ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY. TOPIC 1.

INTRODUCTION INTO MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY. LATIN ALPHABET. PHONETICS:

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. BASIC VOCABULARY OF THE TOPIC.
Latin alphabet includes 25 letters: 6 vowels (a, e, i, o, u, y), 18 consonants and one semi-vowel (j).
Most letters included in the Latin ABC sound similarly to English ones. Only some letters have two different
sounds depending on the position in a word. The letters of Latin ABC and their sounds are presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. Latin alphabet.

№ Letters Names Sound
1. Aa a: [ a: ] – arteria (artery), ana (equally)
2. Bb be [ b ] - bis (twice), bene (well)
3. Cc tse [ k ] – before vowels a, o, u and consonants : caput (head), corpus (body),
cubitus (elbow), cranium (skull)
[ ts ] – before vowels e, i, y and diphthongs ae, oe : cito (quickly), cerebrum
(brain), cystis (bladder), caecus (blind), coelum (sky) (letters ae, oe
sound [e])
4. Dd de [ d ] - decem (ten), dorsum (back), duo (two)
5. Ee e [ e ] - bene, eczema (itch)
6. Ff ef [ f ] - facies (face, surface), folium (leaf)
7. Gg ge [ g ] - gutta (drop), gaster (stomach)
8. Hh ha [ h ] - herba (herb), homo (man)
9. Ii i: [ i ] - in most words : internus (internal), intestinum (intestine)
[ j ] - 1) between two vowels : maior (major);
2) at the beginning of a word or syllable before another vowel:
ieiunum (jejunum, part of small intestine)
NB! 1 ia = [ ja:] io = [jo ]
ie = [ je ] iu = [ ju ]
10. Jj jɔta [ j ] - this letter is used in place of letter “i” in positions 1) and 2) :
maior = major, ieiunum = jejunum
NB! In words of Greek origin only letter “i” is used for sound [j] : Iodum
(iodine), iater (doctor)
11. Kk ka [ k ] - is used quite rarely only in the initial position in some words
of Greek origin : Kalium (potassium)
12. Ll el’ [ l’ ] - is always pronounced softly : albus (white), labium (lip)
13. Mm em [ m ] - manus (hand, arm), mandibula (lower jaw)
14. Nn en [ n ] - nervus (nerve), numerus (number)
15. Oo o: [ o ] - os (bone), optimus (the best)
16. Pp pe [ p ] - purus (pure), pilula (pill)
17. Qq ku [ k ] - it is always used in combination “qu” – [ kw ] : aqua (water), liquor
(fluid)
18. Rr er [ r ] - ramus (branch), ruber (red)

19. Ss es [ s ] - in most word : status (state), scapula (scapula)

[ z ] - 1) between two vowels: nasus (nose), basis (base)
2) between a vowel and letters m, n: organismus (organism),
mensis (month)
20. Tt te [ t ] - terra (land), tuba (tube)
21. Uu u: [ u ] - unus (one), ulna (elbow bone)
22. Vv ve [ v ] - vita (life), vitaminum (vitamin)
23. Xx iks [ ks ] - radix (root), xeroformium (xeroform)
[ gz ] - in some words betwen two vowels : exitus (outcome)
 24. Yy ipsil’on [ i ] - is used only in Greek words the spelling of which should be
remembered : crystallus (crystal), larynx (larynx), systema (system)
25. Zz zeta [ z ] - zygoma (zygoma), zoologia (zoology)
[ ts ] - in the words borrowed into scientific terminology from
modern languages: zincum (zinc)
1
Latin abbreviation NB! is used for standard expression Nota bene! - Pay attention! Note!

V o w e l s.
1. The sounds of vowel letters “a” – [a:], “e” – [e], “o” – [ɔ], “u” – [u] correspond to the names of these
letters.
E.g.: aorta (aorta), ego (I, me), ovum (egg), unus (one).

2. Letter “i” sounds differently depending on the position in a word. In most words it sounds [i].
E.g.: inferior (inferior, lower), iris (iris).

It sounds [j] between two vowels and at the beginning of a word before another vowel.
E.g.: maior (major), iunctura (junction).

In medical and pharmaceutical names of this type letter “i” can be substituted by letter “j”: major,
junctura. So, the words of this type have two equal ways of spelling. In International Medical
Terminology letter “j” is commonly used.

NB! Letter “j” is not used in the words borrowed from Greek language, like: Iodum (iodine), iater (doctor)
and the words derived from their stems.

3. Letter “y” sounds [i] and is used in the words borrowed from Greek language.
E.g.: systema (system), pylorus (pylorus).
It is advisable to memorize the spelling of words with letter “y”.

