and hence

... (3.11.16)

... (3.11.17)

• In the second measurement, the reactance of the coil (XL) becomes equal to the
parallel combination of reactance of C 2 and unknown reactance X P.

... . .. (3.11.18)

....
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-60 Testing and Measuring Instruments

__
l
. . XP
_ CDC 2
... CDL I.e .
1 X
+ p
wC 2
1 1 x 1-w2 LC 2 1 oiLC 2
...
_ . XP
XP 2 -1 - C I.e . 1.e. =
CD LC2 CD 2 P CD 2 LC 2 CDC2 wC 2 (1-w2 LC 2)

CDL
... -
XP - ... (3.11.19}
2
1-CD LC 2

1
Now Xp - dividing by wL to equation (3.11.19)
1
- - CDC?
wL -
1 1
But CDL - I.e. - wcl I.e. Xp = - - - -
wL wC1-CDC2

.•. ... (3.11.20)

• If the unknown is inductive then Xp= wLp

... ... (3.11.21)

1
• If the unknown is capacitive then Xp= C
CD p

... ... (3.11.22)

• In a parallel resonant circuit the total resistance at the resonance is equal to the
product of the circuit Q and the reactance of the coil.
... Rr = Q2 XL
• From equation (3.11.21),

RT -- Q 2 XCl-- Q2 ... (3.11.23)

wcl

• The resistance RP of . the unknown impedance can be calculated from the

conductances in the circuit,
G T - Total conductance of resonating circuit
GP = Conductance of unknown impedance
GL = Conductance of the working coil
Then G T = Gp + G L 1.e. Gp = G T - G L ... (3.11.24

Yv
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-61 Testing and Measuring Instruments

1 - wcl
Now from equation (3.11.23)
RT Q2
1 R-jwL
GL = - - - -
R+jwL R2 +w2L2
• Neglecting imaginary part,
R
GL - ... (3.11.25)
R2 +w2L2
1
and GP - ... (3.11.26)
RP

l - wC 1 R I _ wC 1 1 1
... - I.e . - - · (dividing by R 2 )
Rp Q2 R2 + w2L2 Rp Q2 R w2L2
1+
R2
1 wC 1 1 1 wL
... - - - as Q 1 = -
RP Q2 R .1+Q12 R
1 1
)Jow - Q12
1 + Q12
1
...
1
-
wcl
- - ·
1 -- coC 1 1
--.
1 . 1
RP Q2 R Q/ Q2 R Ql Q l

I coC 1 1 1 1
... - --· ·wC 1 R as Ql = C R
Rp Q2 R Ql (1) 1

1 coC 1 wc l
... -
RP Q2 Ql

Q1Q2
... Rp = ... (3.11.27)
coC1(Q1 -Q2)

• The Q of the unknown impedance can be obtained as

RP Q1Q2
QP = xP - wei (Q 1- Q 2) ·co(CI - C2)

(C1 - C2)(Q l Q2)

... ... (3.11.28)
C1(Q 1 -Q2)

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-62 Testing and Measuring Instruments

~~.11.4 Sources of Error

1. Error due to RsH :

• At high frequencies, the electronic voltmeter suffers
from losses due to transit time effect.
• The tank circuit consists of resistor, inductor and c
variable capacitor. But shunt resistance RsH introduces
additional resistance in the tank circuit, as shown in
the Fig. 3.11.5.
wL Fig. 3.11.5 Effect of RsH
Q actual -
R
wL
Q measured -
R+RsH

... Q actua l - R + RsH = 1 + RsH

Q measured R R

Thus Q actual - Q measured 1 + R [ RsH]

~~..- ~·r('':'"·-::1: "':"~ ~,~~ ·'>.

Key,::_p.._otn~1 To reduce the error, RsH should be as small as possible.

