Chapter 4 : Motion in a Plane (Study Material)

by Roopa G N

Scalars and Vectors

The physical quantities are classified into

• Scalars
• Vectors

• Tensors

Scalars
Scalars are the physical quantities having magnitude only.

Length, mass, time, speed, work, power, volume, density, electric current, temper-
ature, energy, electric potential etc.

Vectors
Vectors are the physical quantities having both magnitude and direction and obey
vector addition rule.

Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, impulse, torque, angular

momentum, electric and magnetic field etc.

Tensors
Tensors are the physical quantities having different magnitudes in different direc-
tions.

Stress, moment of inertia.

Representation of a vector
Graphically a vector quantity is represented by an arrow of suitable length.

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 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and the arrow head
represents its direction.

Kinds of Vectors
Equal vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal if they possess same magnitude and same direction.

Negative vectors
Two vectors having same magnitude but directed in opposite direction are called nega-
tive vectors.

Unit vector
Unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude in direction of that vector. In Cartesian
co-ordinates 𝚤̂ , 𝚥̂ , 𝑘̂ are the unit vectors along X - axis, Y - axis and Z - axis respectively.

𝐴⃗
𝐴̂ =
⃗
|𝐴|

Null vector or zero vector

Null vector is a vector whose magnitude is zero. Its direction is arbitrary.

Co-linear vectors
Co-linear vectors are the vectors having the same direction.

Concurrent vectors or co-initial vectors

Concurrent vector are the vectors having the same initial point.

Co-planar vectors
Co-planar vectors are the vectors which lie in the same plane.

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Like or parallel vectors
Like vectors are the vectors which are parallel and having the same direction.

Unlike or anti parallel vectors

Unlike vectors are the vectors which are parallel and having opposite directions.

Orthogonal Vectors
Orthogonal vectors are the vectors which are mutually perpendicular.

Position vector
Position vector is o vector which represents the position of a body relative to an arbitrary
origin.

Displacement vector
Displacement vector is a vector which represents the displacement of a particle.

Skew vectors
Non-parallel and non-co-planar vectors are called skew vectors.

Addition of vectors
Vector addition can be done either graphically or mathematically.

Graphical method
To add vectors 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄,
⃗ the initial point of 𝑄
⃗ is placed at the terminal point of 𝑃⃗ .

Then the vector 𝑅⃗ joining the initial point of 𝑃⃗ to the terminal point of 𝑄
⃗ gives their
vector sum.

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 𝑅⃗ = 𝑃⃗ + 𝑅⃗
𝑅⃗ is the resultant of 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄
⃗
𝑃⃗ and 𝑄
⃗ are the components of 𝑅⃗
There are three laws of vector addition namely,
• Triangle law
• Parallelogram law
• Polygon law
We shall learn all of them.

Triangle law of vector addition

Statement
If two vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in order, then the
third side taken in the reverse order represents their vector sum.

Let the two vectors 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄

⃗ are represented both in magnitude and direction by the
sides 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.

Then the third side 𝐴𝐶 represents their vector sum 𝑅⃗ both in magnitude and direc-
tion.

𝑅⃗ = 𝑃⃗ + 𝑄
⃗

Parallelogram law of vector addition

Statement
If the two vectors acting at a point are represented by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram drawn from that point, then the diagonal passing through that point

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represents their vector sum.

Consider two vectors 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄

⃗ acting at 𝑂. Let 𝜃 be the angle between them.

Let 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐷 represent 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄

⃗ respectively.

Then the diagonal 𝐴𝐶 of the parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 represents their vector sum 𝑅⃗
both in magnitude and direction.

𝑅⃗ = 𝑃⃗ + 𝑄
⃗

Magnitude of 𝑅⃗ is given by
√
𝑅= 𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃 𝑄 cos 𝜃

The direction of 𝑅⃗ is given by

𝑄 sin 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 =
𝑃 + 𝑄 cos 𝜃

𝑃⃗ and 𝑄
⃗ are two vectors represented by 𝐴𝐵
⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ and 𝐴𝐷
⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ . Both vectors act at the
common point 𝐴 and mutually inclined at angle ’𝜃’ as shown in the figure. If the paral-
lelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is completed, taking 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐷 as adjacent sides. then the diagonal

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⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ represents their resultant 𝑅⃗ both in magnitude and direction.
𝐴𝐶

Magnitude of the resultant : The line of action of 𝑃⃗ is extended. The perpendic-

ular drawn from 𝐶, meets the extension, of 𝐴𝐵 at 𝐸.

