PASCO Physics - GLX Intecs

PHYSICS
with the Xplorer GLX
Physics with the Xplorer GLX Lab Manual

PASCO Catalog Number PS-2826
ISBN 1-886998-1
PASCO Part Number 012-09796B
Printed in the United States of America.
Copyright Information
Physics with the Xplorer GLX Lab Manual is copyrighted 2006 by PASCO scientific and all
rights reserved. Permission is granted to non-profit educational institutions for reproduction of
any part of this book providing the reproductions are used only for their laboratories and are not
sold for profit. Reproduction under any other circumstances without the written consent of
PASCO scientific is prohibited except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles
or reviews.
PASPORT, WAVEPORT, DataStudio® and ScienceWorkshop® are registered trademarks of
PASCO scientific. Macintosh® is a registered trademark of Apple Computers Incorporated.
Windows® is a trademark of Microsoft Corporation.
Published by
PASCO scientific
10101 Foothills Boulevard
Roseville, CA 95747-7100
Phone: (916) 786-3800
FAX (916) 786-8905
Cover designed by PASCO Graphics.
Written by Dave Griffith, PASCO Curriculum.
Table of Contents PS-2826
Physics with the Xplorer GLX

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... v
Equipment Lists by Activity and by Item..........................................................................xi
Student Activities
1 Position–Match Graph (Motion Sensor).................................................................. 1
2 Relative Motion–Frames of Reference (Motion Sensor)......................................... 7
3 Velocity of a Motorized Cart (Motion Sensor) ....................................................... 13
4 Acceleration on an Inclined Track (Motion Sensor) .............................................. 19
5 Acceleration Due to Gravity (Motion Sensor)........................................................ 25
6 Newton’s First Law–No Net Force (Motion Sensor).............................................. 31
7A Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force (Motion Sensor) .................................... .39
7B Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass (Motion Sensor)...................................... 47
8 Newton’s Third Law–Tug-of-War (Force Sensors) ............................................... 55
9 Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical (Force Sensor) ......................................... 61
10 Static and Kinetic Friction (Force Sensor) ............................................................ 65
11 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity (Force Sensor) ............................................................. 75
12 Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring (Force Sensor) ................................ 81
13 Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum (Motion Sensor) .......................................... 87
14 Momentum in Collisions (Motion Sensors) ........................................................... 93
15 Impulse and Change in Momentum (Force Sensor, Motion Sensor) .................. 101
16 Safety Bumper Design Competition (Force Sensor)........................................... 109
17 Explore Gravitational Potential Energy (Motion Sensor)..................................... 115
18 Conserve Energy (Motion Sensor) ..................................................................... 119
19 Work and Energy (Force Sensor, Motion Sensor) .............................................. 125
20 Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time of Flight (Photogate) .......................... 131
21A Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius and Mass (Force Sensor)............... 137
21B Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius and Force (Xplorer GLX)................ 145
21C Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant Mass and Force (Xplorer GLX) .................. 151
22 Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance (Voltage-Current Sensor) ................. 157
23A Voltage in a Series Circuit (Voltage Probe) ........................................................ 163
23B Voltage in a Parallel Circuit (Voltage Probe)....................................................... 169
24A Current in a Series Circuit (Voltage-Current Sensor).......................................... 175
24B Current in a Parallel Circuit (Voltage-Current Sensor)........................................ 181
25 Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor Circuit (Voltage Probe).......................... 187
26 Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and Coil (Voltage Probe) ............................ 193
27 Sound Wave Properties (Sound Sensor)............................................................ 199
28 Interference–Beat Frequency (Sound Generator) .............................................. 205
29 Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force (Force Sensor) ....................................... 211
30 Transfer of Energy (Fast-Response Temperature Probes)................................. 217
31 Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal (Fast-Response Temperature Probe) ........ 223
32 Latent Heat of Vaporization (Fast-Response Temperature Probe)..................... 229
33 Latent Heat of Fusion (Fast-Response Temperature Probe).............................. 235
34 Inverse Square Law–Light Intensity versus Distance (Light Sensor).................. 241
35 Polarization (Light Sensor) ................................................................................. 247
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO i

Teacher Notes
1 Position–Match Graph (Motion Sensor).............................................................. 253
2 Relative Motion–Frames of Reference (Motion Sensor)..................................... 257
3 Velocity of a Motorized Cart (Motion Sensor) ..................................................... 261
4 Acceleration on an Inclined Track (Motion Sensor) ............................................ 265
5 Acceleration Due to Gravity (Motion Sensor)...................................................... 269
6 Newton’s First Law–No Net Force (Motion Sensor)............................................ 273
7A Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force (Motion Sensor) ................................... 277
7B Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass (Motion Sensor).................................... 281
8 Newton’s Third Law–Tug-of-War (Force Sensors) ............................................. 285
9 Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical (Force Sensor) ....................................... 287
10 Static and Kinetic Friction (Force Sensor) .......................................................... 291
11 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity (Force Sensor) ........................................................... 295
12 Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring (Force Sensor) .............................. 297
13 Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum (Motion Sensor) ........................................ 301
14 Momentum in Collisions (Motion Sensors) ......................................................... 305
15 Impulse and Change in Momentum (Force Sensor, Motion Sensor) .................. 309
21A Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius and Mass (Force Sensor)............... 325
21B Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius and Force (Xplorer GLX)................ 329
21C Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant Mass and Radius (Xplorer GLX) ................ 333
22 Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance (Voltage-Current Sensor) ................. 335
24B Current in a Series Circuit (Voltage-Current Sensor).......................................... 349
28 Interference–Beat Frequency (Sound Generator) .............................................. 361
34 Light Intensity versus Distance (Light Sensor).................................................... 383
35 Polarized Light (Light Sensor) ............................................................................ 385
Activities by Sensor
Fast-Response Temperature Probe
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO ii


Force Sensor
8 Newton’s Third Law of Motion–Tug-of-War (Force Sensors)................................ 55
9 Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical (Force Sensor) ......................................... 61
10 Static and Kinetic Friction (Force Sensor) ............................................................ 65
11 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity (Force Sensor) ............................................................. 75
12 Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring (Force Sensor) ................................ 81
15 Impluse and Change in Momentum (Force Sensor, Motion Sensor) .................. 101
21A Centripetal Force, Part A– Constant Radius and Mass (Force Sensor).............. 137
Light Sensor
34 Inverse Square Law–Light Intensity versus Distance (Light Sensor).................. 241
35 Polarization (Light Sensor) ................................................................................. 247
Motion Sensor
1 Position–Match Graph (Motion Sensor).................................................................. 1
2 Relative Motion–Frame of Reference (Motion Sensor)........................................... 7
3 Velocity of a Motorized Cart (Motion Sensor) ....................................................... 13
4 Acceleration on an Inclined Track (Motion Sensor) .............................................. 19
5 Acceleration Due to Gravity (Motion Sensor)........................................................ 25
6 Newton’s First Law–No Net Force (Motion Sensor).............................................. 31
7A Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force (Motion Sensor) ..................................... 39
7B Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass (Motion Sensor)...................................... 47
13 Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum (Motion Sensor) .......................................... 87
14 Momentum in Collisions (Motion Sensors) ........................................................... 93
15 Impluse and Change in Momentum (Force Sensor, Motion Sensor) .................. 101
Photogate
Sound Sensor
28 Interference–Beat Frequency (Sound Sensor) ................................................... 205
Voltage Probe
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO iii


Voltage-Current Sensor
22 Ohm’s Law (Voltage-Current Sensor)................................................................. 157
24B Current in a Parallel Circuit (Voltage-Current Sensor)........................................ 181
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO iv

Introduction PS-2826
Introduction
The activities in this manual use the PASPORT Xplorer GLX , a fully functional stand-alone
TM
handheld computing device. The GLX is a data collection, graphing, and analysis tool designed for
science students and educators. The GLX supports up to four PASPORT sensors simultaneously
and it comes with two temperature probes and a voltage probe that can be connected directly to
ports on the side of the GLX. No computer is required to perform the activities or to analyze the
data.
USB Flash Drive Contents
This manual comes with a USB Flash Drive that contains the following items:
• “Phys Archive (GLXBackup)”
folder contains GLX data files
for the teacher's reference as
well as an archival copy of the
GLX setup files.
• “Physics Setup Files” folder
contains the setup files that can
be uploaded individually or as a
group to the student's GLX. Figure: Items on the USB Flash Drive
• “Physics Student” folder

contains the Word files of the student activities.
• “Physics Teacher” folder contains the Word files of teacher notes, sample data, and
suggested answers.
• “Physics_GLX.pdf” is the Adobe AcrobatTM PDF file of this manual (student activities plus
teacher notes).
____________________________________________________________________________
Teachers are encouraged to modify the Word files in any way they need.
____________________________________________________________________________
The volume label for the USB Flash Drive is “PHYSICS”.
Working with GLX Files I
USB Flash Drive Connected to Xplorer GLX
The USB Flash Drive included with this manual contains the
GLX setup files for most activities. You can upload setup files
to a GLX from the USB Flash Drive as follows:
1. To turn on the GLX, press the power key ( ) for about 1
second until the indicator light on the GLX blinks.
2. Remove the cap from the end of the USB Flash Drive and
plug the drive into the standard size USB port on the right
side of the GLX. [The indicator light on the drive will Figure: Connect USB Flash
Drive to the GLX
blink as the GLX recognizes the drive.]
Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO v

3. When the GLX is turned on, the Data Files icon is

selected by default in the Home Screen. Press the
Activate key ( ) to go the Data Files screen.
Figure: ‘Data Files’ icon in the

Home Screen
• The upper part of the Data Files screen shows “RAM”

and “Flash” folders and the PHYSICS volume label of
the USB Flash Drive. The lower part of the screen
shows the files that are in the RAM folder of the GLX.
[Note that RAM contains an untitled GLX file by
default.]
Figure: Data Files screen
4. Use the up arrow key ( ) to highlight the upper part

of the ‘Data Files’ screen. Note that RAM is
automatically selected. Use the right arrow key ( ) to

select the PHYSICS icon.
• The text under the upper part of the screen shows
information about the partition. The lower area of the
screen shows the GLX setup files that are on the USB Figure: PHYSICS selected
Flash Drive.
5. Press the F4 key and select ‘Copy All Files’ from the
Files menu.
• The GLX will copy the physics GLX setup files from
the USB Flash Drive.
Figure: Select ‘Copy All Files’ from

Files menu
Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO vi

• A ‘Files Copied’ icon ( ) appears next to the

PHYSICS icon. Also, the text under the upper part of
the screen shows ‘Select a destination to copy the files
to.’
Figure: ‘Files Copied’ icon
6. Use the left arrow key ( ) to select RAM in the upper

part of the screen. The ‘Files Copied’ icon will appear
next to the RAM icon.
7. Press the F1 button to select ‘OK’.
• The GLX screen shows a message as the files are
copied to RAM.
Figure: Select ‘RAM’ as destination
for copied files
8. To view the list of the files that were copied, use the
left arrow key to select RAM.
• The lower part of the screen lists all the files in RAM.
By default the open file is an empty, untitled file.
9. To select a specific file to open, use the down arrow
key to select the file you want. Then, press the F1 key
to select ‘Open’. Press the Home Screen key ( ) to
exit the ‘Data Files’ screen. Figure: RAM after files copied
You can repeat the procedure to upload the GLX setup files from the USB Flash Drive to the
GLX units that your students will use.
If you want to delete files from the USB Flash Drive, make sure the lock-unlock switch on the
drive is in the unlock position. On the GLX, use the up arrow key to highlight the upper area of
the ‘Data Files’ screen. Use the right arrow key to select PHYSICS. Press the F3 key to select
‘Delete All’. A message appears (“Delete ALL of the files in
PHYSICS?”). Press the F1 key to select ‘OK’.
Disconnect the USB Flash Drive from the Xplorer GLX
When you are finished with the files in the USB Flash Drive,
simply unplug the drive from the GLX.
Figure: Unplug the USB Flash

Drive from the GLX
Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO vii

Working with GLX Files II

USB Flash Drive Connected to Computer
If you connect the USB Flash Drive to your computer, you can move files and folders from the
USB Flash Drive as you normally would.
Select the files or folders that you wish to move and either ‘copy-and-paste’ or drag the items to
the new location.
When you are finished with the files in the USB Flash Drive, follow the procedure to EJECT the
drive that you would normally use with your computer.
Working with GLX Files III
Xplorer GLX Connected to Computer
To use a computer to upload the setup files to the GLX, you must have DataStudio (version 1.9.5
or later) on the computer (see www.pasco.com for the latest information about DataStudio).
1. Turn on the GLX.
2. Connect the GLX to the computer with the USB
host-connection cable (included with the GLX).
Connect the smaller plug of the cable into the USB
port on the GLX and the other end of the cable into a
USB port on the computer.
Figure: Connect GLX to the computer
• DataStudio should launch automatically when the
GLX is connected. If not, manually launch DataStudio. If the ‘Welcome to DataStudio™’
window appears, click ‘Create Experiment’.
3. In the DataStudio program, click the
‘Setup’ button. In the Setup window, click
the ‘Manage Files’ icon that appears next
to the picture of the GXL.
4. In the File Manager window, click ‘RAM’

on the left side to select it as the
destination of the files you are going to
transfer to the GLX from the computer.
Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO viii

5. On the right side of the window, click

‘Upload’ and select the GLX files on your
computer that you wish to transfer to the
GLX. Navigate to the location on the
computer where the files are located, select
them, and click ‘Open’.
• After the files are uploaded they will
appear as a list under RAM.
To download (transfer) a file from the GLX to the computer, select the file under RAM and then
click ‘Download’.
To exit the File Manager window, click ‘Done”.
Saving Files
You may want to instruct students to make a copy of a setup file on the GLX and then save their
data in the copy under a different filename. In this way, the original setup file is available for
future use.
GLX Setup Files
For many of the activities in this manual it is possible to simply plug the PASPORT sensor into
the GLX – and go! The GLX automatically recognizes each PASPORT sensor. In the ‘Home
Screen’, if you press the F1 key, a graph opens with the measured quantity on the Y-axis and the
sensor’s default sampling rate already selected.
So why do you need a GLX setup file?
A setup file is handy if a calculation needs to be done on the data before it is displayed. For
example, Activity 1: Position–Match Graph uses a calculation to determine the difference
between the plot of position versus time and the target plot. In other cases, the setup file has a
graph or table that has been modified for the activity, or a different sampling rate for the sensor.
Phys Archive (GLXBackup)
The GLX setup and data files in the “Phys Archive (GLXBackup)” folder on the USB Flash
Drive are not ‘seen’ by the GLX operating system. The folder is invisible to the GLX operating
system because of the term ‘GLXBackup’ in the label.
Physics GLX Setup and Data Files
The following list shows each activity and its GLX setup file and GLX data file.
Activity Title Setup Filename Data Filename