NB! In order to acquire correct spelling of medical names mind the spelling of the following word-building
components with letter “y”:

Meaning Example
Prefixes: dys- disorder, abnormality dysfunctio – abnormal function
hyper- above, increased, abnormally high hypertonia – abnormally high blood
pressure
hypo- below, decreased, abnormally low hypovitaminosis – abnormally low
content of vitamins
syn-, sym- together syndesmosis – fibrous junction of bones

Roots: glyc- sweet Glycerinum – glycerin

hydr- water Hydrogenium - hydrogen
oxy- sour, acid Oxygenium – oxygen
myo- muscle myologia – myology, study of muscles
physi- nature physiologia – physiology
pyr- fever pyrogenus – pyrogenous, causing fever

C o n s o n a n t s.
1. Latin consonant letters b, d, f, g, h, k, m, n, p, q, r, t, v, x sound similarly to corresponding English ones.
E.g.: bursa (bursa, sac), dubius (dubious), fovea (pit), gutta (drop), herba (herb), manus (hand, arm),
nervus (nerve), planus (plane), quies (rest), ramus (branch), tuba (tube), vena (vein),
xerosis (dryness).

2. “L” always sounds softly as [lʼ]. Vowels a, o, u after letter l are also softened.
E.g.: labium (lip), locus (place), albus (white).

3. “C” sounds [k] before vowels a, o, u and consonants.

 E.g.: caput (head), costa (rib), cubitus (elbow), clavicula (clavicle).

It sounds [ts] before vowels e, i, y and diphthongs ae, oe.

E.g.: cerebrum (brain), cito (quickly), cytus (cell), caecus (blind), coelum (sky).

4. “S” sounds [s] in most words.

E.g.: scabies (itch), sinus (sinus, cavity), sulcus (groove).

It sounds [z] between two vowels and between a vowel and letter “m” or “n”.
E.g.: nasus (nose), spasmus (spasm), mensis (month), mensura (laboratory tube)

“ss” always sounds [s]: fossa (hole), processus (process).

5. “Z” sounds [z] and is found in the words borrowed from Greek language.
E.g.: horizontalis (horizontal), zona (region), zygomaticus (zygomatic).

But in the words borrowed into scientific terminology from modern languages it sounds [ts].
E.g.: Zincum (zinc).

D i p h t h o n g s.
Diphthong is a combination of two vowels which compose common syllable. The following diphthongs are
found in medical names: ae, oe, au, eu.

1. Diphthongs “ae” and “oe” sound [e], e.g.: diaeta (diet), aeger (sick person), oedema (swelling),
oesophagus (gullet).

2. Special symbol ( ¨ ) is used to show separate sound of letters aë – [a:e] and oë – [ɔ:e], e.g.: aёr (air),
dyspnoё (dyspnea), aloë (aloe).

3. Au sounds [au], [av], e.g.: aurum (gold), auris (ear), auditus (hearing).

4. Eu sounds [eu], [ev], e.g.: pleura (pleura), pneumonia (pneumonia, inflammation of the lungs).

D i g r a p h s.
Digraphs ch, ph, rh, th are found only in the words of Greek origin. Their sounds are:

Digraph Sound Example

ch [h] concha (concha, shell)
ph [f] phalanx (phalanx)
rh [r] rhaphe (stitch)
th [t] thorax (chest)
In some words letters sch combined are found. They do not compose any special combination and are
pronounced [sh], e.g.: schola (school), schisis (splitting).

NB! The spelling of words with diphthongs and digraphs should be memorized.

Combinations of letters ngu, qu, ti are found in the words of Latin origin and sound according to the
following rules.
1) Ngu sounds [ngw] before vowels: lingua (tongue, language), unguentum (ointment), unguis (nail).
[ngu] before consonants: angulus (angle), lingula (small tongue like structure).

2) Qu always sounds [kw]: aqua (water), liquor (fluid).

3) Ti sounds [tsi] before vowels: injectio (injection), solutio (solution), vitium (defect).
[ti] before consonants: tibia (shinbone)
after letters “s”, “x”: bestia (beast, animal), digestio (digestion), ostium (opening).
NB! Capital letter is used in the names of chemical elements, plants, medications: Hydrargyrum (mercury),
Quercus (oak-tree), Panadolum (Panadol).
Table 2. Letter - sound correspondence in Latin words.

