LESSON 1: KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

SENIOR HIGH The Kinetic Theory: A Microscopic Description of Matter

SCHOOL
G12 STEM The kinetic molecular theory of matter offers a description of the microscopic
properties of atoms (or molecules) and their interactions, leading to observable
macroscopic properties (such as pressure, volume, temperature). An
application of the theory is that it helps to explain why matter exists in different
Second
phases (solid, liquid, and gas) and how matter can change from one phase to
Semester- the next.
Quarter 4
The kinetic molecular theory of matter states that:

1. All matter is made of tiny particles.

General 2. These particles are in constant motion.
Chemistry II 3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature. Increased
temperature means greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between particles, in the
freedom of motion of particles, and in the extent to which the particles
interact.

Table 1.1 Summarizes the characteristics of the particles that are in each phase
of matter.

Property of Solid Liquid Gas

matter
Particles Atoms or Atoms or Atoms or
molecules molecules molecules
Energy and Low energy - Particles have Particles have
movement of particles vibrate more energy high energy and
particles around a fixed than in the solid are constantly
Prepared by: point. phase but less moving.
than in the gas
Ronalyn T. Boco
phase.
STEM Teacher Spaces between Very little space Bigger spaces Large spaces
particles between than in solids but because of high
TCSNHS-ISHS particles. smaller than in energy.
Particles are gases.

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 tightly packed The different types of intermolecular forces
together.
Attractive forces Very strong Weaker forces Weak forces Intermolecular forces, often abbreviated to IMF, are the attractive and repulsive
between forces. Solids than in solids, because of the forces that arise between the molecules of a substance. These forces mediate
particles. have a fixed but stronger large distance the interactions between individual molecules of a substance.
volume. forces than in between
gases. particles. Forces also exist between the molecules themselves and these are collectively
Changes in Solids become A liquid becomes In general, a gas referred to as intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces are mainly responsible
phase. liquids or gases a gas if its becomes a liquid
for the physical characteristics of the substance. Intermolecular forces are
if their temperature is or solid when it
temperature is increased. A is cooled. responsible for the condensed states of matter. The particles making up solids
increased. liquid becomes a Particles have and liquids are held together by intermolecular forces and these forces affect a
solid if its less energy and number of the physical properties of mater in these two states.
temperature therefore move
decreases. closer together 1. Dipole-dipole interactions: These forces occur when the partially
so that the positively charged part of a molecule interacts with the partially negatively
attractive forces charged part of the neighboring molecule. The prerequisite for this type
become of attraction to exist is partially charged ions—for example, the case of
stronger, and the polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen chloride, HCl. Dipole-dipole
gas becomes a interactions are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction.
liquid or a solid.

There are two kinds of forces, or attractions, that operate in a molecule—

intramolecular and intermolecular. Intramolecular forces are the forces that
hold atoms together within a molecule. Intermolecular forces are forces that
exist between molecules.

2. Hydrogen bonding: This is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that

occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom bonded to either an oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine atom. The partially positive end of hydrogen is
attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine
of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is a relatively strong force of
attraction between molecules, and considerable energy is required to
break hydrogen bonds. This explains the exceptionally high boiling points

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 and melting points of compounds like water, H2O, and hydrogen fluoride, Relative strength of intermolecular forces of attraction:
HF. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in biology; for example,
hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding nucleotide bases together in Intermolecular force Occurs between … Relative strength
DNA and RNA. Dipole-dipole attraction Partially oppositely Strong
charged ions
Hydrogen bonding H atom and O, N/ or F Strongest of the dipole-
atom dipole attractions
London dispersion Temporary or induced Weakest
attraction dipoles

