MA 105 : Calculus

D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Aryaman Maithani

IIT Bombay

7th August, 2019

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Summary

Sheet 1: Problems 2, 4, 5, 10
Sheet 2: Problems 1 to 4, 12, 13

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

n n n
2. (i) Let Sn := + 2 + ··· + 2 .
n2
+1 n +2 n +n
n n n
Define Tn := 2 + 2 + ··· + 2
n +1 n +1 n +1
n n n
and Rn := 2 + + ··· + 2 .
n + n n2 + n n +n
Note that Rn ≤ Sn ≤ Tn ∀n ∈ N. (Why?)
n2 n2
Also, Tn = 2 and Rn = 2 .
n +1 n +n
Observe that lim Tn = lim Rn = 1. (Why?)
n→∞ n→∞

Thus, by Sandwich Theorem, lim Sn exists and is equal to 1.

n→∞

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

n!
2. (ii) To find: lim .
n→∞ nn

Observe the following for n > 2 :

n! 1 2 n−1 1 1
an = n
= · ··· < · 1···1 =
n n n n n n
1
Thus, an < for n > 2. Moreover, an > 0 for all n ∈ N.
n

1
∴ 0 < an < ∀n > 2.
n
1
As lim = 0, we have it that lim an = 0, by Sandwich Theorem.
n→∞ n n→∞

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

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n3 + 3n2 + 1
 
2. (iii) lim
n→∞ n4 + 8n2 + 2
 3
n + 3n2 + 1
  3
n + 3n2 + 1

1 3 1
Argue from an = 4 2
< 4
= + 2 + 4 and an > 0.
n + 8n + 2 n n n n

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

2. (iv) lim (n)1/n .

n→∞

Define hn := n1/n − 1.
Then, hn ≥ 0 ∀n ∈ N. (Why?)
Observe the following for n > 2 :
   
n 2 n 2 n(n − 1) 2
n = (1 + hn )n > 1 + nhn + hn > h = hn .
2 2 n 2
r
2
Thus, hn < ∀n > 2.
n−1
Using Sandwich Theorem, we get that lim hn = 0 which gives us that lim n1/n = 1.
n→∞ n→∞

Where did we use that hn ≥ 0?

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

 √ 
cos π n
2. (v) lim
n→∞ n2
√
For all n ∈ N, we have that −1 ≤ cos(π n) ≤ 1.
√
−1 cos π n 1
Thus, 2 ≤ 2
≤ 2 ∀n ∈ N.
n n n
√
cos π n
Use Sandwich Theorem to argue that lim = 0.
n→∞ n2

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1
√ √ √
2. (vi) lim ( n( n + 1 − n))
n→∞

Observe that √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √ ( n + 1 + n) n
an = n( n + 1 − n) = n( n + 1 − n) · √ √ =√ √ .
( n + 1 + n) n+1+ n
√
n 1
Thus, an < √ √ = .
n+ n 2
√ r r  
n 1 n 1 1 1 1
Also, an > √ √ = = 1− ≥ 1− √ .
n+1+ n+1 2 n+1 2 n+1 2 n+1
 
1 1 1
Therefore, we have shown that 1− √ < an < .
2 n+1 2
1
Use Sandwich Theorem to argue that lim an = .
n→∞ 2

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

 
n
4. (i) Determine whether 2
is increasing or decreasing.
n +1 n≥1

Let an denote the sequence.

(n + 1)(n2 + 1) − n (n + 1)2 − 1


(n + 1) n
an+1 − an = − =
(n + 1)2 + 1 n2 + 1 ((n + 1)2 + 1) (n2 + 1)
−n2 − n + 1
an+1 − an = < 0.
((n + 1)2 + 1) (n2 + 1)
∴ an+1 < an , that is, an is a decreasing sequence.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

2n 3n
4. (ii) an = .
5n+1
2n+1 3n+1 6
an+1 = = an .
5n+2 5
1
=⇒ an+1 − an = an > 0.
5
Thus, an is an increasing sequence.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

1−n
4. (iii) an = for n ≥ 2.
n2
1 − (n + 1) 1 − n n−1 n
an+1 − an = 2
− 2
= 2
−
(n + 1) n n (n + 1)2
(n2 − n − 1)
an+1 − an = 2
n (n + 1)2
The numerator factors as (n − φ)(n + 1/φ) where 1 < φ < 2. Thus, for n ≥ 2, the
numerator is positive. Thus, the given sequence is increasing.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1
 
1 2
5. (i) a1 = 1, an+1 = an + ∀n ≥ 1.
2 an
Claim 1. an > 0 ∀n ∈ N.
Proof. This can be easily seen via induction. Details are left to the reader.

Claim 2. an2 > 2 ∀n ≥ 2.