From the figure , it is obvious that 𝐵𝐶

⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ = 𝐴𝐷 ⃗ and ∠𝐶𝐵𝐸 = 𝜃
⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ = 𝑄

Length of 𝐴𝐵 = magnitude of 𝑃⃗ = 𝑃

Length of 𝐵𝐶 = magnitude of 𝑄
⃗ =𝑄

Length of 𝐴𝐶 = magnitude of 𝑅⃗ = 𝑅
𝐵𝐸
From triangle 𝐶𝐵𝐸, cos 𝜃 = , 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃 ⟹ 𝐵𝐸 = 𝑄 cos 𝜃
𝐵𝐶
𝐸𝐶
From triangle 𝐴𝐸𝐶, sin 𝜃 = , 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 sin 𝜃 ⟹ 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑄 sin 𝜃
𝐵𝐶
Now, 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐸 2 + 𝐸𝐶 2

𝐴𝐶 2 = (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐸)2 + 𝐸𝐶 2
𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝐵𝐸 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 ⋅ 𝐵𝐸 + 𝐸𝐶 2
𝑅2 = 𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 cos2 𝜃 + 2𝑃 𝑄 cos 𝜃 + 𝑄2 sin2 𝜃
𝑅2 = 𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃 𝑄 cos 𝜃

√
𝑅= 𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃 𝑄 cos 𝜃 (1)
Direction of the resultant : The resultant makes angle ‘𝛼’ with 𝐴⃗

𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝐶 𝑄 sin 𝜃
From triangle 𝐶𝐴𝐸 ∶ tan 𝛼 = = ⟹ tan 𝛼 =
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐸 𝑃 + 𝑄 cos 𝜃
[ ]
𝑄 sin 𝜃
𝛼 = tan−1 (2)
𝑃 + 𝑄 cos 𝜃
The expression (1) and (2) gives the magnitude and direction of the resultant of 𝑃⃗
and 𝑄.
⃗

Special Cases
1. If 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄
⃗ are in same direction, then 𝜃 = 0◦ , and cos 𝜃 = 1.
From equation (1) and (2) , 𝑅 = 𝑃 + 𝑄 and 𝛼 = 0.
Hence the magnitude of the resultant is the sum of the magnitude of individual
vectors. The direction of the resultant is the same as that of individual vectors.

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 2. If 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄
⃗ are in opposite, then 𝜃 = 180◦ , and cos 𝜃 = −1.
∵ 𝑅 = 𝑃 − 𝑄 i.e., 𝑅 = 𝑃 − 𝑄 and 𝛼 = 0◦ or 180◦ .
Thus the magnitude of the resultant is equal to the difference of magnitudes of
individual vectors and the direction of resultant is same as that of the vector of
larger magnitude.

3. If 𝑃⃗ and√𝑄
⃗ are in perpendicular, then 𝜃 = 90◦ , and cos 𝜃 = 0.
∴ 𝑅 = 𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 and 𝛼 = tan−1 𝑄 𝑃

⃗ then 𝑅 = 2𝑃 cos 𝜃
4. If |𝑃⃗ | = |𝑄|, 2
∴ If the vectors have equal magnitude, then the resultant will bisect the angle
between them.

Polygon law of vector addition

Statement
If a number of vectors are represented by the sides of a polygon taken In order, then
the closing side of that polygon taken In reverse order represent their vector sum.

Let 𝑃 𝑄 , 𝑄𝑆 , 𝑆𝑇 and 𝑇 𝑋 represent 𝐴⃗ , 𝐵⃗ , 𝐶⃗ and 𝐷

⃗ respectively.