2. Error due to distributed capacitance (stray capacitance) :

• The most important source of error is due to the self capacitance of the coil. The
self capacitance is also called distributed capacitance.The presence of the
distributed capacitance in a coil modifies the actual value of Q. The distributee
capacitance is also called stray capacitance.
Measurement · of distributed capacitance : At the resonating frequency, the
distributed capacitance is equal to an inductance of coil. The circuit impedance is purel=
resistive. This property is used to measure the d istributed capacitance.
• One simple method of
determining the distributed --1
I
capacitance involves two R I
I
Tuning
measurements at two I
--·--
----- c d C 1,C2 capacitor
I
different frequencies. L

• The coil under test 1s f1,t

2
connected directly across the oscillator 1 - - - + - - - - - -- ---'
testing terminals of Q meter
as shown in the Fig. 3.11.6. Fig. 3.11.6 Measurement of distributed capacitance

'W
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-63 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The hming capacitor is set to its maximum value and circuit is resonated using the
oscillator. The resonance is detected by maximum deflection on circuit Q meter.
• The hming capacitor cl and frequency fl are noted down.

• The frequency is then increased to twice the value of f 1 i.e. £2 = 2 £1 . The circuit
is resonated by the capacitor and value is noted down as C 2 .
• The resonating frequency of LC circuit is,

f = 1 ... (3.11.29)
2nJLC
1
£1 = - -r==== = ... (3.11.30)
2n~L(C 1 +Cd)
This is because initially ~e capacitance is cl + cd.
• Secondly the capacitance becomes C 2 + Cdand the frequency is £2 .

... . .. (3.11.31)

But I.e.

1 4

... ... Distributed capacitance ... (3.11.32)

• The effective Q of a coil with the distributed capacitance is less than the true Q by
a factor that depends on the value of the distributed capacitance and tuning
capacitor.

Actual Q = Qobserved ( C+C cd) .. . (3.11.33)

where C = Resonating capacitor and Cd = Distributed capacitor

3. Error due to residual inductance :
• The third source of error include the residual inductance of the instrument, which
is usually in the order of 0.015 11-H and affects the measurement of very small
inductors.
4. Error due to shunt effect of voltmeter :
• The conductance of the Q voltmeter has a slight shunting effect on the tuning
capacitor at the higher frequencies, but this effect can usually be neglected.

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 Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-64 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Example 3.11.1 The self capacitance of a coil is to be measured by Q meter. The first
measurement result is h = 1.5 MHz and C 1 = 550 pF. The second measurement result is
7r/ f 2 = 3 MHz and new value of tuning capacitor is 110 pF. Find the distribu-ted
capacitance and the inductance.
Solution : The distributed capacitance is given by,

_ 550 - 4x110 = pF
3 36 .66

6 1
Now I.e. 1.5 X 10 = -----,== == = = ==
2n~L (500 + 36.66) x 10- 12
L (550 + 36.66 ) x 1o- 12 = 1.1257 x Io- 14 i.e. L = 19.19 ~H

Example 3.11.2 A coil with a resistance of 8 Q is connected in the direct connection mode of
Q meter. Resonance occurs when the oscillator frequency is 1.5 MHz and the resonating
capacitor is set at 60 pF. Calculate the % error introduced in the calculated value of Q by
the 0.02 Q insertion resistance.
Solution : The true value of Q is,
1 1
Q - - = 221.05
actual - wCR 6 12
2nx15xl0 x60x1o- x8

------:-_ 1_ _ - 1 = 220.497
Q observed -
we (R + Rsi-:I) 2 nx 15 X 10 6 X 60x 10- 12 X (8 + 0.02)

%error
_ True value- Measured valuex
100
= 221.05-220.497 x 100
True value 221.05
= 0.25%

3.11.5 Transmission Line Impedance Measurement by Q Meter

• 'The Q meter can be used to measure the characteristic impedance of the

transmission line denoted as Z 0 .
• There are two methods by which the impedance can be measured :
i) The series substitution method and
ii) The shunt or parallel substitution method.
• The arrangement for the series substitution method is shown in the Fig. 3.11.7.
• This method uses the principle of series reson ance.
• The transmission line or cable is tuned for series resonance.