Position–Match Graph position match none
Relative Motion–Frames of Reference relative motion relative motion data
Velocity of a Motorized Cart velocity cart velocity cart data
Acceleration on an Inclined Track none accel incline data
Acceleration Due to Gravity free fall free fall data
Newton’s First Law–No Net Force none first law data
Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO ix

Activity Title Setup Filename Data Filename

Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force none second law a data
Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass none second law b data
Newton’s Third Law–Tug-of-War tug of war tug of war data
Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical none equilibrium data
Static and Kinetic Friction friction friction data
Hooke’s Law of Elasticity spring constant spring constant data
Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring shm spring shm spring data
Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum pendulum pendulum data
Momentum in Collisions momentum momentum data
Impulse and Change in Momentum impulse impulse data
Safety Bumper Design Competition bumper bumper data
Explore Gravitational Potential Energy explore gpe explore gpe data
Conserve Energy energy energy data
Work and Energy work energy work energy data
Projectile Motion–Initial Speed & Time of Flight projectile none
Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius & Mass centripetal-speed centrip-speed data
Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius & Force centripetal-mass centrip-mass data
Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant Mass & Force centripetal-radius centrip-radius data
Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance ohms law ohms law data
Voltage in a Series Circuit voltage-series none
Voltage in a Parallel Circuit none none
Current in a Series Circuit none none
Current in a Parallel Circuit none current-parallel data
Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor Circuit time constant time constant data
Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet & Coil faraday faraday data
Sound Wave Properties none none
Interference–Beat Frequency none none
Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force buoyancy none
Transfer of Energy radiation radiation data
Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal specific heat specific heat data
Latent Heat of Vaporization vaporization vaporization data
Latent Heat of Fusion melting melting data
Light Intensity versus Distance light intensity light intensity data
Polarization none none
Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO x

Equipment List by Activity and by Item PS-2826
Equipment List by Activity

One of the goals for the Physics with the Xplorer GLX Lab Manual is to use sensors and
equipment from the Comprehensive High School Physics Bundle wherever possible. The
majority of the activities can be done with sensors and equipment from that bundle. Some of
those activities need additional items such as clamps, masses, string, etc. Bundle items are
shaded in light gray. NOTE: Each activity also requires protective gear (e.g., safety goggles).
Description Activity
Uses sensors and equipment from the Comprehensive High School 1,3,4,5, 7A,7B,
Physics Bundle. (Some activities need additional items such as rods, 8,11,12,13,14,17,18,19,21A,
clamps, masses, string, etc.) 21B,21C,23A,23B,25,26,27,28,29,
30,31,32,33
Uses Comprehensive High School Physics Bundle plus other 2,6,9,10,15,16
PASCO equipment.
Uses sensors not in the Comprehensive High School Physics 20, 22,24A,24B,34,35
Bundle.
Act Title Equipment and Materials Qty Cat. #

1 Position–Match Graph PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Motion Sensor to measure PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
the motion of a student relative to Pulley-Mounting Rod 1 SA-9242
a reference frame. Motion Sensor Reflector Board (option) 1 648-07373
2 Relative Motion–Frames of PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Reference PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
Use a Motion Sensor to measure 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
relative motion. GOcar 1 ME-6951
Cart Adapter Accessory 1 ME-6743
Cardstock, about 10 cm by 15 cm 1
Tape 1 roll
3 Velocity of a Motorized Cart PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
the motion of a motorized cart for Constant Speed Buggy 1 SE-9028
different speeds of the cart. 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
Hooked Mass Set 1 SE-8759
Braided Physics String 0.5 m SE-8050
Block with eye hook 1
4 Acceleration on an Inclined PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Track PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
the motion of a cart as it goes up GOcar 1 ME-6951
and back down on an inclined Book 2
track.
5 Acceleration Due to Gravity PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
the motion of a ball as it falls and Rod, 45-cm 1 ME-8736
bounces several times. Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
Double Rod Clamp 1 ME-9873
Tape Measure, 1.5 m 1 PM-8761
Ball, rubber 1
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xi

6 Newton’s First Law–No Net PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Force PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
the motion of objects experiencing GOcar 1 ME-6951
different amounts of net force. Fan Accessory 1 ME-9491
Friction Block 1 ME-9807
7A Newton’s Second Law– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Constant Force PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
the motion of a cart accelerated by GOcar 1 ME-6951
a known constant force when the Braided Physics String 1m SE-8050
mass of the cart is changed. Hooked Mass Set 1 SE-8759
Balance 1 SE-8723
Super Pulley with Clamp 1 ME-9448A
7B Newton’s Second Law– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Constant Mass PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
the motion of a cart when the GOcar 1 ME-6951
mass of the cart is constant and Braided Physics String 1m SE-8050
the cart is accelerated by different Hooked Mass Set 1 SE-8759
amounts of force. Balance 1 SE-8723
Super Pulley with Clamp 1 ME-9448A
8 Newton’s Third Law of Motion– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Tug-of-War PASPORT Force Sensor 2 PS-2104
Use two Force Sensors to 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
investigate forces in a tug-of-war. GOcar 2 ME-6851
9 Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Practical PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
Use a Force Sensor to measure 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
the tension in a string connected GOcar 1 ME-6951
to a cart in equilibrium on an Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
inclined track. Compare the Universal Table Clamp 1 ME-9376B
theoretical tension to the Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
measured tension Balance 1 SE-8723
Angle Indicator 1 ME-9495
10 Static and Kinetic Friction PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Force Sensor to investigate PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
static and kinetic (sliding) friction. 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
Discover Friction Accessory 1 ME-8574
Balance 1 SE-8723
11 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Force Sensor to measure PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2103
the force needed to stretch a Equal Length Springs 1 ME-8970
spring over a measured distance. Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
Meter Stick 1 SE-8695
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xii

12 Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

on a Spring PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2103
Use a Force Sensor to measure Equal Length Springs 1 ME-8970
the force on a spring as a mass Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
oscillates up and down on the end Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
of the spring. Double Rod Clamp 1 ME-9873
Balance 1 SE-8723
13 Simple Harmonic Motion– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Pendulum PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
Use a Motion Sensor to measure Basic Calorimetry Set 1 TD-8557
the motion of a pendulum. Universal Table Clamp 1 ME-9376B
Compare the period of oscillation Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
when the mass or length of the Pendulum Clamp 1 SE-9443
pendulum is changed. Meter Stick 1 SE-8695
Balance 1 SE-8723
Braided Physics String 2m SE-8050
14 Momentum in Collisions PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use Motion Sensors to measure PASPORT Motion Sensor 2 PS-2103
the motion of carts before and 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
after they collide. GOcar 2 ME-6951
Balance 1 SE-8723
15 Impulse and Change in PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Momentum PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
Use a Motion Sensor and a Force PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
Sensor to measure the change in 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
motion before and after a collision GOcar 1 ME-6951
and the force during a collision. Accessory Bracket with Bumpers 1 CI-6545
Balance 1 SE-8723
Heavy object (such as a book) 2
16 Safety Bumper Design PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Competition PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
Use a Force Sensor to measure 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
the force during a collision. GOcar 1 ME-6951
Determine which kind of ‘bumper’ Accessory Bracket with Bumpers 1 CI-6545
reduces the force of the impact the Balance 1 SE-8723
most. Meter Stick 1
Paper clips (or equivalent) 100 g
Heavy object (such as a book) 2
17 Explore Gravitational Potential PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Energy PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
Use a Motion Sensor to measure Balance (optional) 1 SE-8723
the position of an object as it Softball or similar ball (~ 10 cm dia.) 1
changes height. Compare the Object: book 1
gravitational potential energy to
the position of the object.
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xiii

18 Conserve Energy PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

the motion of a falling object. Double Rod Clamp 3 ME-9873
Compare the object’s gravitational Universal Table Clamp 1 ME-9376B
potential energy to its kinetic Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
energy. Rod, 120 cm 2 ME-8741
Balance 1 SE-8723
Meter Stick (or metric tape measure) 1 SE-8695
Softball or similar ball (~10 cm dia.) 1
19 Work and Energy PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Force Sensor to measure PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
the force exerted on a GOcar and PASPORT Motion Sensor 1 PS-2103
use a Motion Sensor to measure 1.2 m PASCO Track 1
the change in motion of the GOcar GOcar 1 ME-6951
due to the force. Compare the Super Pulley with Clamp 1 ME-9448A
work done to the change in kinetic Hooked Mass Set 1 SE-8759
energy of the cart. Balance 1 SE-8723
Braided Physics String 2m SE-8050
20 Projectile Motion–Initial Speed PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
and Time of Flight PASPORT Photogate Port 2 PS-2123A
Use Photogates and a Time of Photogate Head 2 ME-9498A
Flight pad to determine the initial Extension Cord 1 PI-8117
speed and time of flight of a Metric Measuring Tape, 30 m 1 SE-8712
projectile. Photogate Mounting Bracket 1 ME-6821
Projectile Launcher, Short Range 1 ME-6800
Time of Flight Accessory 1 ME-6810
C-Clamp, Large (available as 6 pack) 1 SE-7285
21A Centripetal Force, Part A– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Constant Radius and Mass PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
Use a Force Sensor to measure Discover Centripetal Force Kit 1 ME-9837
the centripetal force on an object Universal Table Clamp 1 ME-9376B
in uniform circular motion when Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
the radius and the spinning mass Metric ruler 1
are constant but the speed is Marker pen 1
changed.
21B Centripetal Force, Part B– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Constant Radius and Force Discover Centripetal Force Kit 1 ME-9837
Use the Xplorer GLX to measure Hooked Mass Set 1 SE-8759
the circular speed of an object in Balance 1 SE-8723
uniform circular motion when the 1
radius and the force are constant
but the spinning mass is changed.
21C Centripetal Force, Part C– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Constant Mass and Force Discover Centripetal Force Kit 1 ME-9837
Use the Xplorer G:X to measure Hooked Mass Set 1 SE-8759
the circular speed of an object in Metric ruler 1
uniform circular motion when the Marker pen
spinning mass and the force are
constant but the radius is
changed.
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xiv

22 Ohm’s Law PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Use a Voltage-Current Sensor to CASTLE Kit 1 EM-8624A
measure the voltage across and PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor 1 PS-2115
the current through a resistor as ‘D’ Cell 4 PI-6602
the voltage across the resistor Alligator Clip Adapter 2 SE-9756
changes.
23A Voltage in a Series Circuit PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Voltage Probe to measure Voltage Probe (included with GLX) 1
the voltage across parts of a CASTLE Kit 1 EM-8624A
series circuit as resistors are ‘D’ Cell 2 PI-6602
added to the circuit.
23B Voltage in a Parallel Circuit PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Voltage Probe to measure Voltage Probe (included with GLX) 1
the voltage across parts of a CASTLE Kit 1 EM-8624A
parallel circuit as resistors are ‘D’ Cell 2 PI-6602
added to the circuit.
24A Current in a Series Circuit PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
measure current through a circuit Voltage-Current Sensor 1 PS-2115
as resistors are added in series to ‘D’ Cell 2 PI-6602
the circuit.
24B Current in a Parallel Circuit PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
measure current through a circuit Voltage-Current Sensor 1 PS-2115
as resistors are added in parallel ‘D’ Cell 2 PI-6602
to the circuit.
25 Time Constant of a Resistor- PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Capacitor Circuit Voltage Probe (included with GLX) 1
Use a Voltage Probe to measure CASTLE Kit 1 EM-8624A
the voltage across a capacitor as it ‘D’ Cell 2 PI-6602
charges and then discharges
through a resistor in a resistor-
capacitor circuit.
26 Electromagnetic Induction– PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Magnet and Coil Voltage Probe (included with GLX) 1
Use a Voltage Probe to measure Alnico Bar Magnet 1 EM-8620
the voltage induced in a coil as a Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
magnet moves through the coil. Coil, 200-turn 1 SF-8609
Coil, 400-turn 1 SF-8610
Three Finger Clamp 1 SE-9445
No-Bounce Pad 1 SE-7347
27 Sound Wave Properties PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use the built-in Sound Sensor of Sound Sensor (included in the GLX)
the Xplorer GLX to explore the Adjustable Tuning Fork 1 SE-7343
relationship of wavelength and
frequency of sound waves.
28 Interference–Beat Frequency PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use the built-in Sound Generator Sound Generator (included in the GLX)
of the Xplorer GLX to explore the
relationship of frequency and
beats produced by two sound
waves.
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xv

29 Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Force PASPORT Force Sensor 1 PS-2104
Use a Force Sensor to measure Basic Calorimetry Set 1 TD-8557
the buoyant force on an object as Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
it is submerged in a liquid. Rod, 45 cm 1 ME-8736
Overflow Can 1 SE-8563
Balance 1 SE-8723
Beaker, 250-mL (or equivalent) 1
Water (room temperature) 1L
Liquid detergent or soap 1 mL
Towel 1
30 Transfer of Energy PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use Temperature Probes to Fast-Response Temperature Probe 2
measure the change in Thermal Radiation Can (set) 1 TD-8570
temperature of equal amounts of Graduated Cylinder, 50-mL 1 SE-7289
warm water as the water cools in Beaker 250-mL (or equivalent) 2
metal cans with different surfaces. Tongs 1 pair
Thermal Insulation Pads 2
Water (about 70 degrees C) 0.5 L
31 Specific Heat of an Unknown PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Metal Fast-Response Temperature Probe 1
Use a Temperature Probe to Basic Calorimetry Set 1 TD-8557
measure the change in Balance 1 SE-8723
temperature of a known amount of Graduated Cylinder, 50-mL 1 SE-7289
water when a sample of metal of Braided Physics String 0.2 m SE-8050
known mass and initial Stir rod 1
temperature is put into the water. Water 1L
Ice (cube or crushed) 0.1 L
Towel 1
32 Latent Heat of Vaporization PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Temperature Probe to Fast-Response Temperature Probe 1
measure the change in Basic Calorimetry Set 1 TD-8557
temperature of a known amount of Steam Generator 1 TD-8556A
water to determine the latent heat Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
of vaporization of the water. Three Finger Clamp 1 SE-9445
Balance 1 SE-8723
Glass tube, ¼” outside dia., about 2” 1
Water, ~ 10º cooler than room temp. 1L
Towel 1
33 Latent Heat of Fusion PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Temperature Probe to Fast-Response Temperature Probe 1
measure the change in Basic Calorimetry Set 1 TD-8557
temperature of a known amount of Balance 1 SE-8723
water to determine the latent heat Water, ~15º warmer than room temp. 1L
of fusion of the water. Ice, crushed 0.5 L
Towel 1
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xvi

34 Light Intensity versus Distance PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Use a Light Sensor to measure Basic Optics Light Source 1 OS-8470
light intensity of a light source as PASPORT Light Sensor 1 PS-2106
the sensor moves away from the PASPORT Extension Cable 1 PS-2500
source. Large Base and Support Rod 1 ME-9355
Three Finger Clamp 1 SE-9445
Meter Stick SE-8695
35 Polarization PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002
Use a Light Sensor to measure Basic Optics Light Source 1 OS-8470
the intensity of light after it passes PASPORT Light Sensor 1 PS-2106
through polarizers. PASPORT Extension Cable 2 pair PS-2500
Polarizing Sheets (Set of 2) OS-9477
Large Base and Support Rod ME-9355
Three Finger Clamp SE-9445
Equipment List by Item

