Monograph No.

54
621.313.32/.33: 621.3.013 UTILIZATION SECTION

ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS

AND INDUCTION MACHINES
By Professor Y. H. KU, Sc.D.
(The paper yvasfirstreceived 28th February, and in revised form 13th June, 1952. It was published as an INSTITUTION MONOGRAPH
15th December, 1952.)
SUMMARY by the author in 1928 in applying Heaviside's shifting formula
7 59
The two-reaction theory of synchronous machines as developed to the transient analysis of a.c. machinery. .
by Blondel, Doherty, Nickle, Park and others is well known. The
present paper attempts to develop the rotating-field theory of syn-
chronous and induction machines as an important alternative to the (2) THE GENERAL OPERATIONAL EQUATIONS OF THE
two-reaction theory. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
The general analysis includes analysis of rotating machines under (2.1) The Ideal Synchronous Machine
steady-state, transient-state and hunting conditions. Rotating refer- The synchronous machine will be assumed to be ideal as
ence frames are introduced. The new components, known as the defined by Park6 and discussed in connection with the author's
forward and backward components, or / and b components, are then 28
simply correlated to the direct and quadrature components, or d and q extension to the multiphase machine. For a 3-phase machine,
components. the general operational equations may be given as follows:
By use of the/and b components, it is shown that any external net- R.iA + pdtA = « . (la)
work and transmission line with lumped or distributed constants can
be connected to a synchronous machine. This forms the basis of
interconnection between synchronous and induction machines.
A steady-state vector diagram of a salient-pole synchronous machine R^c + P^c = vc (^c)
is given. Transient solution of short-circuit current and torque follows. where i i , ic represent the phase currents, v , v , v represent
At B A B c
An equivalent circuit for the same machine with direct- and quadrature-
axis excitation is derived, and a 6-terminal network is developed for the phase potentials, i// A , ip B , IJJC represent the flux linkages in
transient studies. the phases, R{ represents the armature resistance per phase, and
The induction machine is similarly analysed with respect to its own p = d\dt represents the time differential operator known as
rotor or with respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame. Heaviside's operator.
Interconnection of synchronous and induction machines is then The total per-unit flux linkages in phase A are given by
possible for steady-state as well as transient studies.
The hunting circuit involving one synchronous machine and a load (iA + iB cos 0O + ic cos 20O) + $L0(iA + iB + ic)
is developed, based on Kron's uniformly rotating reference frame ![ [iA cos 20 + iB cos (20 - 0O) + ic cos (20 - 20O)]
instead of the Blondel-Park reference frame. Hunting circuits for two ™<= R _ / sin 0 (2)
rotating machines are developed, based on simple relations in absolute
differential calculus. where L» = (Ld + Lq)/2 =(xd + xq)/2wt L'{ = (Ld - Lq)f2 =
A number of instantaneous torque expressions are developed from (xd - xq)l2o), Lo = xjoj, 0 = cot, oo = 2irf, 0O = 2TT/3 for a
the tensorial point of view. New expressions are given in terms of 3-phase machine, I and I denote per-unit rotor excitation in
d q
armature currents and flux linkages or their components.
the direct-axis and the quadrature-axis magnetizing ahead of
the poles. Notice that xd, xq, and JC0 are the well-known direct
synchronous reactance, quadrature synchronous reactance, and
(1) INTRODUCTION the zero-sequence reactance of the machine.
In a recent paper, Adkins45 gave a thorough study of the The ideal machine can be interpreted by making two assump-
transient theory of synchronous generators based on the two- tions, namely that the self synchronous inductance of the arma-
reaction theory as developed by Blondel, Doherty,i>3.4 Nickle, ture is of the form L = Itf + L'{ cos 20 and that the mutual
Park,8 Crary,26 Concordia27 and others. Reference was also inductance between the armature and the field is of the form
made to the important contributions of Kron,22 who applied M= M, cos 0.
tensor analysis to the general theory of electric machinery and (2.2) Symmetrical Components
developed equivalent circuits for the steady-state and hunting Following Fortescue, let the zero-sequence, positive-sequence
conditions. An introduction to Kron's work was recently given and negative-sequence components of a 3-phase system be
in a treatise on induction machines by Alger.71 defined as follows:
The present paper attempts to develop the rotating-field theory
of a.c. machinery under transient and hunting conditions as an . Ob)
important alternative to the two-reaction theory. Just as the h = WA + aiA + «2/'c)
two-reaction theory has been recently developed in terms of the h = WA + <*2iB + aic) • (3c)
direct and quadrature components, or d and q components, the where a = dd0 and a 2 = e'20? = e~J\ for 0O = 2TT/3.
rotating-field theory can be developed in terms of the forward • The inverse transformation is given by
and backward components, or / and b components, as first used
'A = O'o + 'i + h) . . . . . (4a)
Correspondence on Monographs is invited for consideration with a view to l =
publication. B 0*0
Prof. Ku is at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of
Pennsylvania, and was formerly at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. . . . . (4c)
[410]
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 411

The same transformations hold for the voltages. The instan- sequence and negative-sequence components of the flux linkages.
taneous power is given by Substituting eqn. (9) into eqn. (la) and separating the proper
sequence terms in a manner as previously done by the author,7
P = iAvA + iBvB + icvc = 3(iQv0 (5) there are obtained the following sequence equations:
which shows that the symmetrical components as defined by R{iQ + pip0 = r 0 (lla)
Fortescue give partial invariance of power. For complete
invariance of power, the factor of one-third should be distributed R,i, + pifti = v. (1 Ib)
in the two sets of transformations given in eqns. (3) and (4).48
From simple trigonometric relations, we have
where
J
0'0 (12a)
i[iA cos x + iB cos (x - 0O) + ic cos (x - 20O)] (6a) (126)
= Z°/ 2 (12c)
~ $ [iA sin x + iB sin (x - 0O) + ic sin (x - 20O)] (66) Notice that tfj{ and «/r2 represent two sets offluxlinkages rotating
where x — 0, 0, 20, or a constant, and 0 = wt or «/. For in opposite directions, and they exist even under balanced
x —: 0 - - a>f, the left-hand side of eqn. (6a) may be denoted by operation. The effect offieldexcitation is given by the rotating
id, and the left-hand side of eqn. (66) may be denoted by iq, vectors /ye;'0 and Ibe~J°. From eqn. (10a), for Iq — 0, Iff•-=--
following Park.8 Ib ~ Id/2. As the resolution of a cosine wave into two rotating-
i
The right-hand side of eqn. (6a) gives (if + ib) for x ~ 0, vector components is well known from simple trigonometric
and the right-hand side of eqn. (7a) gives (if — * t )// in a similar relation
manner. In applying Heaviside's operational calculus to the cos 0 = (eJ* + e-J0)/2
solution of transient problems in a.c. machinery as early as 1928, so Idcos 0 =
the author found that two instantaneous rotating vector com-
ponents of voltages and transient currents are necessary for the More generally, we have
successful application of the shifting formula. The author7 used Id cos d-Iqswd= - € -70)
the components i^-J0 and / 2 e; e which define the forward and
backward components. A summary of this method was given dd - jlq)e~
in Coulthard's "Transients in Electric Circuits."39 As discussed
later by the author44 the / and 6 components and the d and q
components are simply two forms of the same solution from the which shows the relation akeady defined in eqn. (10a).
point of view of tensor analysis. By transferring the rotating flux linkages if){ and «/r2 to a
Hence we have rotating reference frame, the forward and backward components
of flux linkages are obtained:
if+ib iq = 0 / - ibW • (la) ifjf=ijjl€-jo 0 6 =<A 2 e^ . . . . (13a)
(id+Jiq)/2 (76)
(136)
where (8a) Eqns. (12a), (126) and (12c) will hence be rewritten as
(86)

Notice that eqns. (6), (7) and (8) are sufficient to define the i P f ^ L % . + L ' { i b + If . . . . (146)
transformations between the phase components, the symmetrical ifjb = L % + L \ ' i f + I . . . . (14c)
b
components, the/and b components and the d and q components.
For invariance of power, the factor of one-half in eqn. (7) should
The physical interpretation of these components can be made
be distributed between the two sets of transformations given by by examining the terms If and Ib. Whilst in eqn. (12), the field
eqns. (7a) and (1b). Similarly, the factor of two-thirds on the excitation (Id cos 0 — Iq sin 0) produces two rotatingfluxlinkages
left-hand side of eqn. (6) should be distributed for the tensor If€JQ and Ibe~jQ owing to relative motion between the armature
transformations between the phase components and the d and q and thefieldstructure, in eqn. (14) we get simply /y-and Ib which
components. are stationary with respect to thefieldstructure. So the forward
and backward components of flux linkages are the components
(2.3) The Forward and Backward Flux Linkages transferred from the armature side to the rotating-field-structure
Substituting the relations given in eqns. (3a) and (6a) into side. The relation between If, Ib and Id, Iq is given by eqn. (10).
eqn. (2), the total per-unit flux linkages in phase A can be
expressed in terms of symmetrical components as follows: (2.4) Transformation of Operational Equations
The next important step is to transform eqn. (11) operationally
to the rotating reference frame which we have adopted for the
= Z°(l, + /2) + LQiQ + l 2 e726)
forward and backward flux linkages. By Heaviside's shifting
. (9) formula, we get
where If^(Id+jIq)/2 Ib ^ (Id - jIq)/2 (10a) -Ki'o + /»Ao = vo 05a)

Id=If+Ib (106) vf . . . . (156)

v
By comparing eqn. (9) and similar equations for the flux linkages b - • • • 05c)
in phases B and C, we can separate the zero-sequence, positive- where n = pd — ddjdt, and n = co for synchronous operation.
412 KU: ROTAT1NG-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
(2.5) Tensor Equations of a Synchronous Machine As discussed by Kron,43 y in eqn. (22) is a "rotation tensor,"
We shall introduce here the tensor form of equations for a . while y in eqn. (26) is the "coefficient or rotation" containing ± 1.
synchronous machine, following Kron's paper.43 Eqns. (la), It follows that y if;fin eqn. (23) becomes a new tensor representing
(ib) and (lc) can be written in tensor form as a new physical entity S, the flux density of the armature. Thus
we may rewrite eqn. (23) as
SI + pi// = v (16)
v . . . . (27)
Since we need to use different sets of components, we may denote
the particular set by a representative subscript, A, \,f,d, for the while eqn. (25) can only be expressed in the tensor form:
phase components, symmetrical components,/and b components,
or d and q components. Thus, for the particular set corre- Rl +p $ +y$(p6)^v . . . . (28)
sponding to the phase components, we may write
By comparing eqn. (16) for the stationary reference frame
(17) with eqn. (19) for the rotating reference frame, we see that a more
general tensor form of equation is
Eqns. (lla), (lib) and (lie) can be written as
Si + pip = v (29)
RJi+pipi^Vj . . . . (18)
Eqns. (15a), (156) and (15c) can be written similarly as where p is in general defined by eqn. (20) for pd = n, and is equal
to p for stationary reference frame,
(19) i«. D = IP (30)
where
0 / as a special case of eqn. (21) for pd = 0.