Proof. We shall prove this via induction. The base case n = 2 is immediate as
an = 3/2.
Assume that it holds for n = k.

2 2 (a2 − 2)2
 
1
2
ak+1 −2= ak + −2= k 2
4 ak 4ak
2 2
(ak − 2) 6= 0 by induction hypothesis and thus, ak+1 − 2 > 0. Therefore, by principle of
mathematical induction, we have proven our claim. 

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

Claim 3. an+1 < an ∀n ≥ 2.

2 − an2
Proof. Observe that an+1 − an = .
2an
The quantity on the right is negative, using Claim 1 and Claim 2.
Thus, an+1 < an . 
We have shown that the sequence is eventually monotonically decreasing. Also, it is
bounded below, by Claim 1. Thus, the limit lim an exists. Let L(∈ R) denote this
n→∞
limit.
Note: We are assuming that an eventually monotonic bounded sequence is also
convergent.  
1 2
Thus, lim an+1 = lim an + .
n→∞ n→∞ 2 an
We had shown that lim an+1 = lim an . Using that and other limit properties, we get
n→∞ √ n→∞ √
that L2 = 2. Thus, L must be 2 > 0. (Why not − 2?)

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1
√ √
5. (ii) a1 = 2, an+1 = 2 + an ∀n ≥ 1.
Claim 1. an > 0 ∀n ∈ N.
Proof. This can be easily seen via induction. Details are left to the reader.

Claim 2. an < 2 ∀n ∈ N. √
Proof. We shall prove this via induction. The base case n = 1 is immediate as 2 < 2.
Assume that √it holds
for n = k.
2 2
ak+1 −4= ak + 2 − 4 = ak + 2 − 4 = ak − 2.
2
But ak − 2 < 0 by induction hypothesis. Thus, ak+1 < 4 or ak+1 < 2. By principle of
mathematical induction, we have proven the claim. 

Claim 3. an < an+1 ∀n ∈ N.

2
Proof. an+1 − an2 = 2 + an − an2 = (2 − an )(1 + an ) > 0.
The last inequality is by the help of Claims 1 and 2.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

2
Thus, we have an+1 > an2 . Using Claim 1, we can conclude that an+1 > an . 
By Claims 1 and 2, we have it that the sequence is bounded. By Claim 3, we have it
that the sequence is monotone. Therefore, the sequence must converge. Let the limit
be L(∈ R). √
Taking limit on both sides of the recursive definition gives us L = 2 + L. Thus,
L2 = 2 + L or (L − 2)(L + 1) = 0.
Note that L cannot be −1. (Why?)
∴ L = 2.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1
√ an
5. (iii) a1 = 2, an+1 = 3 + ∀n ≥ 1.
2
Claim 1. an < 6 n ∈ N.
Proof. We shall prove this via induction. The base case n = 1 is immediate as 2 < 6.
Assume that it holds for n = k.
an 6
ak+1 = 3 + < 3 + = 6.
2 2
By principle of mathematical induction, we have proven the claim. 

Claim 2. an < an+1 ∀n ∈ N.

an 6 − an
Proof. an+1 − an = 3 − = > 0 =⇒ an+1 > an . 
2 2
Thus, (an ) is a monotonically increasing sequence that is bounded above. Therefore, it
must converge. Using the same method as earlier gives this limit to be 6.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

10. To show:
{an }n≥1 is convergent ⇐⇒ {a2n }n≥1 and {a2n+1 }n≥1 converge to the same limit.

Proof. ( =⇒ ) Let bn := a2n and cn := a2n+1 . We are given that lim an = L. We

n→∞
must show that lim bn = lim cn .
n→∞ n→∞
Let  > 0 be given. By hypothesis, there exists n0 ∈ N such that |an − L| <  for
n ≥ n0 .
Note that 2n > n and 2n + 1 > n for all n ∈ N. Thus, we have that
|bn − L| <  and |cn − L| <  for all n ≥ n0 .
Thus, lim bn = lim cn = L. 
n→∞ n→∞

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 1

( ⇐= ) Let (bn ) and (cn ) be as defined before. We are given that

lim bn = lim cn = L. We must show that (an ) converges.
n→∞ n→∞
Let  > 0 be given. By hypothesis, there exists n1 , n2 ∈ N such that
|bn − L| <  for all n ≥ n1 (1)
and |cn − L| <  for all n ≥ n2 . (2)
Choose n0 = max{2n1 , 2n2 + 1}.
Let n ≥ n0 be even. Then, n ≥ 2n1 or n/2 ≥ n1 and an = bn/2 . By (1), we have it that
|an − L| < .
Similarly, let n ≥ n0 be odd. Then, n ≥ 2n2 + 1 or (n − 1)/2 ≥ n2 and an = c(n−1)/2 .
By (2), we have it that |an − L| < .
Thus, we have shown that |an − L| <  whenever n ≥ n0 . This is precisely what it
means for (an ) to converge to L. 