Part No. PASCO Interface and Sensors Qty Where Used
PS-2002 Xplorer GLX 1 All
1,2,3,4,5,6,7A&B,13,14,15,17
PS-2103 PASPORT Motion Sensor 2
18,19
PS-2104 PASPORT Force Sensor 1 8,9,10,11,12,15,16,19,21A,29
PS-2106 PASPORT Light Sensor 1 34,35
PS-2115 PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor 1 22,24A&B,
PS-2123A PASPORT Photogate Port 2 20
PS-2135 Fast-Response Temperature Probe 2 30,31,32,33
514-08953 GLX Voltage Probe 1 23A&B,25,26
Part No. PASCO Equipment Qty Where Used
2,3,4,6,7A&B,8,9,10,14,15,16
1.2 m PASCO Track 1
19
CI-6545 Accessory Bracket with Bumpers 1 15,16
EM-8620 Bar Magnet, alnico 1 26
EM-8624A CASTLE Kit 1 22,23A&B,24A&B,25
ME-6743 Cart Adapter Accessory 1 2
ME-6800 Projectile Launcher, Short Range 1 20
ME-6821 Photogate Mounting Bracket 1 20
ME-6810 Time of Flight Accessory 1 20
ME-6951 GOcar 2 2,4,6,7A&B,8,9,14,15,19
ME-8574 Discover Friction Accessory 1 10
ME-8736 Rod, 45 cm (18") Plated, 1.2 cm dia. 2 5,9,11,12,13,18,21A,29
ME-8741 Rod, 120 cm (48”) Plated, 1.2 cm dia. 2 18
ME-8970 Equal Length Springs 1 11,12
ME-9355 Large Base and Support Rod 1 5,9,11,12,26,29,34,35
ME-9376B Universal Table Clamp 1 9,13,18,21A,
ME-9448A Super Pulley with Clamp 1 7A&B,19
ME-9491 Fan Accessory 1 6
ME-9495 Angle Indicator 1 9
ME-9498A Photogate Head 2 20
ME-9807 Friction Block 1 6
ME-9837 Discover Centripetal Accessory 1 21A,B&C,
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xvii

ME-9873 Double Rod Clamp (set of 3) 1 5,11,18,29

OS-8470 Basic Optics Light Source 1 34,35
OS-9477 Polarizing Sheets 2 35
PI-6602 1.5 V D-Cell Battery (four pack) 1 22,23A&B,24A&B,25
PI-8117 Extension Cable, 6 m 1 20
PM-8761 Measuring Tape, 1.5 m 1 5
PS-2500 PASPORT Extension Cable 1 34,35
SA-9242 Pulley-Mounting Rod 1 1
SE-7285 Large C Clamp (6 pack) 1 20
SE-7293 Graduated cylinder, 50-mL 1 30,31
SE-7343 Adjustable Tuning Fork 1 27
SE-7347 No Bounce Pad 1 26
SE-8050 Braided Physics String, 300 m 1 3,6,7A&B,8,9,10,13,19,29,31
SE-8563 Overflow Can 1 29
SE-8695 Meter Stick 1 11,13,16,18,34
SE-8712 Metric Measuring Tape, 30 m 1 20
7A&B,9,10,12,13,14,15,16,17
SE-8723 Ohaus Triple-beam Balance without Tare 1
18,19,21B,29,31,32,33
3,7A&B,8,11,12,14,15,19,
SE-8759 Hooked Mass Set 1
21B&C
SE-9028 Constant Speed Buggy 1 3
SE-9443 Pendulum Clamp 1 13
SE-9445 Three Finger Clamp 1 26,32,34,35
SE-9756 Alligator Clip Adapter (set of 10) 2 22
SF-8609 Coil, 200-turn 1 26
SF-8610 Coil, 400-turn 1 26
TD-8570 Radiation Cans (set) 1 30
TD-8556A Steam Generator 1 32
TD-8557 Basic Calorimetry Set 1 13,29,31,32,33
648-07373 Motion Sensor Reflector Board (optional) 1 1
Other Materials Qty Where Used

Ball, about 10 cm diameter 1 17,18
Ball, rubber, about 5 cm diameter 1 5
Beaker, 250-mL (or equivalent) 1 29,30
Block with eye hook 1 3
Book 5–6 4,15,16,17
Cardstock, about 10 cm by 15 cm 1 2
Glass tube, 0.6 cm outside dia., ~ 5 cm long 1 32
Ice, crushed or cube 1L 31,33
Liquid detergent or soap 1 mL 29
Marker pen 1 21A&C,
Paper clips 0.1 kg 16
Ruler, metric 1 21A&C,
Stir rod 1 31
Tape 1 roll 2
Thermal insulation pads 2 30
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xviii

Tongs 1 pr 30
Towel 1 29,30,31,32,33
Water, various temperatures 3L 29,30,31,32,33
Comprehensive High School Physics Bundle
Part No. Item Description

PS-2680 Entry Xplorer GLX Physics Bundle
USB flash drive with experiment setup files and manuals
1.2 m PASCO Track
EM-8624A CASTLE Kit
ME-6951 GOcar
ME-8970 Equal Length Spring Set
ME-9837 Discover Centripetal Force Kit
OS-8465 Basic Optics Ray Table
OS-8470 Basic Optics Light Source
OS-8516A Ray Optics Kit
SE-7343 Adjustable Tuning Fork
SE-7581 50 mm Diameter Lens Assortment
SE-8028 Constant Speed Buggy
TD-8557 Basic Calorimetry Set
Ready to Equip your Labs?

Visit the PASCO website (www.pasco.com) to see the many options for ordering just what you
need to equip your lab stations with the probeware, physics equipment and other lab equipment
that your students will use with the Physics with the Xplorer GLX Probeware Lab Manual. Up-
to-date pricing information is available online for U.S. educators. PASCO now offers online
ordering via credit card or purchase order.
Internet: www.pasco.com E-mail: sales@pasco.com

Phone: 800-772-8700 (toll free in the US) Fax: 916-786-8905
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xix

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xx

Activity 1 PS-2826
Position–Match Graph
Kinematics: position versus time, linear motion, graphing GLX setup file: position match
Qty Equipment and Materials Part Number

1 PASPORT Xplorer GLX PS-2002
1 PASPORT Motion Sensor PS-2103
1 Pulley Mounting Rod SA-9242
1 Motion Sensor Reflector Board (optional)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to explore graphs of motion (position versus time). Use a Motion
Sensor to measure your motion as you move back-and-forth in front of a flat reflector along a
straight line at different speeds. The challenge is to move in such a way that a plot of your
motion will ‘match’ the position versus time graph that is provided for you. Use the Xplorer
GLX to record and display the data.
Background
When describing the motion of an object, knowing where it is relative to a reference point, how
fast and in what direction it is moving, and how it is accelerating (changing its rate of motion) is
essential. A sonar ranging device such as the PASPORT
Motion Sensor uses pulses of ultrasound that reflect from
an object to determine the position of the object. As the
object moves, the change in its position is measured many
times each second. The change in position from moment to
moment is expressed as a velocity (meters per second). The
change in velocity from moment to moment is expressed as
an acceleration (meters per second per second).
Fig. 1: Motion Sensor
The position of an object at a particular time can be plotted
on a graph. A graph is a mathematical picture of the motion of an object. For this reason, it is
important to understand how to interpret a graph of position versus time. In this activity you will
plot a graph of your motion in real-time, that is, as the motion is happening.
Pre-lab Questions
What will happen on a real-time graph of position versus time as you move the Motion Sensor
away from a wall? What will happen on the real-time graph of position versus time as you move
the Motion Sensor toward a wall?
Safety Precaution
• Follow all directions for using the equipment.
Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO p. 1

Activity 1 Position–Match Graph PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup file
labeled position match (check the Appendix at the
end of this activity.)
• The setup file has a ‘target’ graph of Position (m)
versus Time (s) for you to match. It also has a
calculation for ‘Match Score’ (‘m*s’).
2. Connect the Motion Sensor to one of the sensor ports Fig. 2: position match file
on the top end of the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Move the range selection switch at the top of the Motion Sensor to the
‘far’ (person) setting.
2. Screw a pulley-mounting rod into the tripod socket on the back of the
Xplorer GLX.
3. Mount the Motion Sensor on the pulley-mounting rod as shown. Turn the head of the
Motion Sensor so it faces in the same direction as the top end of the Xplorer GLX.
Record Data
Fig. 3: Equipment
setup
1. Stand in front of a wall or stand in front of a lab

partner holding a flat board.
2. Observe the Graph on the Xplorer GLX.
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin recording

data.
4. Move back-and-forth relative to the wall in order
to match the position-time graph.
5. After 11 seconds, press Stop ( ) to end data

recording.
Fig. 4: Procedure

Analysis
1. Press the F4 button ( ) to open the menu and select
‘Graph 2’. Press to activate your choice.
• The ‘error’ graph will give a score in units of ‘m*s’.
The lower the score, the better you were at matching
the graph of position versus time.
2. Press the F4 button and select ‘Graph 1’ to return to
the original graph. Press to activate your choice.
3. In ‘Graph 1’, press to activate the vertical axis
menu. Use the arrow buttons to select the Run number
menu and press to open the menu. Select the Run
number and delete the data run, if necessary.
4. Repeat the previous steps several times and record your
best score in the Lab Report section.
Record your results in the Lab Report.
Fig. 5: Analysis

Appendix
Opening a GLX File
To open a specific GLX file, go to the Home Screen (press
). In the Home Screen, select Data Files and press the
Activate ( ) button. In the Data Files screen, use the
cursor keys to navigate to the file you want. Press F1 ( )
to open the file. Press the Home button to return to the Home
Screen. Press F1 to open the Graph screen.
Data Files Icon

Lab Report - Activity 1: Position–Match Graph

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What will happen on a real-time graph of position versus time as you move the Motion
Sensor away from a wall? (Draw a sketch of how the graph will look.)
2. What will happen on the real-time graph of position versus time as you move the Motion
Sensor toward a wall? (Draw a sketch of how the graph will look.)
Data
Best (lowest) Position-Match Score = _________
Questions
1. How well did your motion graph match the provided graph.
2. What was the meaning of the part of the position plot where the slope was positive
(upward)?

3. Were certain parts of the plots easier to match than other parts? Why or why not?
Conclusion
1. Make a sketch of a velocity versus time graph from the position versus time graph
including labels and units for the y- and x-axes.
2. Write a short paragraph that describes your motion in the graph. Include speeds, directions,
positions, etc. Be as descriptive as possible.

Activity 2 PS-2826
Relative Motion–Frames of Reference

Kinematics: linear motion, relative velocity, reference frame GLX setup file: relative motion

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
2 GOcar PS-6951
1 Cart Adapter Accessory ME-6743
1 Card (stiff paper or thin cardstock), about 10 cm by 15 cm
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure motion relative to a frame of reference and relative to
other objects in a system of objects.
Background
When a person who is standing still is asked how fast they are moving, their initial response
might be that they are not moving at all and therefore have no velocity.
Is this correct? It depends! It depends on what they are comparing their velocity to. In physics,
this is what we call relative velocity.
For instance, the person standing still on the Earth has zero velocity relative to the ground. But,
relative to the stars their velocity is quite fast.
Most people find relative velocity to be a relatively difficult concept. Therefore, in this
experiment we will work with one-dimensional problems only.
Preview
Use the Motion Sensor to measure the motion of carts as they move relative to each other. Use
the Xplorer GLX to record and display the data.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ). Open the GLX setup file labeled
relative motion (check the Appendix at the end of this
activity.) The file has a graph of Velocity (m/s) versus
Time (s) and data recording for the Motion Sensor is set to
Fig. 1: Motion Sensor setting
20 Hz (20 measurements per second).
2. Connect the Motion Sensor to one of the sensor ports on
the top end of the GLX. Put the range selection switch on the top of the Motion Sensor to
the ‘near’ (cart) setting.

Activity 2 Relative Motion–Frames of Reference PS-2826
Equipment Setup
1. Set up and level a track. Adjust the track so that a cart placed on
it will not roll to one end or the other.
2. Attach the Motion Sensor to a PASCO cart using the Cart
Adapter Accessory. Place this cart with the Motion Sensor at one
end of the track.
• NOTE: This cart represents ‘you’.
3. Place a card (made of stiff
paper or thin cardboard) into
the accessory tray of the
second PASCO cart. Push the
card into the slots on the edge
of the tray so the card stands
upright.
4. Place this cart on the other end
of the track.
Fig. 2: Equipment setup
• NOTE: This cart represents the
‘object in motion’.
Record Data 1: ‘Object’ Moves and ‘You’ are Stationary
NOTE: This activity is easier to do if one person handles the carts and another person handles
the Xplorer GXL.
1. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure the signal from the Motion Sensor.
2. Gently push the ‘object in motion’ cart so it moves toward the stationary cart (‘you’).
3. Press Start again to stop recording data before the moving cart is within 15 cm (about 6
inches) of the stationary cart.
5. Observe the data in the Velocity-Time graph.
Analysis 1: ‘Object’ Moves and ‘You’ Are Stationary
1. In the Graph screen, press F3 ( ) to open the Tools menu. Select ‘Smart Tool’ and press
Activate.
2. Use the Smart Tool in the graph to determine the maximum velocity of the ‘object’ relative
to ‘you’. Record this value in the Lab Report section.
3. What does the negative sign tell you about the motion?
Record Data 2: ‘Object’ Moves Toward ‘You’ and ‘You’ Move Toward ‘Object’
1. Set up the two carts as before at opposite ends of the track. Have one person support the
cord for the Motion Sensor so the cord will not rub against the track or the table when the
cart moves.

2. Press Start to begin recording data. First, gently push the ‘object’ cart and then gently push
the ‘you’ cart so they move toward each other.
3. Press Start again to stop recording data just before the two carts are within 15 cm of each
other.
Analysis 2: ‘Object’ Moves Toward ‘You’ and ‘You’ Move Toward
‘Object’
1. Use the Smart Tool in the graph to determine the relative velocity of the two carts. Record
this value in the Lab Report.
2. How fast is the ‘you’ cart moving relative to the ground? How did you determine this
value?
Record Data 3: ‘Object’ Moves Toward ‘You’ and ‘You’ Move Away From ‘Object’
1. Set up the two carts so the ‘object’ cart is at one end of the track but the ‘you’ cart is in the
middle of the track. Have one person support the cord for the Motion Sensor so the cord
will not rub against the track or the table when the cart moves.
2. Press Start to begin recording data. First, gently push the ‘object’ cart toward the ‘you’ cart
and then gently push the ‘you’ cart toward the opposite end of the track (away from the
‘object’ cart).
3. Press Start to stop recording data just before the ‘you’ cart reaches the end of the track.
Analysis 3: ‘Object’ Moves Toward ‘You’ and ‘You’ Move Away From
‘Object’
1. Use the Smart Tool in the graph to determine the velocity of the ‘object’ cart relative to the
‘you’ cart. Record this value in the Lab Section.
2. How fast is the ‘you’ cart moving relative to the ground? How did you determine this
value?