Thus the operational equations in terms of phase components,
p symmetrical components, and / and b components all belong to
the group represented by the tensor equation (29). The d and q
P+jn • • (20) components can be brought into the family by eqn. (28) to which
eqn. (23) also belongs. Notice that eqn. (28) may be seen as an
p -jn expanded form of eqn. (29), where p is in general defined by
eqn. (21). Thus we have established the tensor relation as given
p^Tp + y(P6) (21) by eqn. (29) involving i, I/J, and v, and representing all sets of
or components and similar sets belonging to a big tensor group.
where generally, we may define
0 / b 0 / b (2.6) Field Excitation and Amortisseur Windings
In eqn. (2), we have used Id and Iq representing per-unit field
0 1 0 0 excitation in the direct and quadrature axes. If additional closed
rotor circuits are involved, the following results can be
/ - / 1 y=/ j . (22) obtained:8'18
Id=G(p)E+[xd-xd(p)]id . . . (31a)
b 1 b

Substituting from eqn. (21) in eqn. (19), we get A more detailed treatment is given by Park8 and Waring and
RJf + P^f+yff(pd)^Vf . . . (23) Crary.18 Here xd(p) and xq(j)^ are functions of p. The author has
also studied the case of three windings in the direct-field axis and
Taking the sum and the difference of eqns. (156) and (15c) one winding in the quadrature axis, in 1936.24
and noting the relation between the d and q components and the Assume, in general, that there are m windings in the direct
/and b components in eqn. (7), we have another set of equations axis and there are k windings in the quadrature axis. From
in the rotating reference frame as follows: eqns. (6a) and (6b), it can be shown that, independent of the
number of windings in each axis, there are obtained:
(24a)
E 0r
vd . . . . (24b) + I,Mdr(m)Pidr{m) + Md(l)p(if+ = dr0) °
(32a)
-va . . . . (24c)
kVJ q*t)
Eqns. (24a), (24b) and (24c) can be written as . . . . (32b)
(25)
where Zdr = Rdr + Ldrp, and Zq, = Rqr + Lqrp represent the
where self-impedance of the rotor circuit, Mdr and Mqr represent the
0 mutual inductance between the rotor circuits, Md and Mq
represent the mutual inductance between the armature and the
0 0
rotor circuits. Since there are m simultaneous equations for the
-1 (26) direct axis and k simultaneous equations for the quadrature axis,
idr can be solved in terms of Edr, Zdr, Mdr, Md, and (if + ib) = id,
1 and similarly iqr can be solved in terms of Eqr, Zqr, Mqr, Mq,
h and (if - ib)/j = iq.
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 413
Since, in general, Eqns. (15) and (40) can then be extended to
M
=
L
+ j y + (P + Mm + **) +
(336)
+ jn)L'{ib + (p+jn)If=vf . (43a)
we have shown that

Iq = Gq(p)Eqr - Mq(p)(if - ib)lj . . (346) (P - jn)L'{if + (p - / (436)

which check with eqn. (31). In applying tensor analysis to the study of rotating machines,
Kron42 discovered the use of the absolute differential operator p'
Applying the above general analysis to a specific case with and its inversep'~x. Expressing eqn. (41) as
direct-axis field excitation iFd and amortisseur windings kd and
kg, we have 2 = R + p'L + p - i S . . . . (41a)
(RFd + LFdp)iFd + MkFdpikd + Mdp(if + i0) = eFd . (35)
the impedance tensor in the rotating reference frame will be44
(Rkd + Lkdp).kd + MkFdpiFd + Mkdp(jf + ib) = 0 . (36)
2 ' = R + p ' Z + p ' - i S . . . . (42«)
(Rkq + Lkqp)ikq + Mkqp(if-ib)lJ=0 . . . . (37)
1
wherep' is defined by eqn. (20) and/?'- is its inverse.
If we assume as a special case Md — Mkd = MkFd = Lad and
also let Mkq = Laq, we can check eqns. (6) and (7) in Adkins's
paper.45 Notice that the self-inductances used in eqns. (35), (2.8) General Balanced External Network
(36) and (37) are synchronous inductances instead of leakage Eqn. (43) can be written in a simplified form as
inductances as used in Adkins's paper. For this example,
we have + ZL(p+jn)Vf +(P+ ML'fo + (p + jn)If = «/ • (44a)
I a = M d i F d + M k d i k d . . . . (38a)
+ ZUp_jn)]ib + (p - jri)L\'if + (p — jn)Ib — vb . (446)
M (386)
h = kqhq
We shall now extend our analysis to any balanced external net-
From eqn. (10), we get work where Z I(p) is analytic. In other words, if Z L(p) is such
(39a) that ZlXp±jn^ can be obtained legitimately by Heaviside's shifting
If = MdiFd/2 + (Mkdikd + ]Mkqikq)l2 or Laplace transforms, we can extend the operational equations
(396) of a salient-pole synchronous machine to include the effects of
Ib = MdiFdl2 such balanced external networks.
Substituting these values into eqns. (146) and (14c), eqns. (156) Let, in general,
and (15c) will give (45)
w
yip)
[/?! + (p + jn)I$\if + O + jn)L'{ib
+ (p+ jn)[MdiFd/2 + (Mkdikd + jMkqikq)l2] = vf . (40a) u(p ± jn)
Then "Up+jn) A,B . (46)
y(p ± j*
[#, + (p - jn)L<>]ib + (p - jn)L'{if
+ (p- jn)[MdiFd/2 + (Mkd - jMkqikq)/2] = vb . (406) be extended to
(47a)
Eqns. (35), (36), (37) and (40) are the operational equations that
can be solved simultaneously for steady-state as well as transient in) + *Vb + x\{P-jn)if + (P - jn)h (476)
conditions.
(2.7) Effect of External Impedance where ±in) =Ri + (p± Jn)L* = /?, 4- *? (
Eqn. (40) has been given in such a form that the effect of
external impedance can be readily added. Let the external
impedance per phase be Notice that eqn. (42) is a special case of the general expression
given by A, B in eqn. (46).
ZL = RL + pLL + - 1 = R + pL + -S . . (41)
p\> p
By Heaviside's shifting formula, the external impedance referring (2.9) Transmission Line with Lumped or Distributed Constants
to a rotating reference frame is A transmission line with lumped constants can be expressed
as an external network with resistance, inductance and capacitance
(42) units. It remains to investigate the case of a transmission line
with distributed constants.
It has been shown by the author44 that, for a transmission
This result was obtained by the author in 1930 and the extension line with distributed constants, there is
of his transient analysis of a.c. machinery, not only to the salient
poles but also to include external capacitance, was presented
= (48)
before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1932.7 y(p ± jn) eT^hflf ^tanh*±
414 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
where Z - R + Lp = total series impedance of the line, From these torque expressions, we can formulate a simple
Z R + L(p ±jn), but general derivation as follows: Since T= dP/dd, we can
6 \/(ZY), Y= G-\- Cp = total admittance of the select the "rotational" or "speed" voltage in any set of voltage
line, expressions, substitute in the power equation, and then divide
the "rotational power" by pd to get the torque expression.
Notice that since (sinh#)/0 and cosh# both can be ex- For example, in eqns. (156) and (15c), since n ~ pd, the
panded into even powers of d, eqn. (48) can be expressed as "speed voltages" are j*pf(pB) and —jijjb(pd), and hence the
Kp ± jn)/y(p ± jn) involving even powers of 8+ and hence only rotational power is given by
integral powers of p will be involved in u(p ±jn) and y(p ±jn). Pr = ib(j^)(pd) + if(-M(p8) . . . (53a)
Thus eqn. (47) has been extended to include the case of trans- which gives eqn. (52a) after dividing by (pd).
mission lines with distributed constants with A, B defined by As another example, consider eqns. (246) and (24c). The
eqn. (48). speed voltages are —tjjq(pd) and ipd(pd). Hence the rotational
If we introduce the general equivalent expressions power is given by
A+ B B
(49a) l t 9 . . . . (536)
~~~2~ V which gives eqn. (52c) after dividing by (pd).
B — Re (496)
However, the above derivation holds for components in the
and take the sum and the difference of eqns. (47a) and (47b), rotating reference frame where pd — n ^ 0. For the torque
we get the following general expressions in terms of d and q equation in terms of components in the stationary reference frame
components: like eqn. (526), a more fundamental approach is necessary since
any torque equation should hold for starting condition also.