How forces of attraction affect properties of compounds

Polar covalent compounds—like hydrogen chloride, HCl and hydrogen iodide,

HI —have dipole-dipole interactions between partially charged ions and London
dispersion forces between molecules. Nonpolar covalent compounds—like
methane, CH4 and nitrogen gas, N2—only have London dispersion forces
3. London dispersion forces, under the category of van der Waal between molecules. The rule of thumb is that the stronger the intermolecular
forces: These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist forces of attraction, the more energy is required to break those forces. This
between all types of molecules, whether ionic or covalent—polar or translates into ionic and polar covalent compounds having higher boiling and
nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London melting points, higher enthalpy of fusion, and higher enthalpy of vaporization
dispersion forces are. For example, bromine, Br2, has more electrons than than covalent compounds. Boiling and melting points of compounds depend on
chlorine, Cl2, so bromine will have stronger London dispersion forces than the type and strength of the intermolecular forces present, as tabulated below:
chlorine, resulting in a higher boiling point for bromine, 59°C compared to
chlorine, –35°C. Also, the breaking of London dispersion forces doesn’t
Type of compound Intermolecular forces present Relative order
require that much energy, which explains why nonpolar covalent of boiling and
compounds like methane—CH4—oxygen, and nitrogen—which only have melting points
London dispersion forces of attraction between the molecules—freeze at Ionic compounds Ion to ion attraction between ions, 1, highest
very low temperatures. London dispersion forces
Covalent compounds Hydrogen bonds, London 2
containing hydrogen dispersion forces
bonds
Polar covalent Dipole-dipole attraction between 3
compounds dipoles created by partially
charged ions, London dispersion
forces
Nonpolar covalent London dispersion forces 4, lowest
compounds

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LESSON 2: PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
The properties of liquids that were observed are consequences of the
interactions of particles that make up the liquid.
1. Surface tension is the measure of the elastic force in the surface of a
liquid. It is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the
surface of a liquid by a unit area. It is manifested as some sort of skin on
the surface of a liquid or in a drop of liquid.
2. Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be
drawn into small openings such as those between grains of a rock.
Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a result of intermolecular
attraction between the liquid and solid materials. Capillary action is shown
by water rising spontaneously in capillary tubes. A thin film of water
adheres to the wall of the glass tube as water molecules are attracted to
atoms making up the glass (SiO2). Surface tension causes the film of
water to contract and pulls the water up the tube.
Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid
molecules).
Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water
and in the particles that make up the glass tube).
These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical
container (the meniscus!).
When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are greater than the
adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container, the surface of
the liquid is convex.
Example: mercury in a container
When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are lesser than the
adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container, the surface of
the liquid is concave.
Example: water in a glass container
When both adhesive and cohesive forces are equal, the surface is horizontal.
Example: distilled water in a silver vessel
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3. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The greater the Relate vapor pressure to temperature
viscosity, the slower the liquid flows. Viscosity is expressed in units of
centipoise. The table below gives viscosities of liquids of some pure
substances. Water has viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20°C.
Substances with lower viscosities include carbon tetrachloride and
benzene. Glycerol has a resistance to flow of more than a thousand times
greater than water.

Vapor pressure vs. temperature

Observation: As the temperature increases, the vapor pressure of water also

increases.

When temperature is high, more molecules have enough energy to escape

from the liquid. At a lower temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy
to escape from the liquid.
4. Like any gas sample, the molecules in the gaseous state over its liquid
create a pressure. The greater the number of gaseous particles, the Relate Vapor Pressure to Strength of Intermolecular Forces
greater the pressure exerted by the gas. The pressure exerted by the gas
in equilibrium with a liquid in a closed container at a given temperature is Consider the vapor
called the equilibrium vapor pressure or simply vapor pressure of pressures of the
the liquid. following substances.
Relate vapor pressure
The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor pressure of a to strength of
liquid at a given temperature and that it is constant at a constant intermolecular forces.
temperature. It increases with temperature. Vapor pressure is
independent of the amount of liquid as well as the surface area of the
liquid in contact with the gas.