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

1. (i) We shall show that the statement is false with the help of a counterexample.
Let a = −1, b = 1, c  = 0. Define f and g as follows:
1/x ; x 6= 0
f (x) = x and g (x) = .
0 ;x = 0
It can be seen that lim f (x) = 0 but lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim 1 = 1.
x→0 x→c x→0

(ii) We shall prove that the given statement is true.

We are given that g is bounded. Thus, ∃M ∈ R+ such that |g (x)| ≤ M ∀x ∈ (a, b).
Let  > 0 be given. We want to show that there exists δ > 0 such that
|f (x)g (x) − 0| <  whenever 0 < |x − c| < δ.
Let 1 = /M. As lim f (x) = 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
x→c
0 < |x − c| < δ =⇒ |f (x)| < 1 .
Thus, whenever 0 < |x − c| < δ, we have it that
|f (x)g (x) − 0| = |f (x)||g (x)| ≤ |f (x)| · M < 1 · M = . 

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

(iii) We shall prove that the given statement is true.

Let  > 0 be given.
Let l := lim g (x).
x→c
Let 1 = /(|l| + ).

By hypothesis, there exists δ1 > 0 such that 0 < |x − c| < δ1 =⇒ |g (x) − l| < .
Also, there exists δ2 > 0 such that 0 < |x − c| < δ2 =⇒ |f (x)| < 1 .

Let δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then, whenever 0 < |x − c| < δ, we have that:

|f (x)g (x)| = |f (x)g (x) − lf (x) + lf (x)| ≤ |f (x)||(g (x) − l)| + |l||f (x)| <
|f (x)| + |l||f (x)| = |f (x)|( + |l|) < 1 ( + |l|) = .
Thus, we have it that 0 < |x − c| < δ =⇒ |f (x)g (x) − 0| < . 

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2
2. We are given that lim f (x) exists. Let it be c(∈ R). Note that it’s not necessary
x→α
that c = f (α).
Let us evaluate lim f (α + h). Let (hn ) be an arbitrary sequence of real numbers such
h→0
that hn 6= 0 and hn → 0. We need to find lim f (α + hn ).
n→∞
Consider the sequence (xn ) of real numbers defined as xn := α + hn . Thus, xn 6= α and
xn → α. By hypothesis, we must have that lim f (xn ) = c.
n→∞
Thus, by definition of xn , we must have that lim f (α + hn ) = c. This gives us that
n→∞
lim f (α + hn ) = c.
h→0
Similar consideration will give lim f (α − hn ) = c as well.
h→0
Using the limit theorems for functions, we have that:

lim [f (α + h) − f (α − h)] = lim f (α + h) − lim f (α − h) = c − c = 0.

h→0 h→0 h→0

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

Converse of 2.
The converse of 2 does not hold. That is, given f : R → R and α ∈ R such that
lim [f (a + h) − f (a − h)] = 0, it is not necessary that lim f (x) exists.
h→0 x→α
We shall demonstrate this will the help of a counterexample.
Let f : R → R be defined as follows:

0 if x ∈ Q
f (x) =
1 if x 6∈ Q

It can be easily observed that f (x) = f (−x) ∀x ∈ R.

Let α = 0.
Then, lim [f (α + h) − f (α − h)] = lim [f (h) − f (−h)] = lim [0] = 0.
h→0 h→0 h→0
However, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0

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Sheet 2

3. (i) The function is continuous everywhere except at x = 0.

Proof. For x 6= 0, we have it that f is a composition of continuous functions. Thus, it
is continuous.

To show that f is discontinuous at x = 0 :

2
Consider the sequence (xn ) where xn = .
(4n + 1)π
Then, xn → 0 but f (xn ) = 1 ∀n ∈ N and thus, f (xn ) → 1 6= f (0).
Thus, f is discontinuous at x = 0, by definition.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

3. (ii) The function is continuous everywhere.

Proof. For x 6= 0, it simply follows from the fact that product and composition of
continuous functions is continuous.
To show continuity at x = 0 :
Let (xn ) be any sequence of real numbers such that xn → 0. We must show that
f (xn ) → 0.
Let  > 0 be given.   
 1 
Observe that |f (xn ) − 0| = xn sin
 ≤ |xn |.
xn 
Now, we shall use the fact xn → 0. By this hypothesis, there must exist n1 ∈ N such
that |xn | = |xn − 0| <  ∀n ≥ n1 .
Choosing n0 = n1 , we have it that |f (xn ) − 0| ≤ |xn | <  ∀n ≥ n0 . 