(Zd + Re)id - (xq + Xe)iq + pld - nlq = vd . (50a) Professor Lyon has recently given a derivation of instantaneous
(Zq + Re)iq + (xd + Xe)id + plq + nld=vq . (50b) torque by expressing the electromagnetic torque in terms of the
stator and rotor currents and the mutual inductance between the
where Zd - U, + pLd, Zq = R1 + pLq, xd^nLd, and xq = nLq windings. The torque equation is given by75
Without external impedance, eqn. (50) reduces to the expres- r (54)
sions given in eqns. (246) and (24c), or
vd . (51a)
-«£?
where is and ir denote the stator and rotor currents respectively,
vq . (516) and m represents the mutual inductance—which varies with the
From the above demonstration, it is seen that if we start with angle between the stator and rotor windings, 9.
the rotating-field theory, we can easily extend its analysis to As a generalization of Professor Lyon's derivation, it may be
include complicated external networks involving transmission stated that the instantaneous torque is given by the product of
lines with lumped or distributed constants and finally succeed the stator current and the rate of change of flux linkages with
in extending the two-reaction theory to include such external respect to the angle between the stator and rotor windings;
networks and transmission lines. For a simple RLC circuit, it
is possible to extend the two-reaction theory without involving i.e. (55)
too much difficulty. For more complicated networks, it seems
to the author that it is simpler to study the problem according to Notice that in eqn. (54) i/n represents flux linkages. Since ir,
the rotating-field theory first and then transform the / and 6 the rotor current, does not vary with the rotor position angle,
components into the d and q components. di(j/dd = d(mir)/dd = ir(dm/d9). In a synchronous machine,
ir = iFdi the field excitation is constant, but m depends on the
(2.10) Equations for Instantaneous Torque angle 9 — nt in general running condition, and even at standstill
The expression for instantaneous power has been given in m depends on a particular position angle 9 — <j>0. Ifm — Mcosd,
eqn. (5). The torque equation can be similarly expressed in dm/dd = — M sin d. So the starting torque will depend upon
is, ir, M, a n d sin d for d — <j>0.
terms of different sets of components. The torque expression in
According to the general expression represented by eqn. (55),
terms of d and q components was given by Park.8 A derivation
of the torque expression in terms of / and 6 components was
given by the author:44 T= (55a)
d9
T=ib(jtp/) + if(—jipb) . . . . ( 5 2 a )
By substituting in eqn. (4) for the currents and similarly for the
This corresponds to per-unit power P = ibvf + i^vb and is equal flux linkages and noting the modifications for complete in-
to one-third of the total instantaneous power given in eqn. (5). variance, it is readily shown that eqn. (55a) gives
From eqns. (8) and (13), there is . dtbt . dik2 ,,.u
T = I 2 ,- ~ r ' i ~ j / j . . . . vy^o)
T= /2(/<Ai) + »i(-y02) • • • • (526)
Using modified transformations of eqn. (7) for complete in- Since ifjt = 0/e-'6 and I}J2 = tpbe~J&, and ifj/ and ifjb do not vary
variance, there is with rotor position angle, we have dijjjdd = jtp1 and dip2/dd =
T -jip2- Thereby we identify eqn. (556) and eqn. (526) as the
= Ugh ~ idfa) (52c)
same torque expression. Furthermore, in terms of Clarke or
A factor of one-half is here omitted owing to the use of tensor a, /? components,
transformations. Similarly, a factor of one-third can be omitted
from eqn. (5) if we use modified tensor components. (Notice
that Park used a factor of two-thirds for the per-unit instanta-
neous power.) where dtpjd9 = — ^p and
 KU: ROTATESfG-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 415
In tensor form, Kron expressed eqns. (52a) and (52c) as Substituting in the flux-linkage expressions as given in eqns. (146)
and (14c) and letting nL® — x^ and nL\' — xj', we have
T = I *yjj (56)
43
jx\% + jnlf vf (62a)
As discussed further by Kron, eqn. (52a) can be expressed as
Z*!'1/ ~ J'nIb = vb (626)
T = I*B (57)
Since if and ib are conjugate expressions, eqn. (62) can be written
which is a generalization of the force equation of Maxwell, in symbolic form as follows:
n a m e l y / ^ iB. Thus eqns. (52a) and (526) may be rewritten as
(Ry + Ea - Vt . (63a)
T=ibBf + ifBb (57a)
E* = V* . (636)
T=i2Bx+i2Bx (51b)
where Bf = jijjf, Bb = -jiftb, Bt = 7 ^ , and B2 = -jifj2. where I, Ea, Vt are the vectors of the familiar a.c. theory and
From eqns. (55a), (55b) and (55c), we may write the following the asterisk denotes a conjugate.
general expression in tensor form: Eqn. (63a) is an extended form of the equation for a syn-
chronous motor. For a synchronous generator we shall rewrite
eqn. (63a) as
(58)
V+(Rt + jx°)I + jx\'I* = E . . . (64)

where y — d[dQ, the angular differential operator, similar to where E represents the generated voltage and V the load voltage.
p — djdt, the time differential operator. Thus we have extended According to eqn. (47a), V — AI, where A = u(jn)ly(jn).
eqn. (56) to the components on a stationary reference frame. In Fig. 1, let E — jnld be the reference voltage along the real
It is of further interest to examine the physical meaning of y as
given by eqns. (22) and (26). It can be shown that, except for a
change of sign due to relative motion, eqns. (52a) and (52c) can
be interpreted as
J.I. J./.
. (59a)

(596)

Notice that since if and ib are the components referring to the

rotating frame, dijjfjdd — dty^-ty/dd — — jifif, and dtpjdd —
d(ifj2€M)fd6 = j$b. Similarly, diffjdd = *f/g and dtfijdd = - iftd.
Thus we see that eqn. (58) can be interpreted to include the two Fig. 1.—Salient-pole synchronous machine.
expressions given by eqns. (59a) and (59b), if we change the sign
of 0 as we go from the stationary frame to the rotating frame. axis. As shown, V lags E by an angle jS, and I lags V by an
Hence either eqn. (56) or eqn. (58) can be considered as a general angle a, or I lags E by an angle <f>. As I represents if and I*
expression of torque in terms of all five sets of components. represents ib, we must construct J* as a conjugate vector with
Let pQ --- d/dd as an abbreviation. Then respect to the direct axis of the field poles, according to eqn. (76).
Now the direct axis coincides with the field excitation Id which
A B C 0 1 2 0 1 2 is 90° behind E.
With I as shown, Ic represents the negative value of I*. Thus
A P« 0 Po 0 0 eqns. (63a) and (64) become respectively
y^B j (Rx + 7*0)1 (65)
PQ Po
2 - V (66)
C PQ Po 2
We shall verify the minus sign before (jx['Ic) directly from
eqns. (la) and (2). Substituting from eqn. (2) in eqn. (la) and
0 / 6 0 ]8 a 0 a d assuming no zero-sequence armature current or quadrature-
axis field excitation, we have
0 0 0 0 0
+ pL\iA + pL'{i[iA cos 20 + iB cos (20 - d0)
j -1 -1 (60) + i c cos (26 + 0O)] + p(Id cos d) - v (67)
a 1 d 1 For Id constant, p(Id cos 8) gives — nld sin 6, a sinusoidal voltage.
Let *A = lm s i n (0 - $ » 1B = tm s i n (0 - cf>- 60), and ic =
Jm sin (9 — <£ + 60). It can be shown that
(3) DERIVATION OF THE STEADY-STATE VECTOR DIAGRAM $[iA cos 20 + iB cos (20 - 0O) + ic cos (20 + 0O)]
Referring to eqns. (156) and (15c), the steady-state expressions = - / w s i n ( 0 + <£)
can be obtained by putting/? = 0,
If iA is represented by I and nld sin 0 is represented by E, eqn. (67)
i.e. Rtif -f jniftf = ty (61a) can be rewritten symbolically as
Rlib-jmlib = vb (616) (Rx + 7*0)1 - jx'{Ic =E+Vt . . . (68)
416 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
where E = — Ea according to eqn. (65), Vt = — V according Notice that K is positive and greater than 1 if XL is positive,
to eqn. (66), I lags behind E by an angle <f>, and Ic leads E by If XL is negative, AT is greater than 1 when xq > \XL\, and K < 1
an angle <f>. when \XL\ > xq.
Thus by choosing the direct-axis excited or generated voltage E
as the reference, a new vector diagram can be constructed with (4) CALCULATION OF THE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND
h familiar
the l a conjugate
f i l i vectors E, V, I, plus j I Fig.
vector Ic. In Fi 1,1 TRANSIENT TORQUE
besides i?,I and/xfl drops, we have an additional reactance drop
20 0
—jx'{Ic. It can be shown that the Ix drop line crosses the (4.1) Short-Circuit Current of an Unloaded Generator
On sud e n 3 h e
reference line E at a distance equal to ifcrff - < ) = Ixa. So the . uf / K "P f short-circuit the transient solution can
angle. <f>. can
. be
~ found
, ,by ,the?relation
. * * « be obtained by suddenly applying 3-phase armature voltages
opposite in sign to the no-load phase voltages to the armature
F s i n a + Ixq terminals, with the field excitation shorted. Referring to eqns.
(69) (156) and (15c), we have
Kcosa + IR]
where V and / are the magnitudes of the voltage and current R\if+(j>+ jn)ipf = vfl . . . . (74a)
vectors.
Fig. 2 shows a vector diagram correlating the rotating-field R\ib + (P ~Mb — vb\ . . . . (746)
theory and the two-reaction theory in the steady state.
where 1 represents Heaviside's unit function. With field excita-
It is sometimes more important to solve for E, when V and I
tion short-circuited, it can be shown that eqns. (146) and (14c)
can be written as
l f
f f=Li(p)if+L'i(P)ib (75a)
. . . . (756)
where
= fo(p) ~ xq(p)V2«> - (76a)

and a> = n = 1 for synchronous operation.

Substituting eqn. (75) into eqn. (74), we get
Rjf + + Jn)L\'(p)ib = vf\ (77a)
Fig. 2.—Rotating-field theory and two-reaction theory. (776)
Solving simultaneously,
are given. We shall develop the following general solution,
using the expression A — Re + jXe representing the general _ [Jg, + (p - i y - [(P
terminal network. Referring to eqn. (64) and letting V = AI, (78a)
Dip)
we have
E . . . . (70) (P (786)
or (70a)
where
Taking the conjugate of eqn. (70a) term by term with E as the D(p) = R\ + 2RlpL(((p) + (p2 + n2){[L°l(p)]2 (79a)
reference vector, as before, we get or
(706) (796)
Solving eqns. (70a) and (706) simultaneously, we have From eqn. (8), we get it and i2, and hence iA in its complete form.

(71) (4.2) Short-Circuit Current of a Loaded Generator

For a loaded generator, we have, from eqn. (47),
where R =•-• R{ + Re and X — x° + Xe. It follows that
o + jn)ifjf = vf (80a)
V ;
(^i + B)ib + (p — jn)ijjb = vi (806)
or E =•= K[V + (72a) Substituting eqn. (75) into eqn. (80), we get
(Zl+ (81a)
where K - 1 + ~w- (73) '
(816)
For a simple. RLC terminal impedance, it is seen that Re — RL, where Z°l± =Rt+(p±j>
X -- XL •--- (nL— —^\y arj d A" is a mere numeric given by X['± = (p ± jn)L'^
\ nCJ
XL) (73a) Comparing with eqn. (47), we see that If and Ib terms are now
= 1+ included in L^,) an( ^ L'\(j>) ^ or short-circuit transient studies.
+ + (*,+
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 417
The impedance tensor of a salient-pole synchronous machine (5) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
with a general balanced load can thus be written as (5.1) Steady-State Equivalent Circuit
Kron has recently published a new book on equivalent circuits
of electric machinery72 based on tensor analysis. We shall
Z, + + A x
\\ develop the equivalent circuit of a general salient-pole syn-
(82) chronous machine where the mutual inductances are not assumed
z- Z°_ + B to be equal between the different windings as discussed in Adkins's
paper45 based on the previous results of Kron.