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Observation:
Ethyl alcohol and water have very low vapor pressures. Both liquids have the
strong dipole-dipole interaction called hydrogen bonding. Acetone is polar but
does not have H-bonding. Its vapor pressure is of intermediate value. Pentane
is a nonpolar substance, and its vapor pressure is high compared to those of
water and ethyl alcohol.
When liquids evaporate, the molecules have to have sufficient energy to break
the attractive forces that hold them in the liquid state. The stronger these
intermolecular forces are, the greater the amount of energy needed to break
them.
For some substances with weak intermolecular forces, the energy requirement
is easy obtained from collisions with other molecules and absorption of energy
from the surroundings. Many molecules can vaporize, resulting in a high vapor
pressure. For molecules with strong intermolecular forces, gathering enough
energy may not be as easy, and register low vapor pressures.
MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION AND BOILING POINT
The relationship between vapor pressure and strength of intermolecular forces
is consistent with the trends in two other properties of liquids, the enthalpy or
molar heat of vaporization, and the boiling point of the liquid.
5. The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature. H is the symbol for
enthalpy, which means heat content at a given standard condition.
*Measured at 1
atm
Molar heats of
vaporization
and boiling
points of
selected
substances
Relate molar heat of vaporization to strength of intermolecular forces
The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the strength of
intermolecular forces in a liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it
takes a lot of energy to free the molecules from the liquid phase and the heat
of vaporization will be high.
It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap) than water (higher Hvap) at a
given temperature, and more acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given
temperature. Acetone is a polar substance but has no H-bonding. It has
weaker intermolecular forces than water, and therefore acetone molecules are
held less tightly to one another in the liquid phase.
A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of
vaporization is by rubbing acetone on your hands. Compare what is felt when
water is used. Acetone has a lower ΔHvap than water so that heat from our
hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of these molecules and provide
additional heat to vaporize them. As a result of the loss of heat from the skin,
our hands feel cool.
6. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid
converts into a gas.
A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid. The boiling point is the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid converts
to a gas when the external pressure is 1 atm. The normal boiling point of
water is 100°C.
The boiling point of a liquid depends on the external pressure. For
example, at 1 atm, water boils at 100°C, but if the pressure is reduced to
0.5 atm, water boils at only 82°C.
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 LESSON 3: WATER: A VERY UNUSUAL LIQUID

Water is an essential substance to life. It is the most abundant compound on

earth, and comprises about more than 60% of the human body. But it is also
one of the most unusual substances on earth.

The Unique Properties of Water

 Water is a good solvent.

Vapor pressure of four common liquids, shown as a function of temperature.
Relate boiling point to molar heat of vaporization
The boiling point is related to molar heat of vaporization: the higher ΔHvap, the
higher the boiling point, as shown in the table. The boiling points of substances
often reflect the strength of the intermolecular forces operating among the
molecules. At the BP, enough energy must be supplied to overcome the
attractive forces among molecules before they can enter the vapor phase.
*Measured at 1 atm
Boiling points
and molar heats
of vaporization
of selected
substances
A unique property of water is its ability to dissolve a large variety of
chemical substances. It dissolves salts and other ionic compounds, as
well as polar covalent compounds such as alcohols and organic
substances that are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.
Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide will dissolve in water meaning
that some animals do not need to breathe air in order to respire but they
must still be able to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide. Water
is sometimes called the universal solvent because it can dissolve so
many things.
Relate this property to the role of water in plant nutrition:
-Plants are able to absorb nutrient ions dissolved in water.
Relate this property to issues of pollution:
-Issues can be caused however by the ease of which pollutants from
farming and industrial plants are dissolved.

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 Water has a high specific heat. causing the solid to occupy a larger volume than the liquid. This makes
Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy needed to raise the ice less dense than liquid water, causing ice to float on water.
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1°C. The specific heat of
water is 1 calorie/g-°C (4.18 J/g-°C), one of the highest for many liquids.
Water can absorb a large amount of heat even if its temperature rises
only slightly. To raise the temperature of water, the intermolecular
hydrogen bonds should break. The converse is also true; water can give
off much heat with only a slight decrease in its temperature. This allows
large bodies of water to help moderate the temperature on earth.

Relate this property to changing climate and the capacity of bodies of

water to act as temperature buffer:
-In summer months this means that water must absorb a great deal of
energy in the form of heat from the sun in order for the temperature to
increase. Since most bodies of water are large enough not to be
significantly affected by the heat from the sun, water provides an almost
constant temperature for the plants and animals living there.

It takes about 4.5 times greater amount of energy to heat up water than
an equal amount of land. Hence, large bodies of water heat up and cool
down more slowly than adjacent land masses.
 The boiling point of water unusually high.
Many compounds similar in mass to water have much lower boiling
points. The strong intermolecular forces in water allow it to be a liquid
at a large range of temperatures.
Relate this property to questions on small water bodies drying up:
-Small water bodies like ponds are at risk of drying up in the summer.
But since the amount of energy required to vaporize or evaporate
water is so high, this is not expected to happen quickly.
The structure of ice
Relate this property to the survival of aquatic organisms in temperate
countries:
-Water bodies freeze from the top down. If ice is not able to float, the
water bodies would freeze from top to bottom, and aquatic life will be
killed. Because ice floats, aquatic organisms survive under the surface,
which remain liquid. The ice surface also acts as an insulating layer
protecting the water beneath from further freezing, and maintains a
temperature adequate for survival. Without this feature, there would be
no aquatic life in temperate and Polar Regions.