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=..ectronic Instruments and Measurements 3-65 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The method of
measurement is exactly L 1,. I .. ,
similar to the senes
c Switch
connection measurement
Test
of Q meter. cable

• The characteristic Q meter

---------------------1
impedance is calculated Fig. 3.11. 7 Series substitution method
as,

and

where suffix 1 and 2 indicate the two measurements as explained earlier in the series
.::onnection.
---------------- ---- ----1
• The reactance per I

~t length is
I
I
I
I
obtained by I
I

dividing the total c Switch

reactance by the Cable
under
total length l of test
Q meter
the cable.
• The arrangement Fig. 3.11.8 Shunt substitution method
of the shnnt
substitution method is shown in the Fig. 3.11.8.
• The method is similar to the parallel connection method.
• The characteristic impedance is given by, Z 0 = R9 + j XP

where,

• The series resonance occurs when the line is short circuited and the line length is
an even multiple of a A/ 4 and when open circuited, an odd multiple of A/ 4.
• Parallel resonance occurs when the line is short-circuited and the length is an odd
multiple of A/ 4, or open-circuited it is an even multiple of A./ 4.
~f~ ~ "-'·i.·.' ·~·

-• '
Calculate the value of self capacitance if the measurement results are,
Example·:. 3.1 ~1.3 ·
' r. '~ ' .•" ' •' • • '

h = 2 MHz and C1 = 500 pF. When the secona frequency is 2.5 times h, the tuning
capacitor is 60 pF.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-66 Testing and Measuring Instruments

Solution : The resonating frequencies are,

and
•

and
1 2.5
... --r======== - --r========
2n~L(C 2 +Cd) 2n~L(C 1 + Cd)

1 (2.5) 2
...