Then the closing side 𝑃 𝑋 represents their vector sum 𝑅⃗ both in magnitude and
direction.
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ + 𝐷 ⃗

Properties of vector addition

• Vector addition is commutative

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗

• Vector addition is associative

( ) ( )
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗

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 • Vector addition is distributive
( )
𝑚 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ = 𝑚𝐴⃗ + 𝑚𝐵⃗

Subtraction of two vectors

Subtraction of a vector 𝑄
⃗ from a vector 𝑃⃗ is defined as the addition of vector − 𝑄
⃗ to the
vector 𝑃 .
⃗
( )
Thus, 𝑃⃗ − 𝑄 ⃗ = 𝑃⃗ + − 𝑄 ⃗ = 𝑅⃗

or 𝑅⃗ = 𝑃⃗ − 𝑄
⃗

Here 𝐴𝐵 represents 𝑃⃗ , 𝐵𝐶 represents 𝑄

⃗ and 𝐵𝐷 represents − 𝑄
⃗

Here from triangle law, 𝐴𝐷 represents 𝑃⃗ − 𝑄

⃗ both in magnitude and direction.

Properties of vector subtraction

• Vector subtraction is non commutative

𝐴⃗ − 𝐵⃗ ≠ 𝐵⃗ − 𝐴⃗

• Vector subtraction is non associative

( ) ( )
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵⃗ − 𝐶⃗ ≠ 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵⃗ − 𝐶⃗

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 • Vector subtraction is distributive
( )
𝑚 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵⃗ = 𝑚𝐴⃗ − 𝑚𝐵⃗

Resolution of a vector
The process of splitting up a vector into two or more vectors is known as resolution
of a vector.

The vectors into which the given vector is resolved are called components of the
given vector.

If a vector is resolved into two mutually perpendicular vectors, then these vectors
are called rectangular components of a given vector.

From triangle law of vector addition.

𝑃⃗ = 𝑃⃗𝑋 + 𝑃⃗𝑌
𝑃⃗𝑋 = 𝑃 cos 𝜃
𝑃⃗𝑌 = 𝑃 sin 𝜃
√
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑋2 + 𝑃𝑌2
𝑃𝑌
tan 𝜃 =
𝑃𝑋

In terms of unit vectors,

𝑃⃗𝑋 = 𝑃𝑋 𝚤̂ and 𝑃⃗𝑌 = 𝑃𝑌 𝚥̂

Hence, 𝑃⃗ = 𝑃⃗𝑋 + 𝑃⃗𝑌
𝑃⃗ = 𝑃𝑋 𝚤̂ + 𝑃𝑌 𝚥̂

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 The above form of expression for a vector is called the component form of a vector.

The coefficients of unit vectors are scalars and are called scalar components of the
vector.

Scalar multiplication of a vector

Whenever a vector 𝑃⃗ is multiplied by a scalar m, the resultant 𝑅⃗ is another vector whose
magnitude is m times the magnitude of 𝑃⃗ and direction along 𝑃⃗ .

𝑅⃗ = 𝑚 𝑃⃗

Multiplication of vectors
There are two kinds of products of vectors namely.

• Scalar or dot product

• Vector or cross product

Scalar product
The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar and is defined as the product of their
magnitudes and the cosine of the angle between the two.

Scalar product of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is denoted by 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵.

⃗

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝜃

Where A and B are magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵,

⃗ 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵.
⃗

Examples
• Work : It is the dot product of force 𝐹⃗ and displacement 𝑠⃗.

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗

• Power : It is the dot product of force 𝐹⃗ and velocity 𝑣.

⃗

𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑣⃗

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Note
For unit vectors 𝚤̂ , 𝚥̂ and 𝑘̂

𝚤̂ ⋅ 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂ ⋅ 𝚥̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1
𝚤̂ ⋅ 𝚥̂ = 𝚥̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝚤̂ = 0
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐵⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
( ) ( )
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝐵𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂

( )
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (̂𝚤 ⋅ 𝚤̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (̂𝚤 ⋅ 𝚥̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝚤̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂
( )
+ 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (̂𝚥 ⋅ 𝚤̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (̂𝚥 ⋅ 𝚥̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝚥̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂
( ) ( ) ( )
+ 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (1) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (0) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (0)

+ 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (0) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (1) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (0)
+ 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (0) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (0) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (1)

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (3)

Properties of scalar product

• Scalar product is commutative

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗

• Scalar product is distributive

( )
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐶⃗

Vector product
The vector product of two vectors is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the product
of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them.

Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of both vectors.

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 Vector product of A and B is denoted by 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵.
⃗

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛̂
Where 𝐴 and 𝐵 magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵.
⃗

Right hand thumb rule

If we curl the fingers of the right hand, keeping the thumb erect in such a way that
the fingers point
( in)the direction of rotation from 𝐴⃗ to 𝐵,
⃗ then the thumb gives the
direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ .

Right hand screw rule

If a right handed screw placed with its axis perpendicular to the plane containing the
two vectors 𝐴⃗ to 𝐵⃗ is rotated
( from ⃗ ⃗
) 𝐴 to 𝐵, then the sense of advancement of the screw
gives the direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ .

Examples
• Angular momentum : It is the cross product of position vector 𝑟⃗ and momentum
𝑝.
⃗
𝐿⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗

• Torque : It is the cross product of position vector 𝑟⃗ and 𝐹⃗ force

𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗

• Force on a charged particle in magnetic field.

( )
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗

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Note
For unit vectors 𝚤̂ , 𝚥̂ and 𝑘̂
𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘̂ , 𝚥̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝚤̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂
𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂ = − 𝑘̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝚥̂ = − 𝚤̂ , 𝚤̂ × 𝑘̂ = − 𝚥̂

You can use this diagram as a reference for the above unit vector

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐵⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂

( )
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (̂𝚤 × 𝚤̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (̂𝚤 × 𝚥̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝚤̂ × 𝑘̂
( )
+ 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (̂𝚥 × 𝚤̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (̂𝚥 × 𝚥̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝚥̂ × 𝑘̂
( ) ( ) ( )
+ 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝑘̂ × 𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝑘̂ × 𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂

( ) ( )
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (0) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝑘̂ + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝑗̂
( )
+ 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 − 𝑘̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (0) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (̂𝚤)
+ 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (̂𝚥) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (− 𝚤̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (0)

( ) ( ) ( )
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 𝑘̂ (4)
The above result can be written in the form of a determinant as
| 𝚤̂ 𝑘̂ ||
| 𝚥̂
| |
⃗ ⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = | 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | (5)
| |
| 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 |
| |

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Properties of vector product
• Vector product is non commutative

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ ≠ 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗

• Vector product is distributive

( )
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗ × 𝐶⃗

Distinction between scalar and vector product

Scalar product Vector product

Product is a scalar
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝜃
Scalar product is maximum when the
vectors are parallel
Scalar product is zero when the vec-
tors are perpendicular
Scalar product is commutative
Product is a vector
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛̂
Vector product is maximum when the
vectors are perpendicular
Vector product is zero when the vec-
tors are parallel
Vector product is non commutative

Motion in a plane
The motion of a particle in a plane is known as two dimensional motion.

Motion with uniform velocity

Consider a particle moving in XY plane with uniform velocity 𝑣.
⃗ Its position vector 𝑟⃗
at any instant is given by
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂
Where, x and y are the components of 𝑟⃗ along x and y axes.

14
 The path of an object moving with uniform velocity in two dimensions is a straight
line.

Consider a particle moving in the XY plane along the curve as shown in figure.

Let A and B be the positions of the particle at time 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 respectively.

The respective position vectors are given by

⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ = 𝑟⃗1 = 𝑥1 𝚤̂ + 𝑦1 𝚥̂
𝑂𝐴

⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 = 𝑥2 𝚤̂ + 𝑦2 𝚥̂
𝑂𝐴

Displacement
( )
The displacement of the particle in time interval Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 is given by

⃖⃖⃖⃖⃖⃗ = Δ⃗𝑟 = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1

𝑂𝐴
( ) ( )
Δ⃗𝑟 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝚤̂ + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝚥̂
Δ⃗𝑟 = Δ𝑥 𝚤̂ + Δ𝑦 𝚥̂

Velocity
The average velocity of the particle is given by

Δ⃗𝑟
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣 =
Δ𝑡
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝚥̂

15
 The direction of average velocity is the same as that of displacement.

The instantaneous velocity is given by

Δ⃗𝑟
𝑣⃗ = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦
𝑣⃗ = lim 𝚤̂ + lim 𝚥̂
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝚥̂

Where, 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 are the components of 𝑣⃗ along X and Y axes.