 Solid water is less dense, and in fact floats on liquid water.

Unlike all other liquids, the molecules in solid water are actually farther
apart than they are in liquid water. When solid water forms, the
hydrogen bonds result in a very open structure with unoccupied spaces,

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LESSON 4: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS;
SOLIDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Solids can be categorized into two groups: the crystalline solids and the
amorphous solids. The differences in properties of these two groups of solids
arise from the presence or absence of long range order of arrangements of the
particles in the solid.

1. Arrangement of particles
The components of a solid can be arranged in two general ways: they
Crystalline and amorphous quartz
can form a regular repeating three-dimensional structure called a crystal
lattice, thus producing a crystalline solid, or they can aggregate with no
2. Behavior when heated
particular long range order, and form an amorphous solid (from the
The presence or absence of long-range order in the structure of solids
Greek ámorphos, meaning “shapeless”).
results in a difference in the behavior of the solid when heated.
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices.
The structures of crystalline solids are built from repeating units called
Examples of crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper
crystal lattices. The surroundings of particles in the structure are uniform,
sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite, and sugar (C12H22O11). The ordered
and the attractive forces experienced by the particles are of similar types
arrangement of their units maximizes the space they occupy and are
and strength. These attractive forces are broken by the same amount of
essentially incompressible. energy, and thus, crystals become liquids at a specific temperature (i.e.
the melting point). At this temperature, physical properties of the
Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles. Examples of
crystalline solids change sharply.
amorphous solids are glass, plastic, coal, and rubber. They are
considered super-cooled liquids where molecules are arranged in a
random manner similar to the liquid state.

More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially prepared solids are
crystalline. Minerals, sand, clay, limestone, metals, alloys, carbon
(diamond and graphite), salts (e.g. NaCl and MgSO4), all have crystalline
structures. They have structures formed by repeating three dimensional
patterns of atoms, ions, or molecules. The repetition of structural units of
the substance over long atomic distances is referred to as long-range
(a) Pyrite (Fool’s gold) (b) Amethyst
order.
Examples of crystalline solids
Amorphous solids (e.g. glass), like liquids, do not have long range order,
but may have a limited, localized order in their structures.

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Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are heated. They tend to melt
over a wide range of temperature. This behavior is a result of the variation in
the arrangement of particles in their structures, causing some parts of the solid
to melt ahead of other parts.

X-ray Diffraction is a technique used to determine the atomic and molecular

structure of a crystal, wherein atoms cause a beams of incident X-rays to
Examples of non-crystalline solids diffract into many specific directions.

Feature of Crystalline Solids Four Types of Crystals

The four types of crystals differ in the kind of particles that make up the crystal
The Crystal Lattice and the attractive forces that hold these particles together.
Crystalline solids are characterized by a regular repeating structure called the
crystal lattice. 1. Metallic Crystals
Metallic crystals are made of atoms that readily lose electrons to form
positive ions (cations), but no atoms in the crystal would readily gain
electrons. The metal atoms give up their electrons to the whole crystal,
creating a structure made up of an orderly arrangement of cations
surrounded by delocalized electrons that move around the crystal. The
crystal is held together by electrostatic interactions between the cations
and delocalized electron. These interactions are called metallic bonds.
This model of metallic bonding is called the “sea of electrons” model.

2. Ionic Crystals
Ionic crystals are made of ions (cations and anions). These ions form
strong electrostatic interactions that hold the crystal lattice together. The
electrostatic attractions are numerous and extend throughout the crystal

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 since each ion is surrounded by several ions of opposite charge, making
ionic crystals hard and of high melting points.

3. Molecular Crystals
Molecular crystals are made of atoms, such as in noble gases, or
molecules, such as in sugar, C12H22O11, iodine, I2, and naphthalene,
C10H8. The atoms or molecules are held together by a mix of hydrogen
bonding/dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and these are the attractive
forces that are broken when the crystal melts. Hence, most molecular
crystals have relatively low melting points.