500 + cd - 6.25 x 60 + 6.25 cd 1.e. 5.25 cd = 125

... cd - 23.81 pF
~~~~~~ To determine the self capacitance of a coil, the coil is resonated at 8 MHz
with 120 pF and then is resonated at 12 MHz with 40 pF. Calculate the inductance and
the self capacitance.
Solution : fl =I8 MHz, f 2 = 12 MHz, cl = 120 pF, Cz = 40 pF
1 1
f1 = and f2 =
2n~L(C 1 + Cd) 2n~L (C 2 + Cct)

f l - 2n~L(C 2 + Cd) 8 _ ~L(C 2 + Cd)

... - - I.e. - - ~===~
f2 2n~L (C 1 + Cd) 12 ~L(C 1 + Cd)

1~ r
Cz + cd
-
( c 1 + cd

... 0.444x120x10-12 + 0.444 Cd - 40x10-12 +Cct

... o.555 cd - 1.3328 x 10-11

... Cc~ - 24.01 pF

Substituting in expression of £1 we get,

= --~========12===========
6 1
8x10
2 rt)L(120x 10- 12 + 24.01 x10- )

... L = 2.748 j.lH

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-67 Testing and Measuring Instruments

:Example 3.11.5 A coil with resistance 5 Q in directly connected to the terminals of a

Q-meter. The resonance is obtained for a 130 pF capacitor and oscillating frequency of
1 MHz. Calculate the % error introduced in calculated value of Q by 0.01 .Q insertion
resistance.
Solution : C = 130 pF, f = 1 MHz, R =5 Q
Q - XL _ Xc _ 1 ... w = 2nf = 2nx 10 6 rad / sec
R R wCR
1
Qactual - = 244.853
2nx10 6 xl30xlo-12 x5
1
Q measured - wC(R + RsH) = 244.365 ... RsH = 0.01 Q

%error - Q actual - Q measured xlOO = 244.853 - 244.365 X 100 = 0.2 %

Q actual 244.853

1. Write a note on Q meter.

2. Describe how the Q meter can be used for the measurement of the following :
i) High impedance ii) Low impedance iii) Self capacitance of a coil
3. Describe the various sources of errors in a measurement by Q meter. t1May-l0, Marks 4
4. How Q meter is used to measure the characteristic impedance of transmission line.
5. A coil having resistance 0.1 Q is connected in direct connection in a Q-meter. Resonance occurs at
the frequency of 40 MHz and the tuning capacitor is set to 135 pF. Calculate the % error in the
measurement of Q due to the insertion resistance of 0.02 Q. [Ans.: 16.67 %1
6. Compute the value of self capacitance of a coil when the following measurements are made with the
Q meter. At the frequency h = 2 MHz, the tuning capacitor is set at 450 pF. When the frequency
is increased to 5 MHz, the tuning capacitor is tuned to 60 pF. [Ans. : 14.28 pF1
7. A coil with a resistance of 3 Q is connected to the terminals of the basics Q meter. Resonance
occurs at an oscilator frequency of 5 MHz and resonating capacitance of 100 pF. . Calculate the %
error introduced if the insertion resistance RsH is 0.12 Q. [Ans.: 3.77 %1
8. A self capacitance of a coil is measured by Q meter. The first measurement is carried out at
1 MHz frequency and C = 500 pF. At the second measurement frequency is 2 MHz and
C = 110 pF. Find the value of self capacitance and the inductor. [Ans.: 48.71~-LH]

Single Phase Energy Meter

• Induction type instruments are most commonly used as energy meters. Energy
meter is an integrating instrument which measures quantity of electricity.
,.
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-68 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• Induction type of energy meters are universally used for domestic and industrial
applications. These meters record the energy in kilo-watt-hours (kWh).
• The Fig. 3.12.1 shows the induction type single phase energy meter.

To recording
mechanism

~
12 )
Pressure < ~ M2
~
coil (
t>
~
<
L1

A.C. S upply
Shunt magnet
.. Cu shading
bands Load

~2 "-...... v
I I L2
,__J ~: ···
• • • •
.................... :I
...... .. .................
• • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 ••••

Braking Disc
~
magnet I·...
....................... :I
. . . . ...... ... ...
. . .. ....
'
... .... .......
..... ..
Il '

::> $1 <
Current <;;
b <: :> M1 11
<:; ;:>
coil
(Less turn)

Series magnet

I v
Fig. 3.12.1 Induction type single phase energy meter

·3.12.1 Construction
• There are four main parts of operating mechanism.
1) Driving system 2) Moving system 3) Braking system 4) Registering system.

1} Driving system : It consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silico;-

steellaminations.
• The coil of one of the electromagnets, called current coil, is excited by load curren
which produces flux further.
• The coil of another electromagnet is connected across the supply and it carri~
current proportional to supply voltage. This coil is ·called pressure coil.
• These two electromagnets are called series and shunt magnets respectively.

,.
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-69 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The flux produced by shunt magnet is brought in exact quadrature with supply
voltage with the help of copper shading bands whose position is adjustable.