Starting from eqns. (35), (36), (37) and (40), let kd = MJMkd,
The impedance tensor for the machine alone is simply and k — MJMkq.
Also, let
if *b
ikd = UUkdk i'kq — 'kqlkq
v z h K
f l + \W ^ "d^kd *kq ~ q kq
(83) k2
Y" Z?_ L'kd= dLk ^kq ~ "qL/cq
M k M M k M
'kFd = d kFd 'kFq = q kFQ

Solving eqns. (81a) and (816) simultaneously, Eqns. (35), (36) and (37) can be rewritten as
2(RFd + LFap){iFdl2) + M'kFdpi'kd + Mdp(if+ ib) - eFd (91a)

D(j>) (R'kd + LkdP)i'kd + M'kFdpiFd + Mdp(if + ib) = 0 . . (92a)

(926)
A)vb - X\'_vf (Rkq + L'kqP)ikq + MqPVf-ibVJ^O
(846)
The amortisseur winding currents may be replaced by forward
and backward components as follows:
where D(p) = (Z« + + A){Z\_ + B) - X'{+X'{_ (85)
i'kd ~ ikf + hb

(4.3) Transient Torque i'kq = 0V - 'kb)U

Substituting eqn. (75) in eqn. (52a) gives the following expres- The resistances and inductances may also be expressed as
sion for the transient torque: Jjo = (R'kd + Rkq)l2 R'k' = (R'kd - Rkq)/2
• (86) L° = {L'kd + Lkq)/2 L'k' = (L'kd - L'kq)/2
L'L Mq)/2
or (86a)
Taking the sum and the difference of eqn. (92a) and j form of
The steady-state torque is given by eqn. (926), and dividing by 2, we get
L M
To = ibj[L\if+ L';ib] + if( Wf] (87) (ROk 'k'P)ikb + kFdP('Fdl2)
(87a) (92r)
(R°k qP)ikb + (R'k M'kFdPiiFdM
In terms of direct and quadrature components, eqn. (86) gives
(92d)
T=[iqL d { p ) id-idL q { p ) iq}l2 . . . . (88)
From eqns. (33) and (38), we get
which checks with eqn. (52c) for zero field excitation. Notice h = MdiFd + Mkdikd = MdiFd MddVVkd
that for n ----- 1, Ld(j)) == xd(p) and Lq{p) = xq{p). The steady-state
torque is given by
I — idLqiq^1 =
'diqL'l • • (88a) lb • - MdlFdlL -+- L.mlkb -t- i^mlkf
which checks the result obtained from eqn. (87a). It may be Substituting these values into eqn. (40), there are
pointed out that eqn. (87) or eqn. (88a) gives only the so-called
reluctance torque, while the complete expressions for steady- [/?j + (p + jn)L^]if + (p + jn)L\'ib
state torque are given by + (p + jn)[MdiFd/2 + L°mikf+L'Jkh (93a)
Q
L\'ib) L\'if) [Rl f (p — jn)L ^\ib + (p — jn)L'(ij-
+ (p - jn)[MdiFd/2 + L°mikb + L-i, (936)
(89)
Dividing eqn. (93a) by (—jp + n) and eqn. (936) by (—jp — n),
o = [Uld + Ldid) -
and rewriting x (per-unit reactance) for L(coL - x for to — n— 1),
(90) we get
R
In eqns. (88) and (90), a factor of one-half has been retained on / i _|_ jx°\if + jx"ib -f jx i /2
X f l ad Fd
account of the transformation given in eqn. (7). In eqns. (87) \ — jP + n J
and (89), since ijib gives a real term, jL°xibif is imaginary and (93c)
hence does not contribute to the steady-state torque.
VOL. 99, PART IV. 28
418 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
(5.2) Asynchronous Operation
z r ^ L „ + /*?) 'b + ix'ih + Kdhd Under asynchronous operation, n = 1 — s and p = js in the
steady state, where s is the slip. Substituting these values in
-jp eqn. (94), we get

where xad oL?, \, and (-^+jxtyf + jxad(if+ikf+iF)

(For per-unit reactances, o> = « = 1.)
If we let x oiM , we have (97a)
a q -Jx'mVf+ikf-ib ikb) — —rz

x x
aq m ~~ xm

Introducing xt — leakage reactance, we get (97b)

s —n
x x
"= d •= t Notice that, for J = 1 — », .s + n = 1 and s — n — 2s — I.
XX
~ *1 ~ X
gg '~ ll + ^ — X' So i?,/(.s - n) is equal to — i?,/(l — 2y).
As /^.y and ikb are no longer equal to zero, we have to investi-
Then eqns. (93c) and (93d) can be rewritten as gate eqns. (92c) and (92d). Since R'kd = Ug + i?^ and £; rf =
1-2 + ^ , e < l n s - (^ 2c ) an< ^ (92^0 can be rewritten as follows:
?
if
(94a)
~JP

l ib ~ Jfflb ~ if) -f-+Jxkd)tkb-

* III - K.U K.J ' ^ •

where A:^ + xad + xkF = ojL'kd, xk + x'^ = <x)Lk, and xkF

where iF = iFd/2. Notice that according to tensor transforma- x wM
tion, iF = iFdlV2 and eF = eFd/^2. + ad = fcFrf-
Eqn. (91a) will be rewritten as
For steady-state synchronous operation, p = 0, n = 1,
eqn. (94) gives -~ + JxFd)iF + K*ud + xkF)('kf + lkb + 2/»
>- / 6 ) = ty
t . . . (95a)

( Rt + jxi)ib I jxad(ib + / F y<X'6 ~ '/) = - vb where xFd + xflrf + xkF = wLFd.

Eqns. (97), (98) and (99) represent a 5-mesh network involving
where ikf and ikb are equal to zero. Notice that instead of five m e s h c u r r e n t s i>, ib, ik/, ikb and / F . The equivalent circuit
writing conjugate expressions m eqns. (95a) and (956), minus i s s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . (R> a n d x' are simply given ^ ^ and
signs have been introduced before Rl and vb as a consequence

J*Fd RFd
•AWW 1

Ij'od

-J»m

•0000. -vww 1
i«Fd
Fig. 4.—Asynchronous operation.
Fig. 3.—Synchronous machine.
xkct in the Figure.) The circuit checks with that given by Kron
for x
of eqn. (94b). The equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 3. From kF = °> i-e- MkFd = Mkd = Md- N o t i c e t h a t 2eF h e r e
eqn. (91a), iFd •-= eFd/RFd, o r iF = eF/RFd. corresponds to ^(2)eFd according to tensor transformation.
Comparing eqns. (95a) and (956) with eqns. (63a) and (636),
we have (5.3) Synchronous Machine with Two-Axis Excitation
Let there be an additional field excitation in the quadrature

(/?, *-jxadI*+jx\'(I*- E* = V (966) (38c)

where Ea corresponds to jxadiF and Vt corresponds to iy.
 KU: ROTATING-FEELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS; AND INDUCTION MACHINES 419
R
' J«kF i*F4 Fd/«
WWV 1

-J*F -RF/»

Tnnp—VWA—

Fig. 5.—Synchronous machine. Two-axes excitation.

= (MdiFd + jMqiFq)/2 + (Mdi'kd (Kkd • / \ /"

~ L*Lip + L'mia + L m i k f + L'mikh . . . . (39c)

(98c)
= I&(B + i^/j, + I&/** + I ^ / . . . . (39a-)
R' \ /
(
j ' Kdj KD ys

In addition to eqn. (91a), there is — jx'^(ikb — ikf + ib — if+iB — iF) + JxkF(ikb + ix

2(RFq + LFqp)(iFq/2) +MkFqpi'kq +Mqp(if~ib)/j= eFq . (916) ~ /x«r(»*6 - ikf+ is - '/•) = °
Eqn. (926) will be modified to ^ 4- ;,.. .VF - ( - ^ + JxF\iF - iB) + jxad(ikf + t, + i,

Combining eqns. (91a) and (916), we get expressions similar to

eqns. (92c) and (92d) as follows: (99a)
(RF + LFp)iF + (RF + L';P)iB + qFpikf + Lk'Fpikb iB - iF) + jxad(ikb + ib
+ L%pif+L-pib = eF . (91c)
+ *6 - '/) + JxkF(ikb +
(RF + LFp)iB + (RF + L'Fp)iF + L j ^ / ^ + L'k'Fpikf

where x'kd + xarf + ^ F = u>L'kd x'k' + x£

where
ad + x
xkFkF = kF
RF=(RFd+RFg)l2
xkF =
LF=(LFd-LFq)/2
L'k'F={M'kFd-M'kFq)l2 (5.4) Interconnection of Synchronous Machine and Load
e
B = (eFd - JeFg)l2 From Fig. 5, we can represent a salient-pole synchronous
machine with direct-axis and quadrature-axis excitation and
Eqns. (92c) and (92d) will be rewritten as direct-axis and quadrature-axis amortisseur windings by a general
(K + LlP)ikf + (fit + Wkb + L°kFpiF + L'k'FpiB
> 6 = 0 . (92c0
(R°k + V>kp)ikb L\FpiB + L'k'FpiF SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE
'^pi/=0 . (92o")
The equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 5. The six meshes
represent the following six equations: Fig. 6.—Six-terminal circuit.

6-terminal network as shown in Fig. 6. For a balanced external

load, we have, from eqns. (47a) and (476),
Ai
~ Jx'miif - lb + ikf - ikb + (F - is) = ~ x ~ • (97c) f+Zi(p+jr,)if+ x
i(p+jn)'b + (P +jn)lf •••--- 0 . (100a)
R
51 + n Z X
Bib ~l~ \(j>-jn)ib + Hp—jn)if + (p — jn)Ib — 0 . (1006)
where If and Ib are now defined by eqns. (39c) and (39a1). Since
- */ • (97a*) Fig. 5 or Fig. 6 represents the complete machine under no-load
s— n conditions, a simple equivalent network representing the load
420 KU: ROTAT1NG-F1ELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
EXTERNAL
NETWORK
Fig. 7. Load impedance.