Acceleration
The average acceleration of the particle is given by

Δ𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣 =
Δ𝑡
Δ𝑣𝑥 Δ𝑣𝑦
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣 = 𝑎𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝚥̂

The instantaneous acceleration is given by

Δ𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡
Δ𝑣𝑥 Δ𝑣𝑦
𝑎⃗ = lim 𝚤̂ + lim 𝚥̂
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝚥̂

Where, 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 are the components of 𝑎⃗ along X and Y axes.

Motion with constant acceleration

Consider a particle moving in the XY plane with constant acceleration a. Let 𝑣0 and 𝑣
be the velocity of the particle at time 𝑡 = 0 and at time t respectively.

Then, by definition,
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡

16
In terms of components,
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡

Let 𝑟0 and 𝑟 be the position vectors of the particle at time 𝑡 = 0 and at time t, re-
spectively and velocities at these instants be 𝑣0 and 𝑣.

Since the acceleration is uniform, the average velocity is given by

𝑣 + 𝑣0 𝑟 − 𝑟0
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = =
( 2 ) 𝑡
𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑟 − 𝑟0 = 𝑡
2
( )
𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑣0
𝑟 − 𝑟0 = 𝑡
2
1
𝑟 − 𝑟0 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2
1
𝑟= 𝑟0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2

In terms of components,
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2 𝑥
1
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡2
2

Thus, motion in a plane can be treated as two separate simultaneous one dimensional
motions with constant acceleration along two perpendicular directions.

Relative velocity
Consider two particles A and B moving in the XY plane with velocities 𝑣⃗𝐴 and 𝑣⃗𝐵 re-
spectively.

The velocity of A relative to that of B is

𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣⃗𝐴 − 𝑣⃗𝐵
The velocity of B relative to that of A is
𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴
Therefore, 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = − 𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴
|𝑣𝐴𝐵 | = |𝑣𝐵𝐴 |

17
Projectile motion (Uniformly accelerated motion)
A projectile is an object that is thrown into air and then moves under the action of
gravity alone.

Examples
• A bullet fired from a gun
• A cricket ball thrown into air

• A bomb dropped from an aeroplane

• A shot put or a javelin thrown by an athlete
• Water jet

Trajectory
It is the path traced by the projectile.

Velocity of projection
It is the velocity with which the object is projected.

Angle of projection
It is the angle between the direction of projection and the horizontal.

Horizontal range
It is the total horizontal distance travelled by the projectile.

Time of flight
It is the time taken to cover the horizontal range.

Maximum-height
It is the maximum vertical distance travelled by the projectile.

Equation for trajectory

Consider a projectile projected from the origin O with an initial velocity 𝑣0 at an angle
projection 𝜃 as shown in the figure.

18
 The velocity of projection 𝑣0 can be resolved into its rectangular components. (at
𝑡 = 0)

𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 horizontally and 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 vertically.

At any instant t, let x and y be the horizontal and vertical distances covered the pro-
jectile.

Then,
1
𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡2
( 2) ( )
𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑡 ∵𝑎𝑦 = 0
𝑥
𝑡= (6)
𝑣0 cos 𝜃

1
𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2 𝑦
( ) 1 ( )
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑡 + (− 𝑔) 𝑡2 ∵𝑎𝑦 = − 𝑔
2
( ) 1
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡2 (7)
2
Substituting (6) in (7)
( )2
( ) 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔
𝑣0 cos 𝜃 2 𝑣0 cos 𝜃

19
 ( )
𝑔
𝑦 = (tan 𝜃) 𝑥 − 𝑥2 (8)
2 𝑣20 cos2 𝜃
This is an equation to a parabola.
Hence, the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola.