2) Moving system : Light aluminium disc mounted in a light alloy shaft is the mam
part of moving system.
• This disc is positioned m between senes and shunt magnets. It 1s supported
between jewel bearings.
• The moving system runs on hardened steel pivot. A pinion engages the shaft
with the counting mechanism.
• There are no springs and no controlling torque.
3) Braking system : A permanent magnet is placed near the aluminium disc for
braking mechanism. This magnet reproduced its own field.
• The disc moves in the field of this magnet and a braking torque is obtained.
• The position of this magnet is adjustable and hence ~raking torque is adjusted by
shifting this magnet to different radial positions. This magnet is called Braking
magnet.

4) Registering mechanism : It records continuously a number which is proportional to

the revolutions made by the aluminium disc.
• By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears, the pinion on the shaft drives a
series of pointers. These pointers rotate on round dials which are equally marked
with equal divisions.
,
Working
• It workS on the principle of induction i.e. on the production of eddy currents in
the moving system by the alternating fluxes.
• Since the pressure coil is carried by shunt magnet M 2 which is connected across
the supply, it carries current proportional to the voltage.
• Series magnet M 1 carries current coil which carries the load current.

• Both these coils produce alternating fluxes <P 1 and <P 2 respectively. These fluxes
are proportional to currents in their coils.
• Parts of each of these fluxes link with the disc and induces e.m.f. in it. Due to
these e.m.f.s eddy currents are induceed in the disc.
• The eddy current induced by the electromagnet M 2 react with magnetic field
produced by M 1. Also eddy currents induced by electromagnet M 1 react with
m~gnetic field produced by M 2 .

.. .
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3- 70 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• Thus each portion of the disc expenences a mechanical force and due to motor
action and the disc rotates.
• The speed of disc is controlled by the C shaped magnet called braking magnet.
When disc rotates in the air gap, eddy currents are induced in disc which oppose
the cause producing them i.e. relative motion of disc with respect to magnet.
Hence braking torque T b is generated. This is proportional to speed N of disc.
• By adjusting position of this magnet, desired speed of disc is obtained.
• Spindle is connected to recording mechanism through gears which record the
energy supplied.

3.12.3 Torque Equation

Let V - Supply voltage, I 2 = Current through pressure coil proportional to V
~2 - Flux produced by 12 , I1 = Current through current coil i.e. load

~1 - Flux produced by I 1

• Now 12 lags V by 90° as pressure coil is highly inductive and copper shading
bands. And ~ 2 and 12 are in phase.
• While 11 lags V by ~ where ~ is decided by the load connected. The flux ~1 and
I 1 are in phase.
v
• The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig 3.12.2.
E 1 - Induced e.m.f. in disc due to <P 1

E2 - Induced e.m.f. in disc due to <i> 2

0 ~~--~~~--~~ [2
Ish - Eddy current due to E 1 ~2

Isc - Eddy current due to E 2

• The induced e.m.f. lags the respective flux

producing it by 90°. The eddy currents are in 90- <P
phase with the induced e.m.f. producing them.
Fig. 3.12.2
• Now there is interaction between <i> 1 and Ish
which produces torque T1 and the interaction between <1> 2 and I se which produces
torque T 2 .T2 is in opposite direction to T1 . Hence net deflecting torque is,

Td oc T2 -Tl oc <P2l secos(<P2/\Isc) - <Ptlsh cos(<i>2 /\Ish)

Now <1> 2/\Ise = <P and <i> 1/\Ish = <1> from Fig 3.12.2
... Td oc <P 2 Ise cos <P -<P 1 Ish cos (180-<P)

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3- 71 Testing and Measuring Instruments

... Td oc <!> 2 Isc cos<j> + <1> 1 Ish cos<j> As cos (180- <I>) = - cos <I>
But <1> 2 oc I2 oc V, I sc oc El oc I1 I <1>1 cell, 1511 oc E2 oc I2 oc V
... Td oc K 1 V I t cos <!> + K 2 11 V cos <I>
... Td oc ( K 1 + K 2 ) V I 1cos <I>

... Td oc V I 1 cos <1> i.e. power consumed by load .

• Now braking torque is proportional to speed N with which disc rotates.

• For constant speed, T b = Tc1

IN oc v I 1 cos <I> I
• Multiplying both sides by t, N t oc V 11 t cos <1> oc Pt

... Number of revolutions in time t oc Energy supplied

• The power P x t is energy supplied m time t while Nt are the number of

revolutions in time t.
• Thus by counting number of revolutions, electrical energy consumed can be
measured.
• Some adjustments are normally provided for such energy meter like power factor
adjustment, friction adjustment, mam speed adjustment, creep adjustment so as to