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

x if 1 ≤ x < 2
3. (iii) The function can be rewritten as: f (x) = 1 if x = 2
 √
6 − x if 2 < x ≤ 3
We claim that the function is continuous on [1, 2) ∪ (2, 3] and discontinuous at 2.
Given x ∈ [1, 2) and any sequence (xn ) in the domain such that xn → x, there must
exist n ∈ n0 such that xn ∈ [1, 2) ∀n ≥ n0 . Thus, f (xn ) = xn ∀n ≥ n0 . It can now
be easily shown that f (xn ) → x = f (x). (We have essentially used the continuity of the
function x 7→ x.) Thus, f is continuous on [1, 2).
Similarly, we can argue that√f is continuous on (2, 3]. Again, this will follow from the
fact that the function x 7→ 6 − x is continuous on its domain.

Now, we show that f is discontinuous at 2. Consider the sequence xn := 2 − 1/n. It is

clear that xn → 2.
Observe that 1 ≤ xn < 2. Thus, f (xn ) = 2 − 1/n.
This gives us that f (xn ) → 2 6= f (2). 
Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02
Sheet 2

4. We are given that f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) for all x, y ∈ R. Thus, we can let

x = y = 0. This gives us that:
f (0 + 0) = f (0) + f (0) =⇒ f (0) = 2f (0) =⇒ f (0) = 0.
As f is continuous at 0, we have it that lim f (h) = f (0) = 0.
h→0

Now, we will show that f is continuous at every c ∈ R.

Substituting x = c in the original equation gives us: f (c + y ) = f (c) + f (y ). As this is
true for every y ∈ R, we have that: lim f (c + y ) = lim [f (c) + f (y )].
y →0 y →0

We know that lim f (c) = f (c) (constant sequence) and lim f (y ) = 0 (shown above).
y →0 y →0
Thus, we can write:
lim f (c + y ) = lim f (c) + lim f (y ) = f (c). This is precisely what it means for f to be
y →0 y →0 y →0
continuous at c.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

4. (Optional) Here’s a sketch of how one can show that f satisfies f (kx) = kf (x), for
all k ∈ R.
Step 1. Use induction and show that f (nx) = nf (x) ∀n ∈ N.
Step 2. Show that f (nx) = nf (x) ∀n ∈ Z.
Step 3. Show that f (qx) = qf (x) ∀q ∈ Q.
Step 4. Use density of rationals and continuity of f to argue that
f (kx) = kf (x) ∀k ∈ R.

Note that we didn’t require continuity of f in the first 3 steps.

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

12. Let c ∈ R.
Recall that given any a, b ∈ R such that a < b, we can construct a rational number
r (a, b) such that a < r (a, b) < b. Similarly, we can construct i(a, b) ∈ R \ Q such that
a < i(a, b) < b. (Note that we have explicit constructions of these.)

Define the two sequences (rn ) and (in ) as follows:

rn := r (c, c + 1/n) and in := i(c, c + 1/n).
Thus, we have it that rn → c and in → c and also that rn 6= c 6= in .
However, observe that f (rn ) = 1 ∀n ∈ N and f (in ) = 0 ∀n ∈ N. This gives us that
f (rn ) → 1 and f (in ) → 0.
As lim f (rn ) = 1 6= 0 = lim f (in ), f cannot be continuous at c.
n→∞ n→∞

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02

Sheet 2

13. Let c ∈ R be such that f is continuous at c. Define sequences (rn ) and (in ) as
before.
Thus, f (rn ) = rn . As rn → c, we have it that f (rn ) → c.
Similarly, f (in ) → 1 − c.
For f to be continuous at c, we must have it that c = 1 − c = f (c). Solving this gives
us that c = 1/2.
Thus, what we have shown so far is that: f continuous at c =⇒ c = 1/2.

However, we must now show that f actually is continuous at 1/2.

This is done as follows: Let (xn ) be any sequence of real numbers such that xn → 1/2.
We claim that f (xn ) → 1/2. If we can prove this claim, then we are done as
f (1/2) = 1/2.
Note that if xn ∈ Q, then |f (xn ) − 1/2| = |xn − 1/2| and if x 6∈ Q, then
|f (xn ) − 1/2| = |1/2 − xn | = |xn − 1/2|.

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Sheet 2

Thus, we have it that |f (xn ) − 1/2| = |xn − 1/2| ∀n ∈ N.

Let  > 0 be given. As xn → 1/2, there exists n1 ∈ N such that |xn − 1/2| <  for all
n ≥ n1 .
Choose n0 = n1 . Thus, |f (xn ) − 1/2| <  for all n ≥ n0 .
∴ lim f (xn ) = 1/2. 
n→∞

Aryaman Maithani MA 105 : Calculus D1 - T5, Tutorial 02