Fig. 8.—Machine and load.
can be drawn as in Fig. 7 and connected to the synchronous
machine as shown in Fig. 8. Notice that in Fig. 6, not only we
have used a simplified representation of the synchronous
machine, but also we have extended the circuit to the transient
case by putting (—jp f 1) and ( jp — 1) instead of (s + n)
and (.v //) for n • 1. Thus Fig. 6 really represents a set of
operational equations as exemplified by eqn. (93). The other by using suitable phase shifters. In Fig. 11, we have used sym-
equations can be obtained from eqns. (98) and (99) by putting metrical phase shifters for both the forward and the backward
s jp. circuits. Notice that in Fig. 11
In Fig. 9, a transmission line is represented by another 6-
Fig. 9.—Line impedance.
terminal network referring to the rotating reference frame.
Comparing Fig. 9 with Fig. 7, the three terminals on the left-hand
side are open- instead of short-circuited. In general, either
Fig. 7 or Fig. 9 represents a general terminal network A, B as
MACHINE I
Fig. 10.—Machine and line.
given by eqn. (46). The interconnection of a synchronous
machine and a line impedance is shown in Fig. 10.
(5.5) Interconnection of Two Synchronous Machines
From the above discussion, it may be seen that the external
network represented by A, B may not limit itself to a static net-
work. Comparing eqn. (82) with eqn. (83), A, B representing
the impedance tensor of an external network may be generalized
to another impedance tensor like that given by eqn. (83). In
other words, since the external network has been represented by
a 6-terminal network, and a 6-terminal network may represent a
rotating machine like a synchronous machine, it follows that the
interconnection of two rotating machines can be similarly made.
For any two sides of two 6-terminal networks to be inter-
connected, the networks must be referred to the same reference
frame. For two synchronous machines, this means that the two
machines running at same frequency must refer to the same
synchronous rotating frame. However, as the first machine
refers to its rotor with a certain initial angle, and the second
machine refers to its rotor with another initial angle, these two
reference position angles must be taken into account. In fact,
the angular difference between two synchronous machines is a
very important factor in the power flow between the machines
and this is sometimes referred to as the power angle between the
two machines.
Following Kron, we can take care of this power-angle difference
Fig. 11.—Two synchronous machines.
where 8 is the angular displacement between the two rotors.
(6) THE GENERAL OPERATIONAL EQUATIONS OF THE
INDUCTION MACHINE
(6.1) The Polyphase Induction Machine
Similar to eqn. (1), the operational equations for a polyphase
induction machine may be given as follows:
V
R J A + P ^ A ^ A . . . . 0 0 1 a )
v
Rjc+P*l*c c • • • • (101c)
where iA, iB, ic represent the stator phase currents, vA, vB, vc
represent the stator phase potentials, Rs the stator resistance per
phase, and ifiA, iftB, ifjc the per-unitflux-linkagesin the phases.
The total flux linkages in phase A are given by
iftA = LsiA + WVrA cos 6 + irB cos (0 + 0O) + irC cos (6 - 60)]
. . . . (102)
where Ls represents the self-synchronous inductance per stator
phase, M the maximum value of mutual inductance between one
stator phase and one rotor phase, irA, irB, irC represent the rotor
phase currents, 6 — nt, n = 1 — s, s is the slip, and 60 — 2TT/3.
From eqn. (6a), for x = — 6, we have
$A=LJA + M(i,leJ* + ir2e-J*) . . (102a)
Substituting eqn. (102a) in eqn. (101a) and separating the proper
sequence terms, we obtain:
(1036)
(103c)
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 421
where */»0 — Lo/O (104a) Omitting zero-sequence components, eqns. (106) and (109)
L
can be rewritteni as follows:
= sh UrleJ* . . . (1046)
r- (P +jn)Ls]if \- ( p t jn)Mir{ 7 . (10660
+ Mifirf-J*
AcJ* .. .. . (104c)
si2
{-(p - jn)Ls]ib - i - ( p - jn)Mir2 ''6 . (106c')
Notice that L0(iA -f- iB + /c)/3 = Loio should be included in
eqn. (102). hpL r )/ r , +pMif vr (10960
Referring to the rotating frame which has an angular velocity (Rr + pLr)ir2 (109c')
'r2
equal to the actual rotor speed, n = 1 — s, we have
ifjf^Lsif+If (105a) The above four operational equations can be solved simul-
taneously. For balanced operation, they form two sets of
= Lsib (1056) conjugate expressions.
Q
where if — /,e~-/° and ib — i2eJ as defined by eqn. (8), If= Mirl (6.3) Equivalent Circuit of Induction Machine
and Ib - Mir2.
In terms of 0, /, 6 components, eqn. (101) becomes Dividing eqn. (1066') by ( jp -f- n) and eqn. (106c') by
(—jp — n) and rewriting x (per-unit reactance) for L, we get
. . . . . . 006a)
f = V f . . . . (1066) \-jpjp+ (Ilia)
f f
n JP
RJb + (P ~ Jn)*l>b = vb . . . . (106c)
(1116)
Notice that eqns. (1066) and (106c) are exactly like eqns. (156) and
(15c). Physically, however, the two sets of equations have Similarly, we get from eqn. (109)
different meanings. In eqns. (156) and (15c) for synchronous
machines, if and ib give components of zero frequency in the
steady-state solution, while if and ib in eqns. (1066) and (106c) \-jp Vn '" ri JP
give components of slip frequency in the steady-state solution.
In terms of rotating reference frames, eqns. (156) and (15c) R (1126)
7- +JXr)*r2 ' 'ft)
refer to a synchronous rotating reference frame, while eqns. JP / JP
(1066) and (106c) refer to a reference frame rotating at (1 — s)
synchronous speed. In both cases, the reference frames have the where xs + xm — coLs, xr •{- xm ioLr, a n d xn 00M.
same rotating speed as the rotors. It will be shown later that, For steady-state balanced operation, pif jsif, pirl
although the two sets of equations look alike, they cannot be pi b -- — jsib, and /?/ r2 — —jsir2. Hence we get for (s \ n) 1,
combined as they are, when the two machines are physically
interconnected. (j + Jxs) if \ f- irl) . (Ilia')
(6.2) The Double-Fed Induction Machine
The double-fed type of polyphase induction motor was men- . (11160
tioned in the treatise by the late Dr. Behrend.53 It has become
rather important in recent years.31-35 The rotor equations can Similarly, eqn. (112) becomes
be given as follows:
V r A + P*l>rA ~ VrA . . . . (107a) + jxm(irl . (112aO

. (11260
RjrC
jrC + P^rC = VrC • • • (107c)
Fig. 12 gives an equivalent circuit of an induction machine
where Rr represents the rotor resistance per phase, vrA, vrB, vrC
represent the rotor excitation voltages, and tf/rA, ifjrB, iftrC the
flux linkages in rotor phases A, B and C.
The total flux linkages in rotor phase A are given by
AA ^ WrA -f- iM[iA cos 6 + iB cos 0 - 60) + ic cos 0 + dQ)]
. . . . (108)
where Lr represents self-synchronous inductance per rotor phase.
Simplifying eqn. (108) by eqn. (6a), substituting it in eqn. (107a)
and separating the sequence components, we obtain
R
r'r0 +PVrO = W
r0 • • . . (109a)
R
M + j30 r l — Vr, . . (1096)
R . . (109c) Fig. 12.—Induction machine. (Double fed.)
M + /"Ar2 ™ Vr2
where under balanced operation. Notice that the upper half checks
^/•o'Vo . . (110a) with the familiar equivalent circuit for a polyphase induction
Lrirl f M / , €:-;6 = - £ ; _(- j \ / / . . (1106) machine if vf and if are replaced by the vectors Vs and JA, and
vrl and irl are replaced by the vectors Vr and Ir The lower half
Wrl + 2 ^o = i^
Mi i + M^ . . (110c) is conjugate to the upper half,
422 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
For unbalanced operation, if iri and ir2 are both of the form
€&, then pin = jsirl and pir2~jsir2. Eqns. ( I l l ) and (112)
become

hi) (113a)
s+n

(113c)

(113a1)
(7
Fig. 13.—Induction machine. (Synchronous frame.)
These equations can be compared with eqns. (97) and (99).
The equivalent circuit checks with that given by Kron, 41 with
the subscripts s and r interchanged.

INDUCTION
(6.4) Free Rotating Reference Frame MACHINE
As pointed out in another paper by the author, 44 it is necessary
to transfer the induction motor to a synchronous rotating reference
frame in order that it can be combined with a synchronous
machine which is usually referred to a synchronously rotating Fig. 14.—Six-terminal induction machine.
frame. Now since the induction-machine rotor runs at asyn-
chronous speed, this new reference frame no longer coincides
with the physical rotating system, and is said to be "free"
according to Kron's classification.43
Referring the stator and rotor equations to the "free" or SYNCHRONOUS
"synchronous" rotating reference frame, eqns. (1066'), (106c'), MACHINE

(1096') and (109c') become

[Rs + (p+ja>)Ls]ifs + (p+jco)Mifr = vfs . (114a)
[Rs - ja>)Ls]ibs + (p- jcS)Mibr = vbs . (1146)
Fig. 15.—One synchronous and one induction machine.
vfr . . (114c)

where to = s + n = 1 and s is the slip. The new voltage and

current components are defined as follows:
MACHINE 2 MACHINE I

v
*bs = bs v2&™

l
br Fig. 16.—Two machines and line.
For steady-state balanced operation, p — 0 in the above equa- Fig. 14 can be readily interconnected with a synchronous machine
tions. either direct or through a transmission line. These intercon-
nected machines are shown in Figs. 15 and 16. Suitable phase-
(6.5) Interconnection of Synchronous and Induction Machines shifters are used to take care of the angular displacement between
Rewriting eqn. (114) similar to eqns. ( I l l ) and (112), we get the rotors of the machines.
v
R , . \ . , . / . , . x fs (6.6) Sequence Impedance Functions of Induction Machine
s
(115a)
jp + <*>
As the rotor of an ordinary induction machine is usually
R. short-circuited, it is convenient to refer the rotor quantities to
— ID — (O
the stator side. So instead of eqns. (106) and (109), we have
(Rs + />£,,)/, + pM(frlcJ*) = «, (116a)
ifr +'/.)= Z^T (115c)
W+ S (Ra+pLs)i2+pM(j r 2 e-J*) = v2 . . . . (1166)

(1150*) [Rr + (P - Jn)Lr]irle*> + (p- jn)Mi, - 0 . (116c)

jp
[Rr + (p+ jn)Lr]ir2€-J<> + (p+ jn)Mi2 = 0 . (116a-)
The new equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 13. A simplified
6-terminal network representing a double-fed induction machine Solving eqns. (116a) and (116c) simultaneously, we get
is shown in Fig. 14. The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13 or Zmlil = vl (117a)
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 423
Solving eqns. (1166) and (116a1) simultaneously, there is similarly The above expressions are valid for both the steady-state and the
transient torques. The currents and flux linkages are all ex-
pressed in terms of instantaneous values.