mffiimize the errors and to go accurate readmg.

3.12.4 Calibration of an Energy Meter

• Calibrating the energy meter means to find out the error m the measurement of
energy by energy meter.
• Every energy meter has its own characteristic constant specified by the
manufacturer which relates the energy measured in kWh and the number of
revolutions of the disc. It is denoted as K and denotes revolutions/kWh of that
meter.
• Using this constant K, energy recorded for certain less number of revolutions say
5, is calculated m the laboratory for the calibration purpose. This energy 1s
denoted as Er.

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'
Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-72 Testing and Measuring Instruments

5
• Thus Er can be caculated from K as Er = K kWh

• To have zero error, the actual energy consumed by the load for the time
corresponding to the 5 revolutions must be same as Er. This energy is called actua:
energy consumed or the true energy denoted as Et.
• Experimental set up used in the A
laboratory to obtain the value of I
Et is shown in the Fig. 3.12.3.
-
• For various loads, the time
required to complete the
t
v I Energy meter Load

~
5 revolutions of disc 1s
measured with the help of stop " -
~ --
watch. The voltage and current
readings are observed on the Fig. 3.12.3 Setup for calibration of energy meter
ammeter and voltmeter
connected in the circuit.
• The readings can be tabulated as :

Sr. Voltage (V) Current (A) Time for True energy

No. .. revolutions Et = V I cos <P t J
1.
2.
3.

• Now Er is fixed for the 5 revolutions, while Et is obtained practically. Hence error
for each load condition can be obtained as,

... % error = E r - E t x 100

Et

• The graph of % error against the load current I can be obtained, which is calleci
calibration curve for the energy meter.
• When there is no load, I = 0 and hence true energy Et is also zero. While Er is
also zero. Hence the error is also zero.
• Thus calibration curve passes through ong1n. The errors can be positive or
negative.
• Once the calibration curve is obtained, by observation of the curve, m whicr.
range of the load current error is severe, can be easily predicted. And if error is

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3- 73 Testing and·Measuring Instruments

not within the permissible limits then by using the various adjustments, the error
can be minimized.

3.12.5· Advantages

1) Its construction is simple and strong. 2) It is cheap in cost.

3) It has high torque to weight ratio, so frictional errors are less and we can get
accurate reading.
4) It has more accuracy. 5) It requires less maintenance.
6) Its range can be extended with the help of instrument transformers.

3.12.6 . Disadvantages

1) The main disadvantage is that it can be used only for a.c. circuits.
2) The creeping can cause errors.
3) Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit may cause errors.

3.12.7: Adjustments in Energy Meter

• The adjustments are required in the energy meters so that they read accurately
with minimum possible errors.
i) Main speed adjustment : The measurement of energy is dependent on the speed
of the rotating disc.
• The speed of the meter can be adjusted by means of changing the effective
radius of the braking magnet.
• Moving the braking magnet in the direction of the spindle, decreases the value
of the effective radius, decreasing the braking torque. This increases the speed
of the meter.
• While the movement of the braking magnet in the outward direction i.e. away
from the centre of the disc, increases the radius, decreasing the speed of the
disc. The fine adjustments of the speed can be achieved by providing an
additional flux diverter.
ii) Power factor adjustment : It is absolutely necessary that meter should measure
correctly for all power factor conditions of the loads.
• This is possible when the flux produced due to current in the pressure coil lags
the applied voltage by 90°.
• But the iron loss and resistance of winding do not allow the flux to lag by
exact 90° with respect to the voltage.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-74 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• To have this adjustment, the shading ring called quadrature loop is provided
on the centre limb of shunt magnet carrying pressure coil.
• The fine adjustments can· be achieved by the movement of this loop upwards or
downwards and meter can be made to read accurately at all the power factors .
iii) Friction adjustment : Inspite of proper design of the bearings and registering
mechanism, there is bound to exist some friction.
• Due to this friction, speed of the meter gets affected which cause the error in