4. Covalent Network Crystals

Covalent network crystals are made of atoms in which each atom is
covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors. The atoms can be made of
one type of atom (e.g. Cdiamond and Cgraphite) or can be made of different
atoms (e.g. SiO2 and BN). In a network solid, there are no individual
molecules and the entire crystal may be considered one very large
molecule. Formulas for network solids, like those for ionic compounds,
are simple ratios of the component atoms represented by a formula unit.

LESSON 5: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS; Molecular order in solid, liquid and gas
PHASE CHANGES & PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase changes are transformations of matter from one physical state to

another. They occur when energy (usually in the form of heat) is added or
removed from a substance. They are characterized by changes in molecular
order; molecules in the solid phase have the greatest order, while those in the
gas phase have the greatest randomness or disorder.
What changes in molecular order occur during phase changes?
The figure below illustrates the difference in molecular order of a substance in
the solid, liquid and gaseous states.
The next figure shown below summarizes the types of phase changes.
• The change from solid to liquid is melting, liquid to gas is vaporization, and
solid to gas is sublimation. These changes take place when heat is absorbed
(heat gained). They are endothermic processes.
• The reverse change from gas to liquid is condensation, gas to solid is
deposition, and liquid to solid is freezing. These changes give off heat (heat
lost) and are exothermic processes.

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 Heating curve
The different changes in state that matter undergoes
The change in temperature of a substance as it is being heated can be shown
How does a change in energy affect phase changes? in a graph called the heating curve, such as the figure shown in the previous
page. The heating curve is a plot of temperature and heat added to the
Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a substance. substance. Often, time is used instead of heat added in the abscissa, because
When a substance is heated, the added energy is used by the substance in it is assumed that heat is uniformly added per unit time.
either of two ways:
a. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and the
particles move faster. The increase in kinetic energy is accompanied
by an increase in temperature.
b. The added heat is used to break attractive forces between particles.
There is no observed increase in temperature when this happens.
Often a change in the physical appearance of the substance is
observed, such as a phase change.

Conversely, the removal or release of heat results in two ways:

a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The motion of the
particles slow down. A decrease in temperature is observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase change may occur. No
change in temperature is observed. Cooling curve

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In both the heating and cooling curves, there are certain portions where the
temperature changes as heat is being added or removed, and portions where
the temperature remains constant even if heat is being added or removed. What
is happening at these portions?
1. When heat change is accompanied by a change in temperature, a change
in kinetic energies of the particles in the substance is occurring. The
particles are either moving faster or slowing down.
2. When temperature remains constant during heat change, the particles
move at the same speed. The heat added or removed is involved in
breaking or forming attractive forces. A phase change occurs at this
temperature: solid melts or liquid freezes at the melting point, which is
also the freezing point; liquid boils, or gas condenses at the boiling point,
which is also the condensation point.
During phase changes, two physical states of the substance exist at the same
time. When addition or removal of heat is stopped at this temperature, the two
physical states will interconvert from one state to the other, and will be at
equilibrium.
What are the features of a phase diagram?
Phase diagrams are plots of pressure (usually in atmospheres) versus
temperature (usually in degrees Celsius or Kelvin). The diagram is divided into
three areas: solid, liquid and gaseous states. The boundary between the liquid
and gaseous regions stop at point C, the critical temperature for the substance.
A. The Three Areas
The three areas are marked solid, liquid, and vapor. Under a set of conditions
in the diagram, a substance can exist in a solid, liquid, or vapor (gas) phase.
The labels on the graph represent the stable states of a system in equilibrium.
Suppose a pure substance is found at three different sets of conditions of
temperature and pressure corresponding to A, B, and C as shown in the
following diagram:

What is a phase diagram?

A phase diagram is a
graphical representation of the
physical states of a substance
under different conditions of
temperature and pressure. It
gives the possible
combinations of pressure and
temperature at which certain
physical state or states a
substance would be observed.
Each substance has its own
phase diagram. A typical
phase diagram is shown.
Phase diagram with three sets of conditions
General Phase diagram

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Under the set of conditions at A in the diagram, the substance would be a solid
as it falls into that area of the phase diagram. At B, it would be a liquid; and at
C, it would be a vapor (gas).
B. Three Lines (Curves)
The lines that serve as boundaries between physical states represent the
combinations of pressures and temperatures at which two phases can exist in
equilibrium. In other words, these lines define phase change points.
2. The blue line divides the liquid and gas phases, and represents
vaporization (liquid to gas) and condensation (gas to liquid) points.
Vaporization (or condensation) curve – the curve on a phase
diagram which represents the transition between gaseous and liquid
states. It shows the effect of pressure on the boiling point of the liquid.
Anywhere along this line, there will be equilibrium between the liquid
and the vapor.