The sequence impedance functions of an induction machine are For steady-state operation, let the stator and rotor currents
be represented by Is and Ir. Then
Zm\ = Rs + PLsi(p)
. . . . (122a)
Zm2 = Rs+ PLS2(P)
where From eqn. (116c), we have
p(p-jn)M2 _ _ p(p+jn)M2
= ~jxmls . (123a)
For a line-to-line short-circuit on the stator side, let phase A
be the reference phase where iA — ix + i2 = 0. From the
principle of superposition, a voltage — VBC is to be applied or jxml? = | s. -j(x, + xm) I/* . . (1236)
suddenly to the stator terminals B and C. The transient solution
will be Substituting eqn. (1236) in eqn. (122a), we have
l
B — ~ lC ~ • 018) To = 2«{[5: -j(xr + xj]l»I r J = 25-|Jf|2 . (1226)
Referring to a rotating reference frame of speed n equal to the
From eqn. (102a), we can write symbolically
actual rotor speed, we have
Zfif= vf (117c) (123)

Since —~ =7«/'i ~ Jri ~-j'(^Ji + M/rl€-'0) —j(LJ2 + Mir2€~'Q)

where + jn)Lsl(p+Jn)
f
we can also write
Zb = Rs + (p - jn)Ls2(p_jn)
Referring to a synchronous rotating frame of speed to equal j * = j(LJ. -f MI.) = jd>A . . . (124)
dd
to the synchronous speed, we have
From eqn. (55a), the torque expression will be given by
v
fs . (119a)
=
To = I*U^>A) + W$A)* *?UMIr) + IJL—jMIf) . (125)
z
bslbs v
bs . (1196)
which checks with eqn. (122a).
where
Z R
bs = s + (P — J<*>)Ls2(p-Jt*) (7) DERIVATION OF HUNTING CIRCUITS
r _r (P+J { (7.1) Electro-Mechanical Equations
As discussed by Professors Fitzgerald and Kingsley,74 the
basic electro-mechanical equation for a synchronous machine
(p — jto)(p — js)M2 follows from recognition of the three classes of torque acting on
j-ja)
Rr + (P - Js)Lr the rotating members: an inertia torque, an electromagnetic
Comparing eqns. (117a) and (1176) with eqns. (45) and (46), we torque resulting from energy conversion, and a mechanical shaft
see that torque representing input from the prime mover or output to
turn the load.
Let 8 be the position angle between a point on the shaft
AP) at any instant and a synchronously rotating reference. The
electromagnetic torque is further divided into two components:
"(P + jn) n __ namely damping torque and synchronizing torque. The
= A*
y(p + j damping torque arises from induction-machine action and is a
function of slip or the departure dS/dt from synchronous speed.
(6.7) Instantaneous Torque and Flux Linkages The synchronizing torque is a function of 8, since synchronous-
The torque expressions given in eqns. (52a) and (526) hold machine action is directly dependent on torque angle. Assuming
for induction machines. Referring to a synchronous rotating that the damping torque varies linearly with d8/dt and that the
frame, we have synchronizing torque varies as sin 8, we have
,d8
d . . . (126)
T dl
In terms of symmetrical components, there is dt2
where / represents the moment of inertia, Td the damping-torque
(1206) coefficient, Ts the synchronizing-torque coefficient, and Tsh the
shaft torque. As pointed out in Reference 74, positive values
Since Lsixi2 terms can be omitted or cancelled out, there is of 8 denote generator action, positive values of shaft torque Tsh
T= 2&[jM(i2ineJ*)] - 2®[jM(ibirX)] denote mechanical input to the shaft, positive values of d8/dt
denote speeds above synchronous speed, and positive values of
- 2®[jM(ibsi/r)} (121) d2hjdt denote acceleration.
424 KU: ROTATINC-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
(7.2) Non-Linear Analysis Notice that the second-order product terms are omitted. Sub-
Eqn. (126) is non-linear on account of the presence of the stituting in the values for ABf ~ jAiftf and ABb -• - — jAifjb from
7^ sin 8 term. For salient-pole machines the equation may be eqn. (131), we get
more complicated. In recent years the technique of non-linear [Bb + ibjL% - ifjL'^Aij
analysis has been developed to such a stage that some problems
which formerly could be solved only by differential analysers can + [Bf + ibjL\\p) - if . (135)
now be tackled by non-linear analysis.* We shall not go further
here except noting that linearized differential equations are only Eqns. (132a), (1326) and (135) form a new set of simultaneous
approximate. equations involving (Ai/), (Aib) and (A0).
(7.3) Small Oscillations
(7.4) Hunting Circuit for Synchronous Machine and Load
If 8 is sufficiently small, eqn. (126) can be replaced by its
linearized form: There are two types of equivalent circuits for the hunting
dzo do ~ conditions of a synchronous machine connected to a load. The
/ IT .i. T/5 •- T, H271 first type uses the Blondel-Park reference frame and involves
/7/2" d
~dt s
"~ ' ' ' generators in the load circuit. The second type using a uni-
4
For 8 •- 30", the error is 4-8%. So if we want to limit the formly rotating reference frame, which was first given by Kron, ^
error to less than 5%, the limiting values for using eqn. (127) does not have any additional generators in the load circuit. It
will be !30 .a had been found that the Kron reference frame can be extended
Assume that the oscillations under hunting conditions are to the interconnection of rotating machines. 50
A new theory of
small so that we can use eqn. (127), let us examine the voltage hunting is now being presented by Kron.
and torque equations foi a synchronous machine. The method given here follows closely the concepts outlined
43
Rewriting eqns. (156) and (15r) with small increments and in Kron's 1950 paper. Detail steps are supplied to enable the
neglecting second-order terms, we have reader to follow the new theory and extend the analysis from a
static load to another rotating machine.
/?!</>{ Aif) -t (p \ jpd)(if;r\- A0y) +jMApd) rf+ Aiy Let us consider a synchronous motor receiving electrical
. . . . (128a) energy from a large generating station through a long trans-
RMb \ Aib) \ (p ~ M vb + Avb mission line. The electrical energy supplied to the motor will
. . . (1286) be of fundamental frequency, no matter how the synchronous
motor hunts. It is therefore evident that, if we take the rotating
Subtracting eqn. (15) from eqn. (128), we get
reference frame of the generating system as the reference frame
R{Aif f (p t jp9)Aifjf + jifjfp(Ad) - Avf . (129a) for the transmission line, there will not be small generators
Rl Aib + (p - jP6)Aijjb - jijjbp(A9) = Arb . (1296) appearing anywhere in the transmission-line circuits. If so, the
synchronous machine itself must also refer to this uniformly
where p9 n and is the original angular velocity under non- rotating frame instead of the rotating frame of its own rotor.
hunting operation, p(A6) ~= Apd. By rearrangement, eqn. (129) In other words, since the rotor hunts and does not run at uniform
becomes speed, it would be better to abandon this physical frame and
Rfof -\- (p I jn)Aifjf =-= 8vf --• Avf - jtprp(Ad) . (130a) refer the machine as well as the transmission line to a frame
which rotates uniformly at synchronous speed with the generating
/6 \ (p jn)Ai/jb 8vb - Avb . (1306) system many miles away. This is exactly what happens when we
refer an induction motor which runs at asynchronous speed to
Notice that eqns. (130a) and (1306) are of the same form as the rotating reference frame of a synchronous machine in order
eqns. (156) and (15r). that the two machines may be properly connected.44
From eqns. (75a) and (756), we get
With such a physical background we shall examine the
ArPf^L^Mf+L\\p)Mb. . . . (131a) equations of a synchronous machine under hunting conditions.
Rewriting eqns. (156) and (15c) for a uniformly rotating reference
A^b - L%Aib\-L'{{p)Aif. . . . (1316) frame, we have
Substituting these values in eqns. (130a) and (1306), we have v (136a)
f
[/?, } (p f- jn)L°m]Mf { [{p ^ = Avf (1366)
. . . (132a)
[*, [ (p -y/i)L? M ]A/ 6 { [(p Bbp(Ad) - Avb where pd2 = OJ represents the fundamental angular frequency of
. . . (1326) the generating system, and pdl — n represents the actual angular
velocity of the rotor of the synchronous machine under study.
Adding small increments to eqn. (57a), the torque expression Taking small increments, we have
becomes
Aif) + (p +jpOl)(ifif+ Aifjf)
T-\- AT (ib, -I-
IM Aibb)(
)(Br\- ABf) f- 0>+ Aif)(Bb + ABb)
. . . . (133) Aifjf)(pd2-pdl) -jifsfP(Aex) - vf\- Avf . (137a)
Subtracting eqn. (57a) from eqn. (133) and adding the effect of Rx(ib + Aib) + <j> -jpdiXfo + Aipb) -ji}>bp(Adx)
moment of inertia, we have -](#„ + A>l>b)(pd2-Pd{) + y < M A 0 , ) - v b + Avb . (1376)
AT ib(ABf) -\- Bf(Aib) + if(ABb) + Bb(Aif) + Jp*(A9)
. . . . (134) Subtracting eqn. (136) from eqn. (137), we obtain:
• Kir, Y. H.: "Nonlinear Analysis of Electro-Mechanical Problems," presented RlAif+(p+jp62)Aifjf + jifjfP(Aei) -;Y'//>(A01) = Avf. (138a)
before the Vlllth International Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
Istanbul, Turkey, August, 1952. To be published in the Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Rfiib + iP ~ Jpfytyb -j^bp{ABx) +;Y^(A0l) = Avb . (1386)
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 425

At this point it is necessary to introduce some fundamental as p ± jn. Assuming p = jh, where h represents the hunting
notions about absolute differential calculus. As the absolute frequency due to (A0j), we have, from eqns. (141a) and (1416):
derivative is given by eqn. (21), the absolute differential is Aty - R{Aif = jilt + n)8iftf f- jBf(h + n)A9{ (144a)
similarly given by
Avb - RxAib=j(h - n)8tfjb \ jBb(h -- «)A0, (1446)
. . . . (139)
S</y (139a) Or, more generally, from eqn. (142), we get
or
(1396) [Avf-(1 A)Aif]l(h + n) - 8E (145a)

where </> may represent /, v, or tp. B)Aib]Kh - n) - - 8Eb + jEbA9l

Referring to Fig. 11, let vf2 represent the forward voltage (1456)
component corresponding to a certain position angle on the where
generator side, and vf{€~J8 ~ vf2, where 8 is the angular dis- - jooifjb = coBb
placement between the two rotors. Notice that if <y2 has an
initial position angle #§ and ty1 has an initial position angle 0J, 8Er AEf - jEfA91
8 is equal to (6% — #i). For two synchronous machines, 0 — cot, and
we may write 0, ••= 0 •}- 0? and 0 2 0 4- 0$. Hence 8 -
0 2 - - 0 , . When the synchronous motor (machine No. 1) Notice that we have used E instead of B in eqn. (145), as
hunts, we have CD — n — 1, while /; and n are all expressed in per-unit values.