the measurement of the energy.
• To compensate for this, a metallic loop or strip is provided between centrai
limb of shunt magnet and the disc.
• Due to this strip an additional troque independent of load is produced which
acts on the disc in the direction of rotation.
• This compensates for the friction and meter can be made to read accurately.
iv) Creep adjustment : It is seen that, without any current through current coit disc
rotates due to the supply voltage exciting its pressure coil. This is called creeping.
• This creeping may be because of overfriction compensation.
• To eliminate this, two holes are drilled in the disc 180° opposite to each other.
When this holes comes under the shunt magnet pole, it gets acted upon by a
torque opposite to its rotation. This restricts its rotation, on no load condition.
An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of disc for one unit of
energy. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it when connected to load carrying
40 A at 230 V and 0.4 pf for an hour. If it actually makes 360 revolutions, find the
percentage error.
Solution : K - 100 rev /kWh, I = 40 A, V = 230 V, cos <1> = 0.4, t = 1 hour

Et - VI cos<!> x t = 40x230x0.4xl = 3680 Wh = 3.68 kWh

· Number of revolutions = E t x K = 3.68x 100 = 368 revolutions
_ Ntm1ber of revolutions (actual) = 360 = kWh
Er K 100 3.6

... %error =

As E r is less than E t, meter is slow.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-75 Testing and Measuring Instruments
.,.
The meter constant of 5 A, 220 V, d.c. watt-hour meter is 3275 revolutions
per kWh. Calculate the speed of the disc at full load. In a .test run at half load, the meter
takes 59.5 sec to complete 30 revolutions. Calculate the error of the meter.
Solution : I = 5 A, V = 220 V, cos <j) = 1 as d.c., K = 3275 rev /kWh
Energy consumed in one minute is,
1
E - VI cos<j) xt = 220x5xlx Wh = 0.018333 kWh
60
•
•• Revolutions in one minute - Ex K = 0.018333x3275 = 60.04 r.p.m.
... Speed of disc - 60.04 r.p.m. = 1 r.p.s .

At half load, I - 5/2 = 2.5 A, t = 59.5 sec

... Et - VI cos <j) x t =220 x 2.5xlx59.5 J i .e. watt-sec = 0.00909027 kWh

N - 30 revolutions i.e. Er = ~ = 3 ~~ 5 = 0.0091603 kWh

. % error = Er - Et xlOO = 0.77 %

••
Et

~s E r is more than E 1 , meter is fast. .~,/~/

" ·,, ~ -:' =-·~ . .. ·:~~"'-~~-- ..-,:,• .:t.,-:c:lf7·.1 r

Example:.3:12:3 .' A 230 V, single phase watt-hour meter has a constant load of 4 A passing
- • c ~ - :_ -...~ - ' ~ ~ -"~ • y

through it for 6 hours at unity pf If the meter disc makes 2208 revolutions, during this
period, what is the meter constant in revolutions/kWh. Calculate the power factor of the
load if the number of revolutions made by the meter are 1472 when operating at 230 V,
5 A for 4 hours.
Solution : V = 230 V, I = 4 A, t = 6 hours, cos <j) = 1, N = 2208 rev
Et - VI cos<j) x t =230x4xlx6 = 5520 Wh = 5.52 kWh
2208
... K - N = = 400 rev/kWh ... Meter constant
Et 5.52

V = 230 V, I =5 A, t =4 hours, N = 1472

E1 - VI cos<j) x t = 230x 5xcos<j) x 4 = 4600 cos$ Wh

- 4.6 cos $ kWh

N 1472
For N = 1472, Er = K = 400 = 3.68 kWh,

But Er - Et 1.e. 4.6 cos $ = 3.68

cos th
'I' -
3.68
.
46
= 0.8 1agg1ng
.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-76 Testing and Measuring Instruments

. . '

Review Questions

1. Describe the construction and working principle of single phase induction type energy meter.
2. Derive the torque equation of single phase energy meter and prove that number of revolutions of
the disc are proportional to the energy consumed.
3. Write a short note on adjustments required in energy meters.
4. How to calibrate an energymeter ?
5. The constant of energy meter is 750 revolutions/kWh. Calculate the number of revolutions made by
it, when connected to a load carrying 100 A at 230 V and 0.8 pf in 30 seconds. If it makes
110 revolutions in 30 seconds, find the percentage error. [ Ans. :-4.347% ]
6. A single phase energy meter has a constant of 1500 rev/ kWh. If 8 lamps of 100 W, 6 fans of
60 W and 2 heaters of 1000 W, operate for one hour, the disc makes 4500 revolutions. Find out
whether the meter reads correctly. If not, find the percentage error. [ Ans.:- 5.063%]
7. A 230 V, single phase, watthour meter has a constant load of 5 A passing through it for 8 hours
at 0.9. pf If the meter disc makes 4968 revolutions during this period, find the meter constant in
the revolutions per kWh. Calculate the power factor of the load if the number of revolutions made
are 2100 when operating at 230 V and 6 A for 5 hours. [ Ans.: 0.5072]

3.13 Dynamometer Type Power Meter (Wattmeter)

• The Fig. 3.13.1 shows the construction of dynamometer type wattmeter.
Fixed coil
or current coil
,.....,....scale Scale connections