Equation for maximum height

Let H be the maximum height attained by the projectile.
For vertical motion,

𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣20𝑦 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑦
Here,
𝑣𝑦 = 0
𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑦 = − 𝑔
𝑦=𝐻
( )2
So, 0 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 + 2 (− 𝑔) 𝐻
0 = 𝑣20 sin2 𝜃 − 2 𝑔 𝐻
2 𝑔 𝐻 = 𝑣20 sin2 𝜃

𝑣20 sin2 𝜃
𝐻 = (9)
2𝑔

Equation for time of flight

Let T be the time of flight of the projectile.
When it hits the ground, the net displacement is zero.
For vertical motion,
1
𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡2
2
Here,
𝑦=0
𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑦 = − 𝑔
𝑡=𝑇
( 1 )
So, 0 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑇 + (− 𝑔) 𝑇 2
2
1 2
𝑔 𝑇 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑇
2

20
 2 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑇 = (10)
𝑔

Equation for horizontal range

Let R be the horizontal range of the projectile.
For horizontal motion,
1
𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2 𝑥
Here,
𝑥=𝑅
𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑥 = 0
2 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑡=𝑇 =
𝑔
2 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
So, 𝑅 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 +0
𝑔
𝑣2 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑅= 0
𝑔
𝑣20 sin 2 𝜃
𝑅= (11)
𝑔

Note
• The range of the projectile is maximum for 𝜃 = 45◦
𝑣20
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑔
• Velocity 𝑣 at any instant t is
√
𝑣= 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑦
√
𝑣= 𝑣20 + 𝑔 2 𝑡2 − 2 𝑣0 𝑔 𝑡 sin 𝜃
If 𝑣 makes an angle 𝛼 with horizontal then
𝑣𝑦
tan 𝛼 =
𝑣𝑥
𝑔𝑡
tan 𝛼 = tan 𝜃 −
𝑣0 cos 𝜃
• Range is the same for two angles of projection 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 such that 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 90◦
•
tan 𝜃 2
𝑦 = (tan 𝜃) 𝑥 − 𝑥
𝑅

21
Uniform circular motion (Non-uniformly accelerated motion)
The motion of a particle along the circumference of the circle With uniform speed is
called uniform circular motion.

Though the speed is constant. the direction of velocity of the particle changing
continuously the particle undergoes acceleration. It is always radially directed towards
the centre of the circle and is called centripetal acceleration.

Centripetal acceleration
The acceleration acting on a particle executing uniform circular motion is called
centripetal acceleration.

Consider a particle moving with a constant speed 𝑣 around a circle of radius r from
a point A to a point B in time Δ𝑡 as shown in the figure.

Let 𝑣⃗𝐴 and 𝑣⃗𝐵 be the velocity of the particle at A and at B respectively.
The change in the velocity is
Δ𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴
Δ𝑣⃗ is perpendicular to Δ𝑟

Hence the acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle. This acceleration
is called centripetal acceleration.

22
 The triangles ABC and HIG are similar.
Δ𝑣 𝑣
= 𝑎
Δ𝑟 𝑟
Δ𝑣 𝑣 ( )
= ∵ 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏 = 𝑣
Δ𝑟 𝑟
𝑣
Δ𝑣 = Δ𝑟
𝑟

The centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 of the particle is given by

Δ𝑣
𝑎𝑐 =
Δ𝑡
𝑣 Δ𝑟
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟 Δ𝑡
( )
𝑣 Δ𝑟
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣 ∵ =𝑣
𝑟 Δ𝑡

𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = (12)
𝑟
If 𝜔 is the angular velocity of the particle, then 𝑣 = 𝑟 𝜔

(𝑟 𝜔)2
∴ 𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔2 𝑟

Centripetal force
The radially Inward net force acting on a particle executing uniform circular motion
Is called centripetal force.

If m is the mass of the particle, then

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐
𝑚 𝑣2
𝐹𝑐 = = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟

Examples
• Electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron in an atom
provides the necessary centripetal force for the electron to move around the nu-
cleus.
• Gravitational force of attraction between the sun and the planet provides the nec-
essary centripetal force for the planet to move around the sun.

23