The hunting equivalent circuit according to the uniformly
rotating reference frame is given in Fig. 17. The load represents
8vfl -
- Avfl + jvfl(A8) = Avfl - /y /1 (A0 1 ) . . (140)

Similarly, applying to flux linkages, we have

8tfif= A i / r y - y ^ / A ^ ) . . . . (140a)
MACHINE I
8 0 6 = A^+yVfcCAfl,) . . . . (1406)
In the light of tensor analysis, eqn. (138) becomes
A»y~ Rfiij : (p { y/>02)S</y + (p +.//702)(7</r/)(A01) . (141a)
Avb - i?,A/ 6 = Q, -jpO2)8+b + (/> -7/ 7 0 2 )(-y^)(A0 1 ) . (1416)
where S</y and Si/^ are already given in eqns. (140a) and (1406). Fig. 17.—One machine hunting under load.
In tensor form, eqns. (136) and (141) become
an external network A/(h i n) and B/(h -- «). Since the expres-
(136c) sion for T is given by eqn. (57a), and Bf and Z?6 are numerically
equal to Ef and Eb for o> = 1 in the per-unit system, we can
Av - RAl = p84> + Bp(,Adx) (141c) get if, ib, Ef and Eb from the steady-state equivalent circuit;
where p = fp + y(j>62) similarly, we can get Aij, Aib, AEf, and AEb from the hunting
equivalent circuit. If both equivalent circuits are set up on
With external networks and transmission lines, eqn. (141) network analysers, suitable wattmeter readings can be obtained.
becomes As these methods are given in Kron's papers we shall not
A v y - (/?, f A)Aif -• (p \joj)8ipf{- Bf(p (142a) discuss them in detail. It may be mentioned that, by a com-
parison of eqn. (134) with eqn. (127), the constants Ts and Td
Avb - (Rl + B)Aib - (p - jco)8i/jb + Bb(p - (1426) are directly obtainable from such wattmeter readings.

(142c) (7.5) Hunting Circuit for Two Synchronous Machines

Similarly to eqn. (131), we have Since the derivation of Fig. 17 as given above does not depend
on the static nature of the external network, but rather on the
043a) physical idea of referring the rotating frame to the generating
L'{(p)8if (1436) system, the extension of the hunting circuit to include another
rotating machine is natural and straightforward.
where 8if--- Aif~ jifA6x and 8ib = Aib + jibAdv So eqn. Referring to eqn. (140), we have
(142c) can be written as
Sty, - + jvflA8) - (140a')
Av - (R + 2e)A/" - pL8l + ^p(A0!) . . (142a1)
8vbl = €-J*(Avb2 - y« M A8) - Avbl (1406')
In the above derivation, we have assumed that the syn-
From Fig. 11, we get also
chronous motor refers to the rotor of the generator system. Of
course, this physical restriction is unnecessary. It may as well - in = if2eJ* - ibl = ib2e-J&
refer to any uniformly rotating reference frame—say a frame So that
rotating at the same speed as the average speed of the hunting
8ifl = - jif2A8) - Aifl + jifl(A8) (140c)
motor. Hence, if we redefine n as the average or normal speed
of the synchronous machine, then p in eqn. (141) can be defined - jib2A8) - Aibl - jibl(A8) (140a1)
426 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
Since 8 — 62 — 6lt AS =- — A0j signifies that machine No. 1 When both machines hunt, the equivalent circuit shown in
h i
is hunting, hi A#
while A0 2 = 0. Then eqn. (140) gives Fig. 20 can be obtained by superposing the effects of Figs. 18
(146a)
8vvht = (1466)
b
8iifl (146c)
(146rf) MACHINE MACHINE
2 I
where
-A/
w
It may be pointed out here that, with the relations given between
the Av's and A/'s for the two machines, phase shifters can be
used just as in the steady-state equivalent circuits. Fig. 20.—Both machines hunting.
When the second machine hunts, we have A0j — 0, and
AS A0 2 . In this case, we need to consider the absolute and 19. In all these Figures, we have shown only the armature
differentials of ?y2, vb2, \f2 and ib2. We start with the relations resistances and leakage reactances. The subscripts 1 and 2
refer to the machines.

~ / ) 2 = />lC-^ -ib2 = /M€-'S (7.6) Hunting Circuit of One Synchronous Machine and
One Induction Machine
The absolute differentials are As discussed with respect to the interconnection of one syn-
8vf2 chronous machine and one induction machine in the steady-
- ivfl -jvflA8) - Aty2 -jv/2(Ad2) (147a)
state operation, the induction machine must refer to a syn-
8v (1476) chronous rotating reference frame. When this is properly done,
b2
Avb2+jvb2(M2). the phase shifters play the same role between one synchronous
8i (147c) machine and one induction machine as that between two syn-
= &if2-jirJL
f2 chronous machines. The steady-state equivalent circuit is
+y7 M AS) - (147a1) shown in Fig. 15, in which the induction machine corresponds
to machine No. 2 in Fig. 11. When the synchronous machine
The above relations are sufficient for the construction of hunts, eqn. (146) and hence Fig. 18 also apply. When the
hunting circuits for two synchronous machines with proper induction machine hunts, we have
phase-shifters. Fig. 18 shows the case when machine No. 1
hunts, and Fig. 19 shows the case when machine No. 2 hunts. 8vfs = € - = Avfs - jv (148a)

"a 8vbs = 6*(At>M + jvblb6r) = kvbs + ytfcAfl, (i486)

(148c)
T + jibl &dr) + jibs&9r (14&Q

where vfs, vbs, ifs, ibs all refer to the synchronous rotating frame,
and 6r corresponds to the rotor angle of the induction machine.
1 Eqn. (148) is exactly similar to eqn. (147), and hence the hunting
circuit will be similar to that given in Fig. 19. In Figs. 18, 19
and 20, a transmission line or a network can be inserted between
the resistors RJ(h ± ri) and R2f(h ± ri).
J*t2

Fig. 18.—First machine hunting. (8) CONCLUSIONS

The following concluding remarks may be made:
(a) The rotating-field theory is familiar to all electrical en-
gineers who use vector representation of sinusoidal quantities in
steady-state a.c. problems.
(b) The physical concepts of forward- and backward-rotating
fields and fluxes are well known in the analysis of induction
machines and non-salient-pole synchronous machines.
MACHINE (c) A simple vector diagram can be constructed for a salient-
T 2
pole synchronous machine using the / and b components as
conjugate vectors and the well-known xd, xq constants.
(d) Any general external terminal network can be readily
connected to a salient-pole machine by using the / and b com-
ponents.
(e) Induction machines can be referred either to the physical
Fig. 19.—Second machine hunting. frames or to the free frames.
 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES 427
(/) Interconnection of rotating machines can be made. (17) Ku, Y. H.: "Asynchronous Operation of Synchronous
(g) For hunting problems, the / and b components are useful, Machines," Journal of Electrical Engineering (China),
since a uniformly rotating reference frame can be introduced. 1931, 2, p. 279.
(h) The rotating-field theory as here developed can embody (18) WARING, M. L., and CRARY, S. B.: "The Operational
all the advantages of the two-reaction theory and then go further Impedances of a Synchronous Machine," General Electric
with the interconnection of machines and transmission lines under Renew, 1932, 35, p. 578.
steady-state, transient-state and hunting conditions. (19) EDGERTON, H. E., BROWN, G. S., GERMESHAUSEN, K. J.,
and HAMILTON, R. W.: "Synchronous-Motor Pulling-Into
Step Phenomena," Transactions of the American I.E.E.,
(9) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1933, 52, p. 342.
The author is indebted for valuable advice, to Messrs. P. L. (20) Ku, Y. H.: "Steady-State Solution of Salient-Pole Syn-
Alger and Gabriel Kron of the General Electric Company, chronous Machines by Conjugate Vectors," Science
U.S.A., and to Professors W. V. Lyon and H. L. Hazen of the Reports, Tsing Hua University (Peiping, China), Series A,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He owes much to Dr. 1934, 2, p. 389.
Vannevar Bush and the late Dr. B. A. Behrend for knowledge (21) KRON, G.: "Non-Riemannian Dynamics of Rotating
of the early work of Heaviside. He wishes also to acknowledge Electrical Machinery," Journal of Mathematics and
his gratitude to Dr. W. J. Gibbs for encouragement and sug- Physics (U.S.A.), 1934, 13, p. 103.
gestions and to Mr. R. E. Vowels for reviewing the first draft. (22) KRON, G.: "The Application of Tensors to the Analysis of
Rotating Electric Machinery," General Electric Review,
(10) REFERENCES 1935-1938, and published in book form 1938 and 1942.
(23) SHOUTS, D. R., CRARY, S. B., and LAUDER, A. H.: "Pull-ln-
(10.1) Papers
Characteristics of Synchronous Motors," Transactions
(1) DOHERTY, R. E., and WILLIAMSON, E. T.: "Short-Circuit of the American I.E.E., 1935, 54, p. 1385.
Current of Induction Motors and Generators," Transac- (24) Ku, Y. H.: "Operational Analysis of Synchronous
tions of the American I.E.E., 1921, 40, p. 509. Machines," Science Reports, Tsing Hua University
(2) LYON, W. V.: "Transient Conditions in Electric Machinery," (China), A, 1936, 3, p. 477.
ibid., 1923, 42, p. 157. (25) SAH, A. P. T.: "Dyadic Algebra applied to Three-Phase
(3) DOHERTY, R. E.: "A Simplified Method of Analysing Circuits," Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1936, 55,
Short-Circuit Problems," ibid., 1923, 42, p. 841. p. 836.
