GEOTEXTILE

Separation is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a porous geotextile,

between dissimilar materials so that the integrity and functioning of both materials can remain
intact or even be improved. Paved roads, unpaved roads, and railroad bases are common
applications. Also, the use of thick nonwoven geotextiles for cushioning and protection of
geomembranes is in this category. In addition, for most applications of geofoam, separation is
the major function.

Reinforcement is the synergistic improvement of a total system’s strength created by the

introduction of a geotextile, geogrid or geocell (all of which are good in tension) into a soil (that
is good in compression, but poor in tension) or other disjointed and separated material.
Applications of this function are in mechanically stabilized and retained earth walls and steep
soil slopes; they can be combined with masonry facings to create vertical retaining walls. Also
involved is the application of basal reinforcement over soft soils and over deep foundations for
embankments and heavy surface loadings. Stiff polymer geogrids and geocells do not have to be
held in tension to provide soil reinforcement, unlike geotextiles. Stiff 2D geogrid and 3D
geocells interlock with the aggregate particles and the reinforcement mechanism is one of
confinement of the aggregate. The resulting mechanically stabilized aggregate layer exhibits
improved loadbearing performance. Stiff polymer geogrids, with rectangular or triangular
apertures, in addition to three-dimensional geocells made from new polymeric alloys are also
increasingly specified in unpaved and paved roadways, load platforms and railway ballast, where
the improved loadbearing characteristics significantly reduce the requirements for high quality,
imported aggregate fills, thus reducing the carbon footprint of the construction.

Filtration is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for adequate liquid flow
without soil loss, across the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration. Filtration applications are highway underdrain systems,
retaining wall drainage, landfill leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as
flexible forms for bags, tubes and containers.

Drainage is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that allows for adequate liquid flow
without soil loss, within the plane of the geosynthetic over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration. Geopipe highlights this function, and also geonets,
geocomposites and (to a lesser extent) geotextiles. Drainage applications for these different
geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields, dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks.
Also to be noted is that sheet, edge and wick drains are geocomposites used for various soil and
rock drainage situations.
Geotextile Testing
Geotextile testing measures and qualifies the capabilities of textiles used in landscaping functions.

Test Test Method No. Specimens Amt. Needed

Abrasion Resistance for Geotextiles ASTM D 4886 call call
Apparent Opening Size ASTM D 4751 5 2 sq. yds.
Burst Strength ASTM D 3786 10 3 sq. ft.
Carbon Black Content (%) ASTM D 1603 3 3 sq. in.
Carbon Black Content (%) ASTM D 4218 2 6 sq. in.
Compressive Properties (cellular) ASTM D 1621 3 12 sq. in.
Grab Strength ASTM D 4632 10 1 sq. yd.
ID, Storage & Handling ASTM D 4873 call call
Mass per Unit Area ASTM D 3776 5 2 sq. ft.
Mass per Unit Area ASTM D 5261 7 2 sq. ft.
Nominal Thickness ASTM D 5199 5 call
Permittivity ASTM D 4491 4 2 sq. ft.
Puncture Strength ASTM D 4833 10 3 sq. ft.
Seam Strength ASTM D 4884 5 4 ft. seam
Temperature Stability of Geotextiles ASTM D 4594 call call
Thickness Measurements ASTM D 1777e1 call Call
Trapezoidal Tear Strength ASTM D 4533 10 1 sq. yd.
Wide Width Tensile ASTM D 4595 10 2 sq. yds.
Xenon-Arc Exposure to Geotextiles ASTM D 4355 call Call
Water content
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Soil composition by phase: s-soil (dry), v-void (pores filled with water or air), w-water, a-air. V is volume,
M is mass.

Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil
(called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood. Water content is used in a wide range of
scientific and technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio, which can range from 0 (completely
dry) to the value of the materials' porosity at saturation. It can be given on a volumetric or mass
(gravimetric) basis.

Volumetric water content, θ, is defined mathematically as:

where Vw is the volume of water and VT = Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw + Va is the total volume (that is

soil volume + water volume + air space).

Gravimetric water content[1] is expressed by mass (weight) as follows:

Laboratory methods
Main article: Moisture analysis

Other methods that determine water content of a sample include chemical titrations (for example
the Karl Fischer titration), determining mass loss on heating (perhaps in the presence of an inert
gas), or after freeze drying. In the food industry the Dean-Stark method is also commonly used.

From the Annual Book of ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards, the
total evaporable moisture content in Aggregate (C 566) can be calculated with the formula:

where p is the fraction of total evaporable moisture content of sample, W is the mass of the
original sample, and D is mass of dried sample.
where mw is the mass of water and mb is the bulk mass. The bulk mass is taken as the total mass,
except for geotechnical and soil science applications where oven-dried soil (ms, see the diagram)
is conventionally used as mb.

To convert gravimetric water content to volumetric water, multiply the gravimetric water content
by the bulk specific gravity