Appendix
Opening a GLX File
Screen. Press F1 to open the Graph.
Data Files Icon

Lab Report - Activity 2: Relative Motion–Frames of Reference

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch one example of your graph of velocity versus time for the motion of the carts. Include
labels and units on the axes of the graph.
Data Table
Part Value
1) Object Moves, “You” Are Stationary Maximum velocity of ‘object’ =
2) Object and ‘You’ Move Toward Each Other Relative velocity of the carts =
3) Object Moves, ‘You’ Move Away Velocity of ‘object’ relative to ‘you’ =
Questions
1. In part 1, what does the negative sign tell you about the motion?
2. In part 2, how fast is the ‘you’ cart moving relative to the ground? How did you determine
this value?

this value?
Summary
4. If you are an observer standing still, what can you say about the relative velocity of an
object moving toward you?
5. If you are an observer moving towards an object that is also moving towards you, what can
you say about the relative velocity of the object moving towards you?
6. If you are an observer moving in the same direction as a moving object, what can you say
about the relative velocity of the object? Would it make a difference if you were leading or
following?
7. What do you notice about the positive and negative values of the velocity relative to the
motion sensor?

Activity 3 PS-2826
Velocity of a Motorized Cart

Mechanics: linear motion, constant velocity, graphing, slope GLX setup file: velocity cart

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 Constant Speed Buggy SE-9028
1 Hooked Mass Set SE-8759
0.5 m Braided Physics String SE-8050
1 Block with eye hook
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate constant velocity.
Background
Constant velocity means constant speed along a straight line. Although constant velocity is
straightforward, the graphical representation of constant velocity involves many fundamental
concepts of kinematics. The slope of a plot of position versus time is the speed of the object. The
y-intercept of a plot of position and time gives the initial position of the object when
measurement begins. The units along the vertical and horizontal axes of a graph of position and
time give the units for the object’s speed. Whether the slope of position and time is positive or
negative reveals the direction of the object relative to the sensor.
Preview
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a motorized cart as it moves at different speeds.
Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
the top end of the GLX. Put the range selection switch on
the top of the Motion Sensor to the ‘near’ (cart) setting.
2. Turn on the GLX ( ).
• The Graph screen opens with a graph of Position (m)
versus Time (s).

Activity 3 Velocity of a Motorized Cart PS-2826
Equipment Setup
1. Place the PASCO track on a table and attach
the Motion Sensor to one end of the track.
2. Place the cart about 15 cm from the Motion
Sensor so that the back of the cart is facing
the sensor.
3. Aim the sensor so its signal will reflect from
the cart.
Record Data: Part 1 (Slow)
1. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin Fig. 2: Equipment setup

measuring the sensor signal.
2. Turn on the switch on the side of the cart so the cart moves toward the other end of the
track.
3. Press to end data recording just before the cart reaches the end of the track. Turn off
the cart.
• The Graph screen will display the plot of position and time for Run #1.
Record Data: Part 2 (Slower)
4. Fasten a block to the cart so it can be dragged behind the cart. Put a 500 g (0.5 kg) mass on
top of the block.
5. Place the cart and the block on the track so the mass on top of the block is about 15 cm
from the Motion Sensor. Aim the sensor so its signal will reflect from the mass.
6. Start ( ) on the GLX to begin measuring the sensor signal.

7. Turn on the switch on the side of the cart so the cart moves toward the other end of the
track.
8. Press to end data recording just before the cart reaches the end of the track. Turn off
the cart.
Record Data: Part 3 (Slowest)
9. Replace the 500 g mass on the block with a 1000 g (1 kg) mass.
10. Repeat the data recording process.

Analysis
Find the slope of each run of data for the cart.
1. Select the first run of data. In the Graph screen, press
to activate the vertical axis label. Use the up arrow
to move to the ‘Run’ number in the upper right corner
of the screen. Press Activate ( ) to open the ‘Run’
menu. Select ‘Run #1’ and press to activate your
choice.
2. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the point in
the graph where the cart begins to move. Press F3 Fig. 3: Select ‘Run #1’
( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select ‘Linear Fit’ and
press to activate your choice.
• The Slope of the linear fit is the speed of the cart.
3. Record the value of the slope in the Lab Report.
4. Repeat the data analysis procedure for the other two
runs of data.
Record your results and answer the questions in
the Lab Report.
Fig. 4: Record the slope


Lab Report - Activity 3: Velocity of a Motorized Cart

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
1. Make a sketch of one run of position versus time data including labels and units for the y-
and x-axes.
2. Record your values for the Slope for each run.
Run Slope
1 m/s
2 m/s
3 m/s
Questions
1. What is shown on the vertical axis of your graph and what are the units?
2. What is shown on the horizontal axis of your graph and what are the units?

4. How long was the motorized cart moving during each data run? (Hint: Use the ‘Smart
Tool’ in the Graph screen.
Run Time of Motion (s)

1
2
3
5. What physical quantity does the slope of each plot represent?
6. What are the units for the slope of each plot?
Problem
1. If the cart moves at a constant speed of 0.33 m/s, how far will it move in 5 seconds?

Activity 4 PS-2826
Acceleration on an Inclined Track

Kinematics: linear motion; constant acceleration, graphing

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
2 Book
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the relationship between position, velocity, and
acceleration for linear motion.
Background
Constant acceleration means a constant change of velocity. This could mean a constant change of
speed, a constant change of direction (such as uniform circular motion), or a combination.
Although constant velocity is straightforward, the graphical representation of constant
acceleration involves many fundamental concepts of kinematics. The slope of a plot of velocity
versus time for an object is the acceleration of the object. The ratio of the units along the vertical
and horizontal axes of a graph of velocity and time give the units for the object’s acceleration.
Whether the slope of velocity is positive or negative reveals the direction of the object’s
acceleration relative to the sensor.
If a cart moves on a plane that is inclined at an angle θ, the
component of force acting on the cart in a direction that is parallel
to the surface of the plane is mg sin θ, where m is the mass of the
cart, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
If the friction on the cart is ignored, the acceleration of the cart
should be g sin θ both up and down the inclined plane.
Preview
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart as it moves up and down an inclined plane.
Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion. Determine whether the acceleration up
and down the inclined plane is constant.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
the top end of the GLX. Put the range selection switch on
the Motion Sensor to the ‘near’ (cart) setting.

Activity 4 Acceleration on an Inclined Track PS-2826

• The Graph screen opens with a graph of Position (m) versus Time (s).
Equipment Setup
1. Place the PASCO track on a table and attach the Motion Sensor to one end of the track.
2. Use a couple of books to raise that end of the track so it is inclined at a small angle.
3. Place the cart at the bottom of the track so the cart is facing the sensor. Aim the sensor so
its signal will reflect from the cart as the cart moves up and then back down the track.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the cart and a second person operates
the Xplorer GLX.
1. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin measuring the

sensor signal.
2. Give the cart a firm push toward the Motion Sensor.
(Don’t let the cart get closer than 15 cm to the sensor.)
Continue collecting data until the cart has returned to
the bottom of the track.
3. Press to end data recording just as the cart reaches

the end of the track.
• The Graph screen will display the plot of position and Fig. 3: Position graph
time.
Analysis
First, find the slope of the velocity versus time to determine the acceleration of the cart both whet
it goes up the track and also when it comes back down the track.
Next, find the average value of the acceleration in the acceleration versus time graph.
1. In the Graph screen, press to activate the vertical axis label. Press again to open
the menu for the axis. Use the down arrow to select ‘More’ and press to activate the
submenu.

2. Select ‘Velocity’ from the submenu and press to

activate your choice. The graph will show Velocity
(m/s) and Time (s).
• Notice that part of your graph is negative (below the
x-axis) and part of the graph is positive (above the x-
axis). This is because the sensor interprets motion
toward it as negative and motion away from it as
positive.
3. Use the right-left arrow keys to move the cursor to Fig. 4: Velocity graph
the point in the graph where the cart begins to move.
Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select
‘Linear Fit’ and press to activate your choice.
• The Slope of the linear fit is the average acceleration
of the cart.
5. Press to open the ‘Tools’ menu and press to
deselect ‘Linear Fit’.
Fig. 5: Linear Fit
6. Change the graph to show acceleration and time.
Press to activate the vertical axis. Press
again to open the axis menu. Select ‘Acceleration’
from the menu and press to activate your choice.
7. Select the region of the graph that shows the motion
of the cart up and back down the track. Use the right-
left arrow keys to move the cursor to the point where
the cart begins to move.
8. Press to open the ‘Tools’ menu, select Fig. 6: Acceleration graph
‘Statistics’ and press to activate your choice.
• The Statistics show ‘Min.’, ‘Max.’, ‘Avg.’, and ‘σ’. The ‘Avg.’ is the average acceleration
of the cart.
9. Record the value of the average acceleration in the Lab Report.
Record your results and answer the questions in the Lab Report.


Lab Report - Activity 4: Acceleration on an Inclined Track

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch your graph of data from the Motion Sensor for position versus time and for velocity
versus time for the cart up and down the incline. Include labels and units for your y-axes and x-
axes.

Data Table
Item Value
2
Acceleration (slope) m/s
2
Acceleration (average) m/s
Questions
1. Describe the position versus time plot of the Graph screen. Why does the distance begin at
a maximum and decrease as the cart moves up the inclined plane?
2. Describe the velocity versus time plot.
3. Describe the acceleration versus time plot of the Graph display.
4. How does the acceleration determined in the plot of velocity compare to the average value
of acceleration from the plot of acceleration?

Activity 5 PS-2826
Acceleration Due to Gravity

Kinematics: linear motion, acceleration, free fall, graphing GLX setup file: free fall

1 Large Base and Support Rod ME-9355
1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Double Rod Clamp ME-9873
1 Tape Measure, 1.5 m PM-8761
1 Ball, rubber
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure the acceleration due to gravity of a falling object.
Background
Over twenty-two centuries ago, a Greek philosopher and scientist named Aristotle proposed that
there is a natural force that causes heavy objects to fall toward the center of
Earth. He called this force “gravity”. In the seventeenth century, the English
scientist Isaac Newton was able to show that gravity is a universal force that
extends beyond Earth. It is the force that causes the moon to orbit the Earth
and the Earth to orbit the Sun.
When an object is in “free fall”, the only force acting on it is the force of
gravity. As an object falls freely, it accelerates. For a falling object near the
surface of Earth, the rate of change of velocity is a constant value. This value
is the acceleration due to gravity. If you ignore air resistance, a falling ball
accelerates as if it is in free fall. You can measure the motion of the falling
ball to find the value of the acceleration due to gravity.
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use the Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a ball as it falls and bounces.
Use the Xplorer GLX to record the motion and display and analyze the position and velocity of
the ball. Use the velocity versus time graph to find the acceleration of the ball.

Activity 5 Acceleration Due to Gravity–Freely Falling Ball PS-2826
About the Motion Sensor

The Motion Sensor sends out pulses of
ultrasound and picks up the echoes of
ultrasound that bounce back from objects in
front of it.
The software program keeps track of the
time when the pulses go out and the time
when the echoes come back. One-half of the
round trip time is the time that it took for the
ultrasound to reach the object. Since
ultrasound travels at the speed of sound (about 344 meters per second or about 770 miles per
hour), the program figures out how far away the object is as follows:
round-trip time
distance to object = ! speed of sound
2
The speed of sound through air depends on several factors, including the temperature of the air.
Because the temperature of air can change, the speed of sound can change. You can calibrate the
Motion Sensor so it uses an accurate measurement of the speed of sound.
Procedure
GLX Setup
titled free fall (check the Appendix at the end of this
activity).
versus Time (s). The setup file is set to measure
position at 40 Hz (40 measurements per second). Fig. 1: Motion Sensor setting
2. Connect the Motion Sensor to one of the sensor ports

on the top end of the GLX. Put the range selection switch on the top end of the Motion
Sensor to the ‘far’ (person) setting.

Equipment Setup
1. Make sure that the floor is level. If it is not, put a
hard flat surface on the floor and put pieces of
paper or shims under the edges of the hard flat
surface to level it.
2. Adjust the position of the Motion Sensor on the
support rod so that the sensor is about 1.5 meters
above the floor. Aim the sensor at the floor.
Record Data
1. Prepare to drop the ball so it falls straight down
beneath the Motion Sensor. Hold the ball between
your finger and thumb under the Motion Sensor
no closer than 15 cm (about 6 inches) below the
Motion Sensor.
2. Press Start to start recording data. Drop the

ball. Let the ball bounce several times.
• NOTE: Be sure to move your hand out of the way
as soon as you release the ball. Fig. 2: Equipment setup
3. After the ball bounces several times on the floor,

press to stop recording data.
Analysis
• The Graph screen shows a “mirror image” of a ball
bouncing on a flat surface.
1. Change the Graph screen to show Velocity versus
Time. Press to activate the vertical axis menu.
Press to open the menu. Select ‘More’, press
to open the submenu, and select ‘Velocity’. Press
to activate your choice.
2. Notice in the velocity plot that the velocity of the ball Fig. 3: Position graph
is positive part of the time (above the x-axis) and
negative part of the time (below the x-axis). The
Motion Sensor records motion away from it as positive
and motion toward it as negative.
3. Use the right-left arrow keys to move the cursor to the
point of the graph that is the beginning of one of the
bounces.
4. Press F3 to open the ‘Tools’ menu, select ‘Linear
Fit’, and press to activate your choice. If needed, Fig. 4: Velocity graph

adjust the selected region of the graph so the ‘Linear Fit’ line fits just one bounce. (Press
and select ‘Swap Cursor’ from the ‘Tools’ menu.)
• The Slope of the ‘Linear Fit’ line is the acceleration of the ball while it is in the air.
5. Record the value of the slope in the Data Table. This is the value for the acceleration due
to gravity on the falling object.
Record your results in the Lab Report section.
Appendix
Opening a GLX File
Activate ( ) button. In the Data Files screen, use the cursor
keys to navigate to the file you want. Press F1 ( ) to open
the file. Press the Home button to return to the Home Screen.
Press F1 to open the Graph screen.
Data Files Icon

Lab Report – Activity 5: Acceleration Due to Gravity

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
versus time for the ball. Include labels and units for your y-axes and x-axes.

Data
‘g’ (slope of velocity versus time) = _________
Questions
1. How does your value for ‘g’ (slope of velocity versus time) compare to the accepted value
of the acceleration of a free falling object (9.8 m/s2)?
accepted value - experimental value
• Reminder: percent difference = x100%
accepted value
2. What factors do you think may cause the experimental value to be different from the
accepted value?