Diphthongs Digraphs
Latin Sound Latin Sound
ae [e] - diaeta (diet) ch [h] - charta (paper)
oe [e] - lagoena (bottle) ph [f] - phalanx (phalanx)
aё [a:e] - aёr (air) rh [r] - rhizoma (rootstock)
oё [o:e] - pnoё (breathing) th [t] - thorax (chest)
au [аu], [аv] - auris (ear) sch [sh] - schola (school)
eu [еu], [еv] - pneumonia (pneumonia) rrh [r] - glycyrrhiza (liquorice)

Use of letters “i”, “j” Latin combinations of letters

Latin Sound latin Sound
ia, ja [ja:] - maialis, majalis (may) qu [kw] - liquor, aqua (fluid, water)
ie, je [je] - iniectio, injectio (injection) ngu [ngw] - unguis, lingua (nail, tongue)
io, jo [jɔ] - maior, major (major, larger) [ngu] - lingula, angulus (lingula, angle)
iu, ju [ju] - ius, jus (law) ti [tsi] - solutio, distantia (solution,
distance)
[ti] - digestio, ostium (digestion, hole)

TRAINING EXERCISES.
Exercise 1. Read the words, define the sound of letter “і”:
1. via 4. iliacus 7. spurius 10. iniectio 13. ieiunum
2. iugum 5. maior 8. iam 11. paries 14. ileum
3. iecur 6. iuniperus 9. iuventus 12. maialis 15. iunctura
E.g.: via – [i]

Exercise 2. Read the words, define the sound of digraphs:

1. pharynx 4. charta 7. cochlea
2. thalamus 5. rhinitis 8. althaea
3. psychosis 6. spasmophilia 9. glycyrrhiza
E.g.: pharynx - [f]

Exercise 3. Read the words, define the sound of diphthongs:

1. aeger 4. oedema 7. lagoena 10. diploё
2. suturae 5. apnoё 8. pneumonia 11. oesophagus
3. auscultatio 6. anaёrobia 9. uropoёticus 12. pseudomembrana
E.g.: aeger - [e]

Exercise 4. Read the words, define the sound of Latin letter “c” :
1. coccyx 5. cito 9. condylus
2. monocytus 6. cervix 10. sacralis
3. cauda 7. sulci 11. cutis
4. caecum 8. bucca 12. cranium
E.g.: coccyx - [k], [k], [ts]

Exercise 5. Devide the words in two columns depending on the sound of letter “s”:
1. fissura 5. vesica 9. processus
2. impressio 6. sanus 10. platysma
3. vasa 7. nasus 11. petrosus
4. sol 8. chiasma 12. pseudomembrana
E.g.: [z] [s]
vasa sol
Exercise 6. Define the sound of “ti” in Latin words:
1. intestinum 4. gratis 7. eminentia
2. functio 5. tibia 8. protuberantia
3. incubatio 6. nutritius 9. dissectio
E.g.: intestinum - [ti]

Exercise 7. Define the sound of ”qu” and ”ngu” in Latin words :

1. quadratus 4. liquiritia 7. quintus
2. lingua 5. sanguis 8. obliquus
3. aquosus 6. angulus 9. unguis
E.g.: quadratus – [kw]

BASIC VOCABULARY OF TOPIC 1.

Greek synonymous stems
№ Latin names English
initial position final position
1. apertura, ae f aperture, opening, inlet
2. bursa, ae f bursa, pouch, sac
3. cellula, ae f cyt- -cyti cell
4. clavicula, ae f clavicle
5. columna, ae f column
6. concha, ae f concha, shell, sink
7. costa, ae f rib
8. crista, ae f crest
9. fibula, ae f fibula, calf bone, peroneal bone
10. fissura, ae f fissure, slit, cleft
11. fossa, ae f fossa, hole
12. fovea, ae f fovea, pit
13. glandula, ae f aden- gland
14. incisura, ae f incisure, notch, groove
15. lamina, ae f lamina, plate, layer
16. linea, ae f line
17. lingua, ae f gloss- -glossia tongue
18. mandibula, ae f mandible, lower jaw
19. maxilla, ae f maxilla, upper jaw
20. plica, ae f plica, fold
21. scapula, ae f scapula
22. spina, ae f spine
23. sutura, ae f rhaph- -rrhaphia suture, stitch
24. tibia, ae f tibia, shinbone
25. ulna, ae f ulna, elbow bone
26. vertebra, ae f spondyl- vertebra

NB! Basic vocabulary of every topic on anatomical terminology is divided in three columns. In the first one
we find Latin words. They are written in the so-called dictionary form which includes two cases (Nominative
and the ending of Genitive case) and the gender denoted by letters m (male), f (female), n (neuter). All the
words included in basic vocabulary of Topic 1 belong to female gender with ending -a.

The second column includes the stems taken from Greek words which are synonymous to the Latin ones.
These stems are found in complex words of clinical meaning (names of diseases, symptoms, surgery etc.)
E.g.: Latin for “cell” is “cellula”, but “study of cells is called “cytologia” (cytology). In the same way
“spondylosis” is used for continuous disease of vertebrae or “glossorrhaphia” – for suturing of the tongue.

It is advisable to memorize Greek synonymous stems together with Latin names.