~-F-___F__=_F-ix_e_d_c_o-il""l
1
... ~----------------~M
2
Pointer r---<> L
11

t
Supply Load
c
v
~o-----+----.J-.t----<~ Moving coil
R

Moving coil High resistance or pressure coil

R connections Fixed coil
Air friction
(a) (b)
damping
Fig. 3 . 13~1 Dynamometer type wattmeter

• It consists of a fixed coil. It is divided into two halves F1and F2 , positioned

parallel to each other. The distance between them can be adjusted to provide
uniform magnetic field required for the operation. These coils are air cored to
avoid hysteresis losses. These are clamped in place against the coil supports made
up of ceramic.

,.
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-77 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• The moving coil is wound on non-metallic former which is pivoted centrally

between the fixed coils. It is made highly resistive by connecting high resistance in
series with it.
• A pointer is connected to the moving system made up of aluminium.
• The fixed coil is called a current coil as it is connected i series with the load to
carry the current i 1 which is the main current. It is represeted by the letters M and
L. •
• The moving coil is connected across the supply and carries the current i 2
proportional to the voltage hence this coil is called pressure coil or volt~ge coil~ It
is denoted by the letters C and V.
• The cotrolling torque is provided by the springs.
• The damping is rovided by the air friction damping.

Working

Series
I - R.M.S. value of current resistance
Fig. 3.13.2 Electrodynamometer wattmeter
• When the current passes through
the fixed and the moving coils both the coils produce the magnetic fields.
• The field produced by the fixed coil is proportional to the load current and the
field produced by the moving coil is proportional to the voltage.
• The deflecting torque on the pointer is produced due to the interaction of these
two fields hence its deflection is proportional to the power supplied to the load.
• Thus the wattmeter reading is the power consumption of the load.
• It can be used for a.c. or d.c.

Torque Equation

• According to theory of electrodynamic instruments instantaneous torque Ti is,

lV
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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-79 Testing and Measuring Instruments

1 dM
... where K1 - K de . . . (3.13.8)

... ... (3.13.9)

where and P = V Ic cos <l> = Power

... .. . (3.13.10)

'
Key Point
'
Thus the wattmeter deflection when calibrated give~ the power consumption of the
circuit.

3.13.3; Reading on Wattmeter

• The Fig. 3.13.2 shows symbolic representation of wattmeter.

• Thus if, Ic = Current through current coil and Vpc = Voltage across pressure coil
• Then wattmeter reading is given by,

Key Point The angle between V pc and Ipc may or may not be power factor angle <1> . It
depends on the wattmeter connection in the circuit.

3.13.4 Shape of Scale of Dynamometer Wattmeter

• The deflection is given by

V 1 dM =K p dM
e = R P I c cos <I> K de 2 d0

1
where K2 = and P =VIc cos$ =Power measured
KRP

• Thus the deflection is directly proportional to power being measured and the scale
is uniform over the range in which (dM I de) remains constant.

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Electronic Instruments and Measurements 3-80 Testing and Measuring Instruments

• Practically the wattmeters are designed such that d.M/ de remains almost constant
over a range of 40° to 50° on either side of zero mutual inductance position. The M
varies linearly in this zone with respect to e.
• Thus if zero mutual inductance position is kept in the middle of the scale then M
varies linearly for
the deflections Mutual inductance M
up to 80° to 100°
and thus scale is dM/d8 constant : /dM/d8

uniform over the ~---------------+--------------~

,___ _ _ _ Scale is uniform ---------~~
range of 80° to
100°.
• Practically this ~~--------+- Variation in
M
covers the entire Deflection
scale range. ~~~-.--+-+-~~~~~~~~~-----~ e
sao ' Zero mutual : sao
inductance :
• The shape of scale position 1
I
and variation in ,.....____,.~- sao to 1aaorange ----~~
mutual inductance
IS shown in the
Fig. 3.13.3.
Fig. 3.13.3 Shape of scale of dynamometer wattmeter
.~:-· :,'. ··\.;:'li>'it~',f!~

:-Re~v-lew;~
• _:".: ··:-: •'
Questions
~ _,.~,, '"~-~~:· I,.,..~{ '('~' ~
"!!_'"\"Y ...... !._>

1. Explain the construction and working of dyanomometer type power meter.

2. Derive the torque equation of dyanomometer type wattmeter.
3. Show that the deflection in dyanomometer type wattmeter is proportional to the power consumption
of the load.
4. Explain the shape of the scale of dyanomometer type wattmeter.

DOC

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