Activity 6 PS-2826
Newton’s First Law–No Net Force

Mechanics: Newton’s First Law of Motion, inertia, net force

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Fan Accessory ME-9491
1 Friction Block ME-9807
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the motion of an object when there is no net force
applied compared to the motion when there is a net force applied.
Background
After doing experiments with balls rolling down ramps, Galileo
proposed that an object in motion would continue in motion forever
if the floor it rolls on were perfectly smooth and continued to
infinity. Galileo used the word inertia as the label for this tendency
of an object to continue its state of motion
Isaac Newton developed Galileo’s ideas. What condition must exist
for an object to maintain its state of motion? Newton said that an
object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to
stay in motion if there is no net force acting on the object. In other
words, if the net force on an object is zero, its acceleration (change
in motion) is also zero.
Galileo (1564–1642)
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use the Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart as it experiences different applied forces.
Use the Xplorer GLX to record, display, and analyze the position and velocity of the cart.
Prediction
1. What will happen to an object at rest if no force is applied?
2. What will happen to an object at rest if it is pushed, but there is a large frictional force
acting on the object?
3. What will happen to the motion of an object that is pushed, and there is very little frictional
force acting on the object?
4. What will happen to the motion of an object if there is a constant net force applied to it?

Activity 6 Newton’s First Law–No Net Force PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
on the top end of the GLX. Put the range switch on the
top end of the Motion Sensor to the ‘near’ (cart) setting.
• The Graph screen opens with a graph of Position (m) Fig. 1: Motion Sensor setting
versus Time (s).
Equipment Setup
1. Place the track on a horizontal surface and level the track. (Place the GOcar on the track. If
the cart rolls one way or the other, adjust the track to raise or lower one end.)
2. Attach the Motion Sensor to one
end of the track. Place the cart
about 20 cm from the sensor. Aim Fig. 2: Equipment setup
the sensor at the cart.
Record Data
Part 1: No Net Force Applied
1. Press Start to start recording data. Do not touch the cart
2. After 3 seconds, press to stop recording data.

Part 2: Friction Block
1. Tie a string to one end of the cart.
2. Place the friction block, with felt
side up, in the tray of the cart. Turn
the cart over and place it 20 cm in
front of the Motion Sensor with the
string end facing away from the Fig. 3: Friction Block setup
sensor.
3. Press Start to start recording data. Wait one second and then give the cart and block a
brief pull away from the sensor.

Part 3: Low Friction Cart

1. Turn the cart over and remove the
string and friction block.
2. Place the cart 20 cm in front of the
Motion Sensor.
3. Press Start to start recording Fig. 4: Low Friction Cart

data. Wait one second and then
give the cart a gentle push away
from the sensor.

Part 4: Fan Cart
1. Finally, clip a Fan Accessory to
the cart and place the cart 20 cm
in front of the sensor.
2. Start the fan, but hold the cart in
place. Make sure the fan is
arranged so it will push the cart Fig. 5: Fan setup
away from the sensor.
3. Press Start to start recording data. Wait one second and then release the cart.

• NOTE: Don’t let the fan cat hit the end of the track or it might be damaged.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine both the position and the velocity for each data run.
1. To change the Graph screen to show a specific run of data, press to activate the
vertical axis menu. Press the up-arrow key ( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in the upper right
corner. Press to open the menu, select the data run in the menu, and press to
activate your choice.
2. To change the Graph screen from Position (m) versus Time (s) to Velocity (m/s) versus
Time (s), press to activate the vertical axis menu. Press again to open the menu.
Select ‘Other’ and then select ‘Velocity’. Press to activate your choice.
3. Record the value of the slope in the Data Table. This is the value for the acceleration due
to gravity on the falling object.
Record your results and answer the questions in the Lab Report section.


Lab Report – Activity 6: Newton’s First Law–No Net Force

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Predict
Data
Sketch your graphs of position versus time for the cart for all four runs. Include labels and units
for your y-axes and x-axes.

Sketch your graphs for velocity versus time for the cart for all four runs. Include labels and units
Questions
1. What do your graphs show for the car in Run #1 (no force applied)?
2. What does your velocity graph show for the cart in Run #2 (friction cart – cart is pushed,
but has a large frictional force)?

3. Why does the cart keep moving in Run #3 (low friction cart – cart is pushed, and has little
frictional force)?
4. Which data run represents constantly accelerated motion?
5. Why does the cart sliding on the friction block (Run #2) come to a stop so quickly?
6. What happens to an object at rest if no force is applied?
7. What happens to an object in motion is no force is applied?
8. Do your results support your predictions?


Activity 7A PS-2826
Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force

Mechanics: Newton’s Second Law, acceleration, net force

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Super Pulley with Clamp ME-9448A
1 Balance SE-8723
1m Braided Physics String SE-8050
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine what happens to an object’s acceleration when the net
force applied to the object stays constant but the mass of the system is changed.
Background
Often, several forces act on an object simultaneously. In such cases,
it is the net force, or the vector sum of all the forces acting, that is
important.
Newton's First Law of motion states that if no net force acts on an
object, the velocity of the object remains unchanged. The Second
deals with what happens when a net force does act on an object.
Newton's second law states that the acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force acting on the object and in the same
direction as the net force. Newton's Second Law also states that the
acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. If the mass of an
object increases and the net force is kept constant, the acceleration
decreases. Newton (1642–1727)
Safety Precautions
a ! Fnet
1
a!
Preview m
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart that is accelerated by a net F
a = net
force. Use the Xplorer GLX to record the motion and display and analyze the m
velocity of the cart.
Prediction
1. What will happen to an object when you apply a net force to it?
2. What will happen to the motion of an object as its mass changes but you keep the
magnitude of the net force on it constant?

Activity 7A Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
on the top end of the GLX. Put the range selection
switch on the top end of the Motion Sensor to the ‘near’
(cart) setting.
versus Time (s).
Equipment Setup
1. Measure and record the mass of the cart.
2. Place the track on a horizontal surface and level the track. (Place the cart on the track. If
3. Attach the Motion Sensor to one end of the track. Place the cart about 15 cm from the
sensor. Aim the sensor at the cart.
4. Attach the Super Pulley with Clamp at the other end of the track. Place a block in front of
the pulley to protect it from being hit by the cart.
5. Get a piece of string that is about 20 cm longer than the distance from the floor to the top
of the pulley. Tie the sting to the end of the cart and place the string over the pulley. Tie a
loop in the other end of the string.
6. Measure and record the mass of a 20-g hooked mass and hang the mass from the loop at
the end of the string.
7. Adjust the string if needed so that when the cart is at the pulley, the hooked mass on the
end of the string almost reaches–but does not touch–the floor.
Record Data
Part 1: No Extra Mass Added
1. Pull the cart back so the mass is just below the pulley (but make sure that the cart is at least
15 cm away from the sensor).
2. Press Start to start recording data. Release the cart so it moves toward the pulley.
3. Press to stop recording data just before the cart reaches the end of the track.

Part 2: First Extra Mass Added

1. For Run #2, add 200 g (0.2
kg) to the top of the cart.
Record the total mass of the
cart plus extra mass.
Fig. 3: Add 200 g
2. Press Start to start
recording data. Release the
cart so it moves toward the pulley.
Part 3: Second Extra Mass
1. For Run #3, add another 200 g (0.2 kg) to the top of the cart (for an additional mass of
400 g or 0.4 kg). Record the total mass of the cart plus extra mass.
2. Record the motion of the cart as before.
Part 4: Third Extra Mass Added
1. Finally, for Run #4, put a total of 600 g (0.6 kg) on top of the cart. Record the total mass of
the cart plus the extra mass.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the velocity of the cart for each data run. Find the slope of the
velocity to determine the acceleration for each run.
1. To change the Graph screen to show a specific run of
data, press to activate the vertical axis menu.
Press the up-arrow key ( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in
the upper right corner. Press to open the menu,
select the data run in the menu, and press to
2. To change the Graph screen from Position (m) versus
Fig. 4: Select ‘Velocity’
Time (s) to Velocity (m/s) versus Time (s), press
to activate the vertical axis menu. Press again to open the menu. Select ‘Other’ and
then select ‘Velocity’. Press to activate your choice.
3. To determine the slope of the velocity, press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Use the
up-down arrow keys to select ‘Linear Fit’ and press to activate your choice.
• The ‘Linear Fit’ shows the slope of the entire plot of velocity. You may need to select a
region of interest (ROI) in your plot of data.

4. To select a region of interest in your data, move the

active cursor to the end of the region of interest. (Note:
There is another, smaller cursor at the beginning of the
data.) Open the ‘Tools’ menu and select ‘Swap Cursor’.
Press to activate your choice.
• The active cursor is now at the beginning of the data
and the smaller cursor is at the end of the region of
interest.
5. Use the right-left arrow keys to move the active cursor Fig. 5: Select ‘Swap Cursor’
to the beginning of the region of interest. The slope of
the ‘Linear Fit’ of your data appears below the
horizontal axis.
6. Record Slope as the acceleration for Run #1.
7. Repeat the analysis process to find the acceleration for
each run of data.
Record your results and answer the questions in
the Lab Report section.
Fig. 6: Move the active cursor

Lab Report – Activity 7A: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
2. What will happen to the motion of an object as its mass changes but you keep the
magnitude of the net force on it constant?
Data
Sketch a graph of position versus time for one run of data. Include labels and units for your y-
axes and x-axes.

Sketch a graph of velocity versus time for one run of data. Include labels and units for your y-
axes and x-axes.
Calculations
Calculate the theoretical acceleration when the mass is constant and the net force is changed and
record the calculations in the Data Table 3.
• The theoretical acceleration is the ratio of the net force divided by the total mass.
mhanging g
a=
mcart + mhanging
• For runs #2, #3, and #4, the total mass of the system (mass of cart plus hanging mass)
increases and the net force (hanging mass x 9.8) remains constant.
• Assuming no friction, the net force is the weight of the hanging mass (mass x 9.8 N/kg).
Find the percent difference between the theoretical and experimental acceleration and record it in
theoretical ! exp erimental
the data table. %diff = "100
theoretical

Data Table 1
Item Mass (kg)

Run #1: Total mass of the hanging mass (mhanging):
Run #1: Total mass of cart (mcart):
Run #2: Total mass of cart plus 0.200 kg:
Run #3: Total mass of cart plus 0.400 kg:
Run #4: Total mass of cart plus 0.600 kg
Net force (hanging mass x 9.8 N/kg): _________

Data Table 2: Experimental Acceleration
2
Run Acceleration (m/s )
#1
#2
#3
#4
Data Table 3
2 2
Run Mass, cart (kg) Total mass (kg) Acc., theory (m/s ) Acc., exp. (m/s ) % difference
#1
#2
#3
#4
Questions
1. For runs #2, #3, and #4, what did you observe about the slope of the Linear Fit as the net
force remained constant but the total mass increased?
2. What happens to an object’s acceleration if the net force applied to the object is kept
constant but the object’s mass increases?


Activity 7B PS-2826
Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass

Mechanics: Newton’s Second Law, acceleration, net force

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Balance SE-8723
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine what happens to an object’s acceleration when the net
force applied to the object increases but the mass of the system is constant.
Background
Newton's First Law of motion states that if no net force acts on an
object, the velocity of the object remains unchanged. The Second
Law deals with what happens when a net force does act on an
object. Newton's Second Law of motion describes the behavior of
everything that changes its motion due to a net force -- from the
trajectory of a baseball to the motion of a planet.
While a net force acts on an object, the velocity of the object
changes–in other words, it accelerates. When more force is applied,
the greater force produces a greater acceleration. Newton's second
law states that the acceleration is directly proportional to the net
force acting on the object and in the same direction as the net force.
Newton (1642–1727)
Newton's Second Law also states that the acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass. a ! Fnet
Safety Precautions 1
a!
m
F
Preview a = net
m
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart that is accelerated by a net force.
Use the Xplorer GLX to record the motion and display and analyze the velocity of the cart when
the net force on the cart is increased but the mass of the system is constant.
Prediction
2. What will happen to the motion of an object if it has a constant mass but you change the
magnitude of the net force on it?

Activity 7B Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
on the top end of the GLX. Put the range switch on the
top end of the Motion Sensor to the ‘near’ (cart) setting.
• The Graph screen opens with a graph of Position (m) Fig. 1: Motion Sensor setting
versus Time (s).
Equipment Setup
1. Add several masses to the cart: 500-g, 50-g, 20 g, and 10-g. Measure and record the mass
of the cart plus the extra masses.
3. Attach the Motion Sensor to one end of the track. Attach the Super Pulley with Clamp at
the other end of the track. Place a block in front of the pulley to protect it from being hit by
the cart.
4. Place the cart about 15 cm from the sensor. Aim the sensor at the cart.
5. Get a piece of string that is about 20 cm longer than the distance from the floor to the top
of the pulley. Tie the sting to the end of the cart and place the string over the pulley. Tie a
loop in the other end of the string.
6. Measure and record the mass of a 20-g hooked mass and hang the mass from the loop at
the end of the string.
7. Adjust the string if needed so that when the cart is at the pulley, the hooked mass on the
end of the string almost reaches–but does not touch–the floor.

Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the equipment and a second person
handles the Xplorer GLX.
Part 1: No Mass Transfer–20 g Hanging
1. Pull the cart back so the mass is just below the pulley (but make sure that the cart is at least
15 cm away from the sensor).
2. Press Start to start recording data. Release the cart so it moves toward the pulley.
Part 2: First Mass Transfer–40 g Hanging
1. For Run #2, move 20 g from the
top of the cart to the hanging
mass. Record the total mass
hanging at the end of the string.
2. Press Start to start Fig. 3: Hang 40 g

recording data. Release the cart
so it moves toward the pulley.
Part 3: Second Mass Transfer–60 g Hanging
1. For Run #3, move the two 20-g masses back to the top of the cart and move the 50-g and
10-g masses to the end of the string (for a total of 60 g hanging). Record the total mass
hanging at the end of the string.
Part 4: Third Mass Transfer–80 g Hanging
1. Finally, for Run #4, transfer a 20-g mass to the masses at the end of the string (for a total
of 80 g hanging). Record the total mass hanging at the end of the string.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the velocity of the cart for each data run. Find the slope of the
velocity to determine the acceleration for each run.
vertical axis menu. Press the up-arrow key ( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in the upper right

2. To change the Graph screen from Position (m) versus

Time (s) to Velocity (m/s) versus Time (s), press to
activate the vertical axis menu. Press again to open
the menu. Select ‘Other’ and then select ‘Velocity’. Press
3. To determine the slope of the velocity, press F3 ( ) to
open the ‘Tools’ menu. Use the up-down arrow keys to
select ‘Linear Fit’ and press to activate your choice.
• The ‘Linear Fit’ shows the slope of the entire plot of
velocity. You may need to select a region of interest
(ROI) in your plot of data.
4. To select a region of interest in your data, move the
active cursor to the end of the region of interest. (Note:
There is another, smaller cursor at the beginning of the
data.) Open the ‘Tools’ menu and select ‘Swap Cursor’.
• The active cursor is now at the beginning of the data and
the smaller cursor is at the end of the region of interest. Fig. 5: Select ‘Swap Cursor’
5. Use the right-left arrow keys to move the active cursor to

the beginning of the region of interest. The slope of the
‘Linear Fit’ of your data appears below the horizontal
axis.
6. Record Slope as the acceleration for Run #1.
7. Repeat the analysis process to find the acceleration for
each run of data.
Record your results and answer the questions in the Fig. 6: Move the active cursor
Lab Report section.