(4) DOHERTY, R. E., and NICKLE, C. A.: "Synchronous (26) CRARY, S. B.: "Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous
Machines," I and II, ibid., 1926, 45, p. 716; III, 1927, 46, Machines," ibid., 1937, 56, p. 27.
p. 1; IV, 1928, 47, p. 457; V, 1930, 49, p. 700. (27) CONCORDIA, C : "Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous
(5) ALGER, P. L.: "The Calculation of the Armature Reactance Machines with any Balanced Terminal Impedance,"
of Synchronous Machines," ibid., 1928, 47, p. 493. ibid., 1937, 56, p. 1124.
(6) PARK, R. H.: "Definition of an Ideal Synchronous Machine (28) Ku, Y. H.: "Extension of 2-Reaction Theory to Multi-
and Formula for the Armature Flux Linkages," General Phase Synchronous Machines," ibid., 1937, 56, p. 1197.
Electric Review, 1928, 31, p. 332. (29) WAGNER, C. F.: "Self-Excitation of Induction Motors,"
(7) Ku, Y. H.: "Transient Analysis of A-C Machinery," ibid., 1939, 58, p. 47.
Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1929, 48, p. 707; (30) LIWSCHITZ, M. M.: "Starting Performance of Salient-Pole
II, Journal of Electrical Engineering (China), 1932, 3, Synchronous Motors," ibid., 1940, 59, p. 913.
p. 179; abstract in Electrical Engineering (U.S.A.), 1932, (31) LIWSCHITZ, M. M.: "Damping and Synchronizing Torque
51, p. 408. of the Double-Fed Asynchronous Machine," ibid., 1941,
(8) PARK, R. H.: "Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous 60, p. 923.
Machines," I, Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1929, (32) WAGNER, C. F.: "Self-Excitation of Induction Motors with
48, p. 716; II, ibid., 1933, 52, p. 352. Series Capacitors," ibid., 1941, 60, p. 1241.
(9) SAH, A. P. T.: "Representation of Polyphase Systems by (33) KRON, G.: "Equivalent Circuit of the Salient-Pole Syn-
Multi-Dimensional Vectors," Proceedings World Engineer- chronous Machine," General Electric Review, 1941, 44,
ing Congress (Tokyo), 1929, 22, p. 111. p. 679.
(10) Ku, Y. H.: "Transient Analysis of an Alternator," ibid., (34) KRON, G.: "Equivalent Circuits for the Hunting of Elec-
1929, 22; also Journal of Electrical Engineering (China), trical Machinery," Transactions of the American I.E.E.,
1930, 1, p. 1. 1942, 61, p. 290.
(11) KRON, G.: "Generalized Theory of Electrical Machinery," (35) CONCORDIA, C , CRARY, S. B., and KRON, G.: "The Doubly
Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1930, 49, p. 666. Fed Machine," ibid., 1942, 61, p. 286.
(12) BEWLEY, L. V.: "Induced Voltage of Electric Machines," (36) KRON, G.: "Equivalent Circuits for Oscillating Systems
ibid., 1930, 49, p. 456. and the Riemann-Christoffel Curvature Tensor," ibid.,
(13) LYON, W. V., and EDGERTON, H. E.: "Transient Angular 1943, 62, p. 27.
Oscillations of Synchronous Machines," ibid., 1930, (37) CONCORDIA, C , and KRON, G.: "Damping and Syn-
49, p. 686. chronizing Torque of Power Selsyns,'' ibid., 1945,64, p. 366.
(14) LINVILLE, T. M.: "Starting Performance of Salient-Pole (38) WEYGANDT, C. N., and CHARP, S.: "Electromechanical
Synchronous Machines," ibid., 1930, 49, p. 531. Transient Performance of Induction Motors," ibid., 1946,
(15) EDGERTON, H. E., and ZAK, F. J.: "The Pulling into Step of 65, p. 1000.
a Synchronous Induction Motor," Journal I.E.E., 1930, (39) KRON, G.: "Equivalent Circuit of the Primitive Rotating
68, p. 1205. Machine," General Electric Review, 1946, 49, p. 43.
(16) EDGERTON, H. E., and FOURNARIER, P.: "The Pulling into (40) KRON, G.: "Equivalent Circuit of the Primitive Rotating
Step of a Salient-Pole Synchronous Motor," Transactions Machine with Asymmetrical Stator and Rotor,"
of the American I.E.E., 1931, 50, p. 769. Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1947, 66, p. 17.
428 KU: ROTATING-FIELD THEORY AND GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MACHINES
(41) KRON, G.: "Steady-State Equivalent Circuits of Syn- (56)
chronous and Induction Machines," ibid., 1948, 67,
Part I, p. 175.
(42) KRON, G.: "Stationary Networks and Transmission Lines (58)
along Uniformly Rotating Reference Frames," ibid.,
1949, 68, p. 690.
(43) KRON, G.: "Classification of the Reference Frames of a
Synchronous Machine," ibid., 1950, 69, Part II, p. 720. (60)
(44) Ku, Y. H.: "Transient Analysis of Rotating Machines and
Stationary Networks by Means of Rotating Reference (61)
Frames," ibid., 1951, 70, Part I, p. 943.
(45) ADKINS, B.: "Transient Theory of Synchronous Generators (62)
connected to Power Systems," Proceedings I.E.E., 1951,
98, Part II, p. 510.
(46) GIBBS, W. J.: "The Modern Approach to Electrical Machine
Analysis," The Engineer, 1951, 192, p. 467.
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Synchronizing Torques," Transactions of the American (65)
I.E.E., 1951,70, Parti, p. 731.
(48) Ku, Y. H.: "Tensor Analysis of Unbalanced Three-Phase (66)
Circuits," presented at the American I.E.E. North-
Eastern District Meeting, May, 1952.
(49) VOWELS, R. E.: "Transient Analysis of Synchronous
Machines," Proceedings I.E.E., 1952, 99, Part IV, p. 204. (68)
(50) KRON, G.: "A New Theory of Hunting," presented at the
American I.E.E. Summer Meeting, June, 1952.
(10.2) Books
(51) HEAVISIDE, O.: "Electromagnetic Theory," Vol. II ("The
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DISCUSSION ON "A GENERAL THEORY OF PHASE TRANSFORMATION"*
Mr. H. Ofverholm (Sweden: communicated): It may be of
interest to record that the Leblanc connection is not practical
from a manufacturing point of view since it consists of five
different windings of three different kinds. A better solution
(see Fig. A) was given by Stenkvistf in 1930, employing an
ordinary delta winding for the one phase comprising three parts.
Two-thirds of the current in that phase pass along the base of
the delta and one-third over the top, in order to satisfy the
condition that the sum of primary currents be nil, and the base
winding is thus made up of two parts working in parallel so
that only one type of winding may be used throughout the delta
winding.
It is also possible to make use of two symmetrical mirror-
wound phases arranged on the 3-phase transformer shown in
Fig. B, giving symmetrical 3-phase currents without the use of
delta windings. Here again, however, there are five different
windings of three different kinds, or even six windings of three
kinds if the two secondary phases are to be separated from each
other, and the main advantage is the symmetrical design and the
fact that each of the two phases loads all three on the 3-phase
side, which may be a favourable point with unbalanced loads.
• Paper by J. E. PARTON (see 1952, 99, Part IV, p. 12).
t Swedish Patent No. 75330.
BERG, E. J.: "Heaviside's Operational Calculus" (McGraw-
Hill, 1929).
(57) KRON, G.: "Tensor Analysis of Networks" (Wiley, 1939).
SAH, A. P. T.: "Dyadic Circuit Anlaysis" (International
Textbook Co., Scranton, Pa., U.S.A., 1939).
(59) COULTHARD, W. B.: "Transients in Electric Circuits"
(Pitman, 1941).
GARDNER, M. F., and BARNES, J. L.: "Transients in Linear
Systems" (Wiley, 1942).
KRON, G.: "A Short Course in Tensor Analysis for Elec-
trical Engineers" (Wiley, 1942).
KELLER, E. G.: "Mathematics in Modern Engineering,"
Vol. II (Wiley, 1943).
(63) CLARKE, EDITH: "Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems,"
Vols. I and II (Wiley, 1943 and 1950).
(64) CRARY, S. B.: "Power System Stability," Vols. I and II
(Wiley, 1945 and 1947).
MCLACHLAN, N. W.: "Modern Operational Calculus"
(Macmillan, 1949).
MCLACHLAN, N. W.: "Ordinary Non-Linear Differential
Equations" (Oxford University Press, 1950).
(67) VAN DER POL, BALTH., and BREMER, H.: "Operational
Calculus" (Cambridge University Press, 1950).
LE CORBEILLER, P.: "Matrix Analysis of Electric Networks"
(Wiley, 1950).
(69) STOKER, J. J.: "Non-Linear Vibrations" (Interscience
Publishers, New York, 1950).
(70) CONCORDIA, C : "Synchronous Machines" (Wiley, 1951).
(71) ALGER, P. L.: "The Nature of Polyphase Induction
Machines" (Wiley, 1951).
(72) KRON, G.: "Equivalent Circuits of Electric Machinery"
(Wiley, 1951).
(73) ADKINS, B., and GIBBS, W. J.: "Polyphase Commutator
Machines" (Cambridge University Press, 1952).
(74) FITZGERALD, A. E., and KINGSLEY, CHARLES, JR. : "Electric
Machinery" (McGraw-Hill, 1952).
(75) LYON, W. V.: "Transient Analysis of A-C Machinery"
(to be published).
Connections of the kind mentioned above will be called for
in connection with railway electrification at industrial frequencies
and have the advantage, compared with the French system
using Scott-connected transformers, that the supply authority
may provide the winding on their normal step-down trans-
formers without extra cost to the railway authorities, thus
bringing the substation cost down to an absolute minimum.
Dr. J. E. Parton (in reply): The communication from Mr.
Ofverholm is interesting in that two further 3-phase/2-phase
transformers are described. As regards the connection due to
Stenkvist, shown in Fig. A (British Patent No. 365129), at first
sight this appears to be something outside the scope of the
theory given in the paper but, if the connection diagram
Fig. A(i) is rotated 90° clockwise, it can then be compared
with that of the Leblanc connection in Fig. 5(a). In Fig. A
the windings S lb S2c and S2a correspond to the windings S,, S22
and S23 respectively in Fig. 5(a). The windings S,2, S,3 of the
Leblanc connection, which carry the same current as S,, and
have half its number of turns, have been replaced by S lc and
S ]a which now have the same number of turns as S ]b and
carry half its current. The Stenkvist connection can thus be
regarded as a slightly modified Leblanc connection. The two
windings must, in fact, be basically the same, since they both