1. The green line divides the solid and liquid phases, and represents
melting (solid to liquid) and freezing (liquid to solid) points.

Melting (or freezing) curve – the curve on a phase diagram which

represent the transition between liquid and solid states. It shows the
effect of pressure on the melting point of the solid. Anywhere on this
line, there is equilibrium between the solid and the liquid.

The vaporization or condensation curve

3. The red line divides the solid and gas phases, and represents
sublimation (solid to gas) and deposition (gas to solid) points.

Sublimation (or deposition) curve – the curve on a phase diagram

which represents the transition between gaseous and solid states. It
represents the effect of increased temperature on a solid at a very low
The freezing (or melting) curve constant pressure, lower than the triple point.

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  It is a unique combination of temperature and pressure where all three
phases are in equilibrium together.

The critical point

The critical point terminates the liquid/gas phase line. It is the set of
temperature and pressure on a phase diagram where the liquid and gaseous
phases of a substance merge together into a single phase. Beyond the
temperature of the critical point, the merged single phase is known as a
supercritical fluid. The temperature and pressure corresponding to this are
known as the critical temperature and critical pressure.

If the pressure on a gas (vapor) is increased at a temperature lower than the

critical temperature, the liquid-vapor equilibrium line will eventually be crossed
and the vapor will condensed to give a liquid.

Sublimation or deposition curve

C. Two Important Points

There are two important points on the diagram, the triple point and the critical
point.

The triple point

The triple point is the combination of pressure and temperature at which all
three phases of matter are at equilibrium. It is the point on a phase diagram at
which the three states of matter coexist. The lines that represent the conditions
of solid-liquid, liquid-vapor, and solid-vapor equilibrium meet at the triple point. Temperature and pressure values at the critical point

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How is the normal melting and boiling points determined in a phase For water, the melting point gets lower at higher pressures. This is because solid
diagram? ice is less dense than liquid water. This phenomenon is caused by the crystal
The normal melting and boiling points are those when the pressure is 1 structure of the solid phase. In the solid forms of water and some other
atmosphere. substances, the molecules crystallize in a lattice with greater average space
between molecules, thus resulting in a solid occupying a larger volume and
consequently with a lower density than the liquid. When it melts, the liquid water
formed occupies a smaller volume

An increase in pressure will move the above equilibrium to the side with the
smaller volume. Liquid water is produced. To make the liquid water freeze again
at this higher pressure, the temperature should be reduced. Higher pressures
mean lower melting (freezing) points.

Phase diagram
for H2O

Locating the normal melting point and normal boiling point

These can be found from the phase diagram by drawing a line across pressure
at 1 atm.

How does the phase diagram of water look like?

The Phase Diagram for Water
There is only one difference between the phase diagram for water and the
other phase diagrams discussed. The solid-liquid equilibrium line (the melting
point curve) slopes backwards rather than forwards.

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Identifying data from the phase diagram of water
Notice that the triple point for water occurs at a very low pressure, 0.006 atm
and at 273.2 K temperature. Also notice that the critical temperature is 647 K
(374°C). It would be impossible to convert water from a gas to a liquid by
compressing it above this temperature. The critical pressure is 218 atm. The
normal melting and boiling points of water are found in exactly the same way as
we have already discussed -by determining where the 1 atm pressure line
crosses the solid-liquid, and then the liquid-vapor equilibrium lines. The normal
melting point of water is 273 K (0°C), and its normal boiling point is 373 K
(100°C).

How does the phase diagram for carbon dioxide look like?
The Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide
The only thing special about this phase diagram is the position of the triple point,
which is well above atmospheric pressure. It is impossible to get any liquid
carbon dioxide at pressures less than 5.2 atmospheres. At 1 atm pressure,
carbon dioxide will sublime at a temperature of 197.5 K (-75.5 °C). This is the
reason why solid carbon dioxide is often known as "dry ice." There is no liquid
carbon dioxide under normal conditions - only the solid or the vapor.

Phase
diagram for
CO2

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