Lab Report – Activity 7B: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
2. What will happen to the motion of an object if it has a constant mass but you change the
magnitude of the net force on it?
Data
axes and x-axes.

axes and x-axes.
Calculations
mhanging g
a=
mcart + mhanging
• For runs #2, #3, and #4, the net force (hanging mass x 9.8 N/kg) increases but the total
mass of the system (mass of cart + hanging mass) remains constant.
theoretical

Data Table 1
Item Mass (kg)

Run #1: Initial mass of cart + masses (mcart):
Run #1: Initial mass of the hanging mass (mhanging):
Run #2: Total mass of hanging masses (0.02 kg + 0.02 kg):
Run #3: Total mass of hanging masses (0.05 kg + 0.01 kg)
Run #4: Total mass of hanging masses (0.05 kg + 0.02 kg + 0.01 kg)

2
#1
#2
#3
#4
Data Table 3
Fnet, (net force) = hanging mass x 9.8 N/kg
2 2
Run Hanging mass (kg) Fnet (N) Acc., theory (m/s ) Acc., exp. (m/s ) % difference
#1
#2
#3
#4
Questions
1. Why did the slope of velocity versus time change for each run?
2. For the runs, what did you observe about the slope of the Linear Fit as the net force
increased but the total mass remained?

3. What happens to an object’s acceleration if the net force applied to the object increases but
the total mass of the system remains constant?

Activity 8 PS-2826
Newton’s Third Law–Tug-of-War

Mechanics: Newton’s Third Law, action and reaction GLX setup file: tug of war

2 PASPORT Force Sensor PS-2104
1 1.2 m PASCO Track
2 GOcar ME-6951
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the forces exerted on two objects in a ‘tug-of-war’
and to compare the forces on each of the two objects.
Background
Newton's Third Law of motion states that whenever one body exerts
a force on a second body, the second body exerts an opposite
directed force of equal magnitude on the first body.
The third law is sometimes called the ‘action–reaction’ law, and it is
sometimes quoted as: “For every action, there is an equal, but
opposite reaction”.
In a traditional tug-of-war, the winning team is not always the team
that has the strongest, largest, or most massive team members. The
winning team is usually the one that has the best traction against the
ground. The forces exerted by each team pulling on the rope are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Newton (1642–1727)
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a pair of Force Sensors attached to carts to measure the force each cart experiences during a
‘tug-of-war’ between the two sensors. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force from
each sensor. Compare the magnitude and direction of each force.
Prediction
Predict what the forces will be like in each of the following cases:
Case Prediction
Equal Masses
Cart 1: Extra Mass
Cart 2: Extra Mass

Activity 8 Newton’s Third Law PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ). Open the GLX setup file labeled tug of war (check the Appendix
at the end of this activity).
• The Graph screen opens with a graph of force versus time for two force sensors. The file is
set so that one of the force sensors sends a positive signal when a pull is applied, and the
other sends a negative signal when a pull is applied. The sample rate is set at 20 times per
second (20 Hz).
2. Connect the first Force Sensor to sensor port 1 on the top of the GLX. Connect the second
Force Sensor to sensor port 2.
Equipment Setup
2. Put a hook on the end of each sensor and mount the sensors on the two carts. Arrange the
carts near the center of the track with the sensors facing each other.
3. Tie piece of string into a loop and put the loop over the hooks of both sensors.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if two people handle the two carts and a third person
Part 1: Equal Masses
1. Press the ZERO button on the top of each Force Sensor to zero the sensors.
2. Press Start to start recording data. Pull the carts away from each other the cart. Try
pulling equally hard.
3. Press to stop recording data after about 10 seconds of pulling.

Part 2: Extra Mass on Cart 1
1. For Run #2, put 500 g (0.4 kg) on the top
of one cart
2. Press the ZERO buttons on both sensors.
Record data as in the first part.
Fig. 2: Extra mass on Cart 1

Part 3: Extra Mass on Cart 2

1. For Run #3, move the extra mass to the top of the other cart.
2. Record data as you did before.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the forces measured by both sensors for each data run.
Compare the force from sensor 1 to the force from sensor 2 for each run.
• The Graph screen shows data from both force sensors.
One plot is ‘active’ and is slightly darker than the
other plot.
1. To switch from one plot of data to the other, press F3
( ) and select ‘Toggle Active Data’. Press to
data, press to activate the vertical axis menu.
Fig. 3: ‘Active’ data is bold
Press the cursor arrow keys ( ) to move to ‘Run

#_’ in the upper left hand corner or upper right
corner. Press to open the menu, select the data
run in the menu, and press to activate your
choice. Repeat the process to select the same run of
data for the other sensor.
3. You can use the ‘Smart Tool’ to determine the value
of the force at a specific time. Press F3 ( ) to open
the ‘Tools’ menu. Use the up-down arrow keys to Fig. 4: Select ‘Toggle Active Data’
select ‘Smart Tool’ and press to activate your
choice.
• The ‘Smart Tool’ shows the coordinates of a data point.
4. Describe the results for the forces measured by both sensors for each data run in the Data
Table of the Lab Report section..

Appendix
Opening a GLX File
Activate ( ) button. In the Data Files screen, use the cursor
keys to navigate to the file you want. Press F1 ( ) to open
the file. Press the Home button to return to the Home Screen.
Press F1 to open the Graph screen.
Data Files Icon

Lab Report – Activity 8: Newton’s Third Law

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Case Prediction
Equal Masses
Cart 1: Extra Mass
Cart 2: Extra Mass
Data
Sketch a graph of force versus time for one run of data. Include labels and units for your y-axis
and x-axis.
Data Table: Tug-of-War Results

What were the forces like in each of the following cases?
Case Results
Equal Masses
Cart 1: Extra Mass
Cart 2: Extra Mass

Questions
1. How did the shape of the graph for the first force sensor compare to the shape of the graph
for the second force sensor during the first run of the tug-of-war?
2. What happened to the forces measured by the two sensors when extra mass was put on top
of cart 1 or cart 2?
3. If two forces are equal and opposite, what should the sum of the forces be?
4. From your data, how close are the forces to being equal but opposite?
5. During a tug-of-war, how does the force on one force sensor compare to the force on the
other force sensor?

Activity 9 PS-2826
Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical

Mechanics: static equilibrium, force components, free-body diagram, vectors,

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Universal Table Clamp ME-9376B
1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Angle Indicator ME-9495
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the mass of an object that is in static equilibrium.
Background
If an object is at rest and the net force on the object is zero,
the object is in static equilibrium. An example of static
equilibrium is an object at rest on a tabletop. The normal
force of the tabletop balances the force of gravity pulling
downward on the object.
An object placed on a frictionless inclined plane would
accelerate down the plane due to the component of the
gravitational force that is parallel to the surface of the plane.
The magnitude of the force depends on the mass of the
object and the angle of the inclined plane.
If the object is motionless on the inclined plane because of
Fig. 1: Object on incline
the tension in a string, the tension equals the magnitude of
the force that is parallel to the surface of the plane. This
force is mg sin θ.
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a Force Sensor to measure the tension in a string attached to the cart that is at rest on an
inclined track. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the tension. Use the tension and the
angle of the track to determine the mass of the cart.
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Connect the Force Sensor to a sensor port on the top of the GLX. Turn on the GLX ( ).

Activity 9 Forces in Equilibrium PS-2826
• The Graph screen opens with a graph of force versus time.

2. Set up the Force Sensor so it sends a positive signal for
a pull. Press to go to the Home Screen. Press F4
( ) to open the Sensors screen. Use the arrow cursor
keys to select ‘Force, push positive’. Press Activate
( ) to change the selection from ‘Visible’ to ‘Not
Visible’. Move down to ‘Force, pull positive’. Press
to change the selection from ‘Not Visible’ to
‘Visible’. Press to return to the Home Screen.
Fig. 2: Force, pull positive
3. Open a Digits display. In the Home Screen, select the
‘Digits’ icon and press to activate your choice.

Equipment Setup
Arrange the track, cart, sensor, and angle indicator as shown in the figure.
Record Data
1. With NO tension on the string, press the ZERO button on the top of the Force Sensor to
zero the sensor.
2. Record the angle of the track.
3. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Record the force from the Digits display.
4. After you record your data, press to stop recording.

Calculate the mass of the cart and answer the questions in the Lab Report
section.

Lab Report – Activity 9: Forces in Equilibrium

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch a free-body diagram of the forces on the cart. Label the vectors in your diagram.
Data
Item Value
Tension (N)
Angle of track
Calculations
Use your data for the force in the string (tension) and the angle of the track to determine the mass
of the cart. Show all of your work.
Item Value
Calculated mass (kg

Conclusion
After you have calculated your value for the mass of the cart, find the actual mass of the cart
from your instructor (or use a balance to measure the mass of the cart).
Determine the percent difference between your calculated mass and the actual mass.
Item Value
Calculated mass (kg
Actual mass (kg)
Percent difference
calculated ! actual
%diff = " 100
actual
Questions
1. How did you account for the friction? Explain.
2. How close was your calculated mass to the actual mass?
3. What factors might contribute to the difference between your calculated value and the
actual mass of the cart?

Activity 10 PS-2826
Static and Kinetic Friction

Mechanics: static friction, kinetic friction, coefficient of friction GLX setup file: friction

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 Discover Friction Accessory ME-8574
1 Balance SE-8723
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate static friction and kinetic (sliding) friction. Compare
the static and kinetic friction of two different surfaces. Determine what happens to the coefficient
of friction when the normal force is changed.
Background
The force of friction is a common but complex force. The exact method
by which friction works is a topic of great scientific interest and we can
make some general statements about it. Friction arises from the
electromagnetic forces between atoms and molecules at the surfaces of
objects.
This activity investigates two types of frictional force: static friction and
kinetic (sliding) friction. Both are dependent on the types of surfaces, but
not on the speed of motion or the surface area.
The direction of the static friction is along the contact surface and
opposite in direction to any applied force.
The magnitude of the static friction force is given by Fs = µsFn where µs is the coefficient of
static friction and Fn is the magnitude of the normal force. The coefficient of static friction is the
ratio of the maximum static friction force and the normal force.
The normal force is the force perpendicular to a surface. When an object is placed on a surface,
for example, the normal force is the force that supports the object. If the surface is horizontal, the
normal force is the weight of the object, mg, where m is the mass of the object and g is the
acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/s2.
As a force is applied to move an object along a surface, the static friction force builds up to a
maximum just before the object begins to move.
Kinetic (sliding) friction opposes the motion of an object as it moves over a surface at constant
velocity. The formula for the kinetic friction force is, Fk = µkFn where µk is the coefficient of
kinetic friction and Fn is the magnitude of the normal force.
Typically the values of kinetic friction are less than values for static friction. In the same way,
the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction (µk < µs).

Activity 10 Static and Kinetic Friction PS-2826
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use the Force Sensor to measure the force on an object as it is pulled across different surfaces.
Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force versus time. Use the data to determine the
static and kinetic friction and then find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction.
Prediction
1. When comparing a felt surface to a cork surface, which material will have the higher value
for its coefficient of kinetic friction?
2. How does the normal force acting on an object affect the force of friction?
Procedure
GLX Setup
2. Open the GLX setup file labeled friction. (Check the
Appendix at the end of this activity.)
• The Graph screen opens with a graph of force versus
time.
• The file is set up so that force is measured 1000 times
per second (1000 Hz). The file also is set to smooth data
so that 5 data points are averaged. Finally, the sensor is Fig. 1: Force, pull positive
set up so it sends a positive signal when a pull is applied
to it.
3. Connect the Force Sensor to a sensor port on the top of the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Place the track on a flat, horizontal surface.
2. Put 200 g (0.2 kg) into the felt friction tray.
Measure and record the mass of the felt
friction tray and the added mass.
3. Place the friction tray on the track.
4. Tie a piece of string between the friction tray
and the hook on the Force Sensor. The string
should be about 5 cm (2 in). Place the sensor
on the track. Fig. 2: Equipment setup

• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the sensor

and a second person handles the Xplorer GLX. It is very
important to ‘zero’ the Force Sensor prior to each run.
• Here is an example of how the data that you record might look.
Record Data: Felt Friction Accessory
1. Hold the Force Sensor so no slack is in the string. Press the
ZERO button on the top of the Force Sensor to zero the sensor. Fig. 3: Example data
2. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Wait about one

second and then slowly and gently pull the Force Sensor/friction tray down the track.
(Note: It is very important to pull so the tray moves with constant speed.)
3. After five seconds, press to stop recording.

4. For a second run, add another 200 g to the friction tray (for a total of 400 g added to the
friction tray) and repeat the data recording procedure.
5. For a third run, add another 200 g (for a total of 600 g added to the friction tray) and repeat
the procedure.
Record Data: Cork Friction Accessory
6. Replace the felt friction tray with the cork friction tray. Perform the same procedure above
starting with 200 g added to the cork friction tray. (Measure and record the total mass.)
7. For a second run, add 200 g (for a total of 400 g added).
8. For the third run, add another 200 g (for a total of 600 g added).
• When completed you will have six runs of data.
Analysis: Part 1–Find the Forces, Fs and Fk
Use the Graph screen to examine the force for each data run. Compare the force as the tray
begins to move to the force when the tray moves at a constant speed. Determine the static friction
force, Fs, and the kinetic friction force, Fk.
data, press to activate the vertical axis menu. Press
the cursor arrow keys ( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in the
upper left hand corner or upper right corner. Press
to open the menu, select the data run in the menu, and
press to activate your choice. Repeat the process to
select the same run of data for the other sensor.
2. You can use ‘Statistics’ to determine the value of the
Fig. 4: Select ‘Run’
maximum force as the tray begins to move. Press F3
( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Use the up-down
arrow keys to select ‘Statistics’ and press to activate your choice.

• The ‘Statistics’ at the bottom of the screen shows

‘Min’, ‘Max’, ‘Avg’, and ‘σ’ (standard deviation).
3. Record the ‘Max’ (maximum force) value as the static
friction force (Fs) in the Data Table.
4. To find the kinetic friction, determine the average force
when the tray was moving at a constant speed. Move
the cursor to the point where the force becomes
somewhat constant. The ‘Statistics’ region extends
from the cursor to the other end of the data run. Fig. 5: Select ‘Statistics’
5. To select the region of the run of data that you want,
open the ‘Tools’ menu and select ‘Swap Cursors’.
• The active cursor (larger cursor) will be at the end of
the data run, and the smaller cursor will be at the
beginning of the region of interest.
6. Move the active cursor to the end of the region you
want. Record the ‘Avg’ (average) shown at the bottom
of the screen as the kinetic friction force (Fk).
7. Repeat the analysis process to find the static friction Fig. 6: Select ‘Swap Cursors’
and the kinetic friction for each run of data.
Analysis: Part 2–Find the Coefficients, µs and µk
Calculate the normal force for each run. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction.
8. To calculate the normal force for each run, multiply the total mass of the friction tray for
each run by the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 N/kg). Record the normal force in Data
Table 1.
9. Create a graph of static friction and versus normal force and a graph of kinetic friction
versus normal force to find the coefficients of static friction and kinetic friction. The slope
of the graph of static friction is the coefficient of static friction and the slope of the graph
of kinetic friction is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
10. To create a graph of static friction and kinetic friction versus normal force, start with a
table where you can enter your data. Press to enter the Home Screen. Select the Table
icon ( ) and press to activate your choice.

• The Table screen is set up to open with three columns
labeled ‘normal force (n)’, ‘static frict. (n)’, and
‘kinetic frict. (n)’.
Fig. 7: Table

11. Use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘normal force (n)’. Press F2 (Edit Cell) to
make the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter your value of Normal
Force for the first run with the felt friction tray. Press to activate your entry.
• The next cell in the column is automatically selected.
12. Enter your value of Normal Force for the second run with the felt friction tray and press
to activate your entry (and automatically select the third cell). Enter the value for the
third run and press .
13. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘static frict. (n)’. Press
F2 to make the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter your value of
Static Friction for the first run with the felt friction tray. Press to activate your entry
(and automatically select the next cell in the column).
14. Enter your value of Static Friction for the second run with the felt friction tray and press
to activate your entry (and automatically select
the third cell). Enter your value for the third run and
press .
15. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the
first cell under ‘kinetic frict. (n)’. Press F2 to make
the cell active for editing. Repeat the process to enter
your values of Kinetic Friction for all three runs with
the felt friction tray.
16. When you are finished, press to return to the Fig. 8: Example of finished Table
Home Screen.
17. Press F1 to open the Graph screen. In the Graph, press
F4 to open the ‘Graphs’ menu. Select ‘Graph 2’ (at the
bottom of the menu) and press to activate your
choice.
• The Graph 2 is set up to open with ‘static frict. (n)’ on
the vertical axis and ‘normal force (n)’ on the
horizontal axis. The graph shows the ‘Linear Fit’ of the
data, and the slope at the bottom of the screen is the
Fig. 9: Select ‘Graph 2’
coefficient of static friction for felt.
18. Record your value for the coefficient of static friction
for felt.
19. To change the graph to show ‘kinetic frict. (n)’ on the
vertical axis, press to activate the vertical axis and
press again to open the menu. Select ‘kinetic frict.’
from the list and press to activate your choice.
Fig. 10: Select ‘kinetic frict.’

• Graph 2 changes to show ‘kinetic frict. (n)’ on the vertical axis and ‘normal force (n)’ on
the horizontal axis. The graph shows the ‘Linear Fit’ of the data, and the slope at the
bottom of the screen is the coefficient of kinetic friction for felt.
20. Record your value for the coefficient of kinetic friction for felt.
21. To find the coefficients of friction for cork, return to the Table. Press to go to the
Home Screen and press to open the Table screen.
22. Use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘normal
force (n)’. Press (Edit Cell) and use the
alphanumeric keys to enter your value for the Normal
Force for the first run with the cork friction tray. Press
to activate your entry and automatically select the
next cell.
23. Repeat the process to enter your values for Normal
Force for the second and third runs with the cork friction
tray. Fig. 11: Edit the cell
24. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first
cell under ‘static frict. (n)’. Press to make the cell active for editing. Use the
alphanumeric keys to enter your value of Static Friction for the first run with the cork tray.
Press to activate your entry and automatically select the next cell in the column.
Repeat the process to enter your values for Static Friction for the second and third runs.
25. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘kinetic frict. (n)’. Press
to make the cell active for editing. Repeat the process to enter your values of Kinetic
Friction for all three runs with the cork friction tray.
26. When you are finished, press to return to the Home Screen.
27. Press (F1) to open the Graph screen.
• Graph 2 should still be visible, but now it shows ‘kinetic frict. (n)’ versus ‘normal force
(n)’ for the cork friction tray. The graph shows the ‘Linear Fit’ of the data, and the slope at
the bottom of the screen is the coefficient of kinetic friction for cork.
28. Record your value for the coefficient of kinetic friction for cork.
29. Change the graph to show ‘static frict. (n)’ on the vertical axis. Record the slope as the
coefficient of static friction for cork.
Appendix: Opening a GLX File
To open a specific GLX file, go to the Home Screen ( ). In
the Home Screen, select Data Files and press to activate
your choice. In the Data Files screen, use the arrow keys to
navigate to the file you want. Press to open the file. Press
the Home button to return to the Home Screen. Press to
open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 10: Static and Kinetic Friction

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of force versus time data. Include units and labels for your axes.

Data Table 1
Item Mass (kg) Normal Force (N) Fs (N) Static Friction Fk (N) Kinetic Friction
Felt (0.2 kg added)
Felt (0.4 kg added)
Felt (0.6 kg added)
Item Mass (kg) Normal Force (N) Fs (N) Static Friction Fk (N) Kinetic Friction
Cork (0.2 kg added)
Cork (0.4 kg added
Cork (0.6 kg added)
Calculations
Use your data for the mass of the friction tray to calculate the normal force for each run.
(Normal Force = FN = mg where g = 9.8 N/kg)
Data Table 2
Enter your values for ‘Normal Force’, ‘static friction’, and ‘kinetic friction’ into the GLX Table.
Use the graph of static friction versus normal force to determine the coefficient of static friction,
µs. Use the graph of kinetic friction versus normal force to determine the coefficient of kinetic
friction, µk.
Item µs µk
Felt
Cork
Questions
1. What is the physical quantity represented by the ratio of friction force to normal force?
2. What pattern do you notice about the values for the coefficients of friction?
3. What happens to the static friction force as the mass is increased? Why does this happen?

4. What happens to the kinetic friction force as the mass is increased? Why does this happen?
5. What are the units for the coefficient of friction? Explain.
6. Think about your experience with the friction trays. When a car skids to a stop (with
wheels “locked”), which friction force is at work? How do you know?


Activity 11 PS-2826
Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

Mechanics: Hooke’s law, spring constant, elasticity GLX setup file: spring constant

1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Equal Length Spring Set (red spring) ME-8970
1 Meter Stick SE-8695
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the relationship of the force applied to a spring and
the distance that the spring is stretched.
Background
A spring that is hanging vertically from a support with no mass at the
end of the spring has a length L (called its rest length). When a mass
is added to the spring, its length increases by ∆L. The equilibrium
position of the mass is now a distance L + ∆L from the spring’s
support. What happens when the mass is pulled down a small
distance from the equilibrium position? The spring exerts a restoring
force, F = !kx , where x is the distance the spring is displaced from
F Fig. 1: Stretched spring
equilibrium and k is the spring constant of the spring ( k = ). The
x
negative sign indicates that the force is directed opposite to the direction of the displacement of
the mass.
Preview
Use a Force Sensor to measure the force exerted on a spring as it is stretched. Use the Xplorer
GLX to record the force. Enter the stretch (displacement) of the spring into the Xplorer GLX.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled spring constant (check the Appendix at the
end of this activity.) The file has a Graph and a Table
of Force, pull positive (N) versus stretch (m). The file
is set up for you to enter the ‘stretch’ of the spring.
Fig. 2: GLX table

Activity 11 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity PS-2826
2. Press to go to the Home Screen. Press F2 ( ) to open

the Table screen.
3. Connect the Force Sensor to one of the sensor ports on the
top end of the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Attach the hook that’s included with the Force Sensor to the
end of the sensor.
2. Mount the Force Sensor vertically so its hook end is down.
3. Hang the spring from the sensor’s hook.
4. Use a meter stick to measure the position of the bottom end
of the spring (without any mass added to the spring). For
your reference, record this measurement as the spring’s
equilibrium position in the Data Table in the Lab Report
section.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the Fig. 3: Equipment setup
equipment and a second person handles the Xplorer GLX.
1. Press the tare button on the Force Sensor to zero the
sensor.
2. Press Start ( ) on the GLX. The GLX measures the

signal from the Force Sensor, but will not record the
data until you press the Flag key.
3. Press the Flag key ( ) to record the first force
measurement.
• The Table screen will prompt you to enter the ‘stretch Fig. 4: Enter 0.00
(m)’ at the bottom of the screen.
4. Use the keypad to enter “0.00” and then press F1 ( ) to select OK.
5. Hang a 100 g mass on the spring.
6. Press to record the new force measurement.
7. Use the meter stick to carefully measure the new position of the
bottom of the spring.
Fig. 5: Hang 100 g

8. Use the keypad to enter the amount of stretch of the spring and then press F1 ( ) to
select OK.
9. Hang a total of 200 g on the spring.
10. Press to record the third force measurement. Use
the meter stick to carefully measure the new position of
the bottom of the spring. Use the keypad to enter the
stretch of the spring and then press F1 to select OK.
11. Repeat the process. Increase the mass on the spring by
100 g each time until the mass on the end of the spring
Fig. 6: Enter the
is 800 g. Press Stop ( ) to end data recording. amount of ‘stretch’
• The table will display the values of force and the
corresponding values of stretch.
Analysis
1. Press to go to the Home Screen. Press F1 ( ) to
open the Graph screen of the force and stretch data.
2. Press F3 ( ) to open the Tools menu. Select Linear
Fit.
• The Slope of the linear fit is the spring constant of your Fig. 7: Data table
spring.
Extension
Repeat with a different spring. Try other items that are elastic
like a spring, such as a rubber band.
Fig. 8: Linear Fit

Appendix
Opening a GLX File
Screen. Press F1 to open the Graph.
Data Files Icon

Lab Report - Activity 11: Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
1. Make a sketch of your force versus time graph including labels for the y- and x-axes.
2. Record your value for the spring constant, k, of your spring.
Item Value
Equilibrium Position m
Spring Constant, k (slope) N/m
Question
1. How well did your measured value for the spring constant compare to the accepted value?

Problem
1. If a spring has a spring constant of 3 newtons per meter (3 N/m), how much force is
needed to stretch the spring 0.15 m?

Activity 12 PS-2826
Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring

Mechanics: simple harmonic motion, spring constant GLX setup file shm spring

1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Equal Length Spring Set (red spring) ME-8970
1 Balance SE-8723
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure the period of oscillation of a mass on the end of spring
and compare the measured value to a theoretical value that is based on the mass and the spring
constant of the spring.
Background
Imagine a mass that is in equilibrium at the end of a spring that
is hanging vertically from a support. If the mass is pulled down a
small distance and released, the spring exerts a restoring force,
F = !kx , where x is the distance the spring is displaced from
F
equilibrium and k is the spring constant of the spring ( k = ).
x
The negative sign indicates that the force is directed opposite to
the direction of the displacement of the mass. Simple harmonic motion
The speed of the mass increases as it moves toward its
equilibrium point. It continues to move above the equilibrium point and stops at a height where
its potential energy closely matches the kinetic energy it had as it passed the equilibrium point.
From this point it moves downward again, gaining speed as it falls. When it moves below the
equilibrium point, it begins to stretch the spring again, and the pattern of motion is repeated.
For a mass on an ideal, massless spring, the motion is simple harmonic motion. The period of
oscillation for an object in simple harmonic motion depends on the mass, m, and the spring
constant, k.
m
T = 2!
k
As the mass oscillates up and down, the energy changes between kinetic and potential form. If
friction and drag are ignored, the total energy of the system is constant.

Activity 12 Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring PS-2826
Preview
Use a Force Sensor to measure the force exerted on a spring as it is stretched. Use the Xplorer
GLX to record and display the force. Determine the period of motion from the graph of force
versus time. Compare the period to a theoretical value.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled shm spring (check the Appendix at the end of
this activity.)
• The file has a graph of Force (N) versus Time (s). The
file is set up so force is measured 40 times per second
(40 Hz) and a positive signal from the sensor means a
pull is applied.
2. Connect the Force Sensor to one of the sensor ports on Fig. 1: File setup
the top end of the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Attach the hook that’s included with the Force Sensor to the
end of the sensor.
2. Use a rod and support stand, a clamp, and a second rod to
mount the Force Sensor vertically so its hook end is down.
3. Carefully measure and record the mass of the spring and then
hang the spring from the sensor’s hook.
4. Measure and record the mass of a 500 g hooked mass and
hang it from the spring.
Record Data
1. Make sure the mass and spring are motionless. Press the tare
button on the Force Sensor to zero the sensor.
2. Pull the mass down to stretch the spring about 15 cm.
Release the mass and let it oscillate a few times.
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin recording data

4. Continue recording for about 10 seconds.
5. Press Stop ( ) to end data recording.


Analysis
Use the graph of force versus time to measure the period of
oscillation of the mass on the spring.
1. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the peak in
the graph. Press F3 ( ) to open the Tools menu.
Select ‘Delta Tool’ and press to activate your
choice.
2. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the next peak
in the graph.
Fig. 4: Select ‘Delta Tool’
• The ‘Delta Tool’ values for ∆y and ∆x are along the y-
axis and x-axis respectively. Record the ∆x value as ‘Period 1’.
3. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the next peak in the graph (second peak from the
first one you selected). Repeat the process to find the time from the first peak to the third
peak of oscillation. Divide the time by 2 and record the value as ‘Period 2’.
4. Repeat the process to find the time from the first peak to the third peak. Divide the time by
3 and record the value as ‘Period 3’.
5. Do the same for the time from the first to fourth and first to fifth peak. Record the times as
‘Period 4’ and ‘Period 5’.
6. Calculate the average period of oscillation from the five times you recorded.
• Because the spring is in motion at the same time that the mass oscillates up and down, part
of the spring’s mass contributes to the motion of the mass. To calculate a theoretical value
for the period of oscillation, you need the ‘effective mass’ of the spring.
7. Calculate the ‘effective mass’ of the spring as one-third of the overall mass of the spring.
8. Calculate the theoretical value of the period of oscillation based on the mass and spring
constant.
Compare the theoretical value for the period and the average of the measured values.
Extension
Repeat with a different spring. Repeat with different amounts of mass. Try other items that are
elastic like a spring, such as a rubber band.

Appendix
Opening a GLX File
). In the Home Screen, select Data Files ( ) and

press to activate your choice. In the Data Files screen,
use the arrow keys to navigate to the file you want. Press F1
( ) to open the file. Press the Home button to return to the
Home Screen. Press to open the Graph.

Lab Report - Activity 12: Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
2. Record the value you are given for the spring constant, k, of your spring.
Item Value
Spring constant, k N/m
Data Table 1
Item Value (s)
Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
Period 4
Period 5
Average period of oscillation

Data Table 2
Item Value
Mass of the spring kg
Effective mass of the spring (one-third mass of the spring) kg
Mass of the hanging mass kg
Mass, m (hooked mass plus effective mass of the spring) kg
Calculation
1. Calculate the theoretical period, T, based on the mass, m, and the spring constant, k.
m
T = 2!
k
2. Calculate the percent difference between the theoretical value of the period of oscillation
and the average period of oscillation.
theoretical value - measured value
x100%
theoretical value
Theoretical Period of Oscillation s

Average Period of Oscillation s
Percent Difference %
Question
1. How well did your measured value for the period compare to the theoretical value?
2. Do your results support or not support the formula for the period of oscillation of a mass
on the end of a spring?

Activity 13 PS-2826
Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum

Mechanics: simple harmonic motion, pendulum GLX setup file: pendulum

1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Pendulum Clamp SE-9443
1 Balance SE-8723
1 Basic Calorimetry Set (metal masses) TD-8557
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine how the mass and length of a pendulum affect the
oscillation period of the pendulum.
Background
A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m, attached to a
frictionless pivot by a cable of length L and negligible mass. When
the particle is pulled away from its equilibrium position by an angle
and released, it swings back and forth. The length L and the
acceleration due to gravity g (9.8 m/s2) determine the period of a
simple pendulum for small angles.
L
T = 2!
g
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the period of a pendulum. Determine the relationship of the
period of oscillation of a pendulum to the length of the pendulum and the mass of the pendulum.
Prediction
1. How will changes in the mass of a pendulum change the period of oscillation of the
pendulum?
2. How will changes in the length of a pendulum change the period of oscillation of the
pendulum?

Activity 13 Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled pendulum. (Check the Appendix at the end of
this activity.)
• The file is set up so that motion is measured 20 times
per second (20 Hz). The Graph screen opens with a
graph of Position (m) versus Time (s).
Fig. 1: Graph screen
3. Connect the Motion Sensor to a sensor port on the top
of the GLX. Set the range selection switch on the sensor
to ‘far’ (person).
Equipment Setup
1. Mount a rod so it is vertical. Attach the pendulum clamp to the rod near
the top.
2. Measure and record the mass m of the first pendulum bob.
Put the first pendulum bob at the middle of a 2 m long piece
of string.
3. Attach the string to the pendulum clamp. Put the ends of the
string on the inner and outer clips of the clamp so the string
forms a 'V' shape as it hangs.
4. Measure and record the length L of the pendulum from the
bottom edge of the pendulum clamp to the middle of the first
pendulum bob.
5. Place the Motion Sensor next to the pendulum bob. Align the
sensor so the brass colored disk is vertical and facing the bob
and is aimed along the direction that the pendulum will
swing.
6. Adjust the pendulum clamp up or down so that the
pendulum bob is directly centered in front of the brass
colored disk on the front of the sensor.
Fig. 2 Equipment setup
7. Move the sensor away from the hanging pendulum bob
about 25 cm (10 in).
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles
the pendulum and a second person handles the Xplorer
GLX.
Fig. 3: Sensor and pendulum

Record Data: Changing Mass

1. Pull the pendulum bob back about 10 cm and let it go. Allow the pendulum to swing back
and forth about five times to smooth its motion.
2. Press Start ( ) to start recording data.
3. After ten seconds, press to stop recording.

4. For a second run, remove the first pendulum bob. Measure and record the mass of a second
pendulum bob and put it on the string. Re-measure the pendulum length and adjust the
string so the length is the same as for the first pendulum bob.
5. Repeat the data recording procedure.
6. Measure and record the mass of a third pendulum bob and put it on the string in place of
the second pendulum bob. Repeat the data recording process.
Record Data: Changing Length
7. Put the first pendulum bob back on the string. Adjust the pendulum clamp and the string so
the length of the pendulum is 15 cm shorter than the original length. Record the new,
shorter pendulum length.
8. Perform the same data recording procedure.
9. For another run, shorten the length another 15 cm. Record the new pendulum length and
repeat the data recording procedure.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the position versus time for each data
run. Determine the period of the pendulum’s swing in each run.
1. To change the Graph screen to show a specific run of data, press
to activate the vertical axis menu. Press the arrow keys ( )
to move to ‘Run #_’ in the upper left hand corner or upper right
corner. Press to open the menu, select the data run in the menu,
and press to activate your choice.
2. To find the period of the swinging pendulum, use the ‘Delta Tool’.
Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the peak in the graph. Fig. 4: Select ‘Run’
Press F3 ( ) to open the Tools menu. Select ‘Delta

Tool’ and press to activate your choice.
3. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the next peak
in the graph.
4. The ‘Delta Tool’ values for ∆y and ∆x are along the y-
axis and x-axis respectively. Record the ∆x value as
‘Period 1’.

5. Repeat the analysis process to find the period of time for five separate swings. Calculate
the average period and record it in the Data Table.
6. Repeat the analysis process for the other runs of data.
open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 13: Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
pendulum?
pendulum?
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of position versus time. Include units and labels for your axes.

Data Table 1
Original length, L = _________
Item Mass (kg) Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5 Average

Pendulum 1
Pendulum 2
Pendulum 3
Item Length (m) Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5 Average

Length 1
Length 2
Length 3
Questions
1. What is the shape of the graph of position versus time for the pendulum?
2. What happened to your measured values for the period when you changed the mass of the
pendulum bob?
3. What happened to your measured values for the period when you changed the length of the
pendulum?
Calculation
Calculate a theoretical value for the period of the pendulum for the original length of L
T = 2!
your pendulum. Calculate the percent difference between the theoretical value for g
period and the average measured value for period that you recorded in the data table.
theoretical ! measured
%diff = " 100%
Item Value theoretical
Theoretical period
Average period
Percent difference

Activity 14 PS-2826
Momentum in Collisions
Mechanics: momentum, impulse, conservation of momentum GLX setup file: momentum

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
2 GOcar ME-6951
1 Balance SE-8723
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the momentum of two carts before and after they
collide.
Background
When objects collide, whether locomotives, shopping carts, or your
foot and the sidewalk, the results can be complicated. Yet even in the
most chaotic of collisions, as long as there are no net external forces
acting on the colliding objects, one principle always holds and provides
an excellent tool for understanding the collision. That principle is
called the conservation of momentum. For a two-object collision,
momentum conservation is stated mathematically by the following equation:
m1v1 + m2v 2 = m1v1' + m2 v '2
If external forces (such as friction) are ignored, the total momentum of two carts prior to a
collision (left side of equation) is the same as the total momentum of the carts after the collision
(right side of equation).
The change in momentum for each cart is its mass times its change in velocity.
m1!v1 = m2 !v 2
( ) (
m1 v1' " v1 = m2 v '2 " v 2 )
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use two Motion Sensors to measure the motion of two carts before and after they collide.
Compare the momentum of the carts before they collide with the momentum after they collide.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. How would you calculate the total momentum for two carts that are about to collide?
2. How will the momentum of two carts after they collide compare to the momentum of the
two carts before the collision?

Activity 14 Momentum in Collisions PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled momentum. (Check the Appendix at the end
of this activity.)
graph of Velocity (m) versus Time (s). The graph
shows the measurements from both sensors. The file Fig. 1: Graph screen
uses a calculation on the data from one of the sensors
so that motion away from that sensor will appear to be
negative and motion toward it will be positive.
4. Connect the first Motion Sensor to sensor port 1 on the top of the
GLX. Connect the second Motion Sensor to sensor port 2 on the
GLX. Set the range selection switch on both sensors to ‘near’ (cart).
Equipment Setup
1. Set up the track so that it is level. (Place a cart on the track. If the cart rolls one way or the
other, adjust the track
to raise or lower one
end.)
2. Attach the first sensor
at the left end of the
track. Attach the
second sensor at the
right end of the track.
3. Measure and record
the mass m of each
cart.
• NOTE: The
procedure is easier if
one person handles
the carts and a second
person handles the Fig. 2 Equipment setup
Xplorer GLX.

Record Data
1. Place the two carts on the track. Label the cart in front of sensor #1 as cart #1. Label the
other cart as cart #2. (Don’t put a cart closer than 15 cm (0.15 m) in front of a sensor).

3. Collide the two carts.
4. Press to stop recording.

On-the-Spot Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the velocity versus time for the
first data run. Determine the velocity before the collision and after
the collision for both carts. Calculate the momentum of each cart.
Compare the total momentum of the two carts after the collision to
the total momentum of the two carts before the collision.
5. To find the velocity of the cart in front of sensor #1, use the
Smart Tool. Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select
‘Smart Tool’ and press to activate your choice. Use the Fig. 3: Select ‘Smart Tool’
arrow keys to move the ‘Smart Tool’ to the velocity of

the cart before the collision. Record the value in the
Data Table. Next, use the arrow keys and ‘Smart Tool’
to find the velocity of the cart after the collision.
Record the value.
6. To see the data for the cart in front of sensor #1, press
F4 ( ) to open the ‘Graphs’ menu. Use the arrow
keys to select ‘Graph 2’ and press to activate your
choice. Fig. 4: Velocity ‘before’
7. Turn on the ‘Smart Tool’. In ‘Graph 2’, use the arrow
keys and ‘Smart Tool’ to find the velocity of the cart
before and then after the collision. Record the values
in the Data Table.
Record Data: Try Other Types of Collisions
1. Repeat the data recording and ‘on-the-spot’ analysis
for ten more collisions.
• Vary the masses of the carts.
• Try different types of motion such as one cart initially Fig. 5: Select ‘Graph 2’
at rest, or both carts moving in the same direction with
one cart overtaking the other.
• Vary the type of collision (for example: elastic, inelastic).
2. Record your values for the masses and velocities of the carts in the Data Table.

Analysis
vertical axis menu. Press the arrow keys ( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in the upper left hand
corner or upper right corner. Press to open the menu, select the data run in the menu,
2. Repeat the analysis process for each of your runs of data.
To open a specific GLX file, go to the Home Screen ( ). In the Home Screen, select Data Files
and press to activate your choice. In the Data Files screen, use the arrow keys to navigate to
the file you want. Press to open the file. Press the Home
button to return to the Home Screen. Press to open the
Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 14: Momentum in Collisions

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Pre-Lab Questions
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of velocity versus time. Include units and labels for your axes.

Data Table 1
Cart 1 Cart 2 Before After

Item Mass Mass Velocity, cart 1 Velocity, cart 2 Velocity, cart 1 Velocity, cart 2
(kg) (kg) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Calculations
Calculate the total momentum before and the total momentum after for each collision.
Item Momentum Before Momentum After

(kg•m/s) (kg•m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Questions
1. In general, how does the momentum after a collision compare to the momentum before the
collision?

2. In which type of collision was the before-and-after difference in momentum the least? In
which type of collision was the difference the most?
3. What factors might cause the total momentum after a collision to not equal the total
momentum before the collision?
4. For a theoretical head-on collision between two carts of equal mass and equal speed, what
is the total momentum before the collision?
5. Discuss the momentum of a firecracker at rest compared to the momentum of the

firecracker after it explodes.
6. Imagine two carts, one with twice the mass of the other, that are going to have a head-on
collision. In order for the two carts to be at rest after the collision, how fast must the less
massive cart move compared to the more massive cart?


Activity 15 PS-2826
Impulse and Change in Momentum

Mechanics: momentum, impulse, change in momentum GLX setup file: impulse

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Accessory Bracket with Bumpers CI-6545
1 Balance SE-8723
2 Book (heavy)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the change in
momentum and the impulse (net force multiplied by time) in a
collision.
Background
Impulse is the net force applied to an object multiplied by the amount of time Impulse = F!t
during which the net force acts. Impulse is a vector quantity and has the same
direction as the net force. The unit of impulse is the newton•second (N•s).
When a net force acts on an object, the object’s momentum changes. For example, when an
object collides with an obstacle, its momentum changes. The amount of change in momentum is
the same whether the collision is abrupt or is spread out over an interval of time. The difference
between a quick, hard collision and the slower collision is the amount of force that is applied.
During a quick collision, the amount of force is greater than during a slower collision.
When a net force acts on an object, the change in momentum is equal to the impulse:
Impulse = F!t = !mv = mv final " mv initial
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart during a collision and use a Force Sensor to
measure the force during the collision. Compare the change in momentum of the cart to the
impulse.
Prediction
How does the change in momentum of a cart during a collision compare to the impulse during
the collision?

Activity 15 Impulse and Change in Momentum PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
2. Open the GLX setup file labeled impulse. (Check the
per second (50 Hz) and force is measured 500 times
graph of Velocity (m) versus Time (s) and a graph of
Force (N) versus Time (s). In other words, the graph
Fig. 1: Graph screen
shows the measurements from both sensors.
3. Connect the Motion Sensor to sensor port 1 on the top
of the GLX. Connect the Force Sensor to sensor port 2 on the GLX.
Set the range selection switch on the Motion Sensor to ‘near’ (cart).
Equipment Setup
1. Mount the Force Sensor on the Accessory Bracket. Attach one of the spring bumpers from
the bracket onto the front end of the sensor.
2. Mount the Accessory Bracket in the T-slot on the side of the track.
3. Attach the Motion Sensor at the other end of the track and raise that end of the track about
5 cm (0.05 m). Aim the sensor at the other sensor. Put a mark on the track about 20 cm in
front of the Motion Sensor.
4. Brace the lower end of the track against a heavy object, such as a thick book, so the track
will not move during the collision.
5. Measure and record the total mass of the cart.
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the cart and a second person handles
the Xplorer GLX.

Record Data
1. Place the cart on the track at the 20 cm mark in front of the Motion Sensor.
2. Press the ZERO button on top of the Force Sensor to zero the sensor.
3. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Release the cart so it rolls down the track.
4. Press to stop recording after the cart collides with the bumper.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the velocity versus time for the
cart. Determine the velocity before the collision and after the
collision. Use your data to calculate the change in momentum.
Use the Graph screen to examine the force versus time. Determine
the area under the curve for the collision. The area is the impulse.
Compare the change in momentum of the cart to the impulse
5. Press F2 to activate ‘Scale/Move’. Toggle between ‘Scale’
and ‘Move’ and use the left-right arrow keys to stretch out Fig. 3: Select ‘Smart Tool’
the horizontal scale of the Graph screen.

6. To find the velocity of the cart, use the Smart Tool.
Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select ‘Smart
Tool’ and press to activate your choice. Use the
arrow keys to move the ‘Smart Tool’ to the velocity of
the cart before the collision. Record the value in the
Data Table.
7. Next, use the arrow keys and ‘Smart Tool’ to find the
velocity of the cart after the collision. Record the value. Fig. 4: Velocity ‘before’
8. To see the data for Force Sensor, press to open the
‘Tools’ menu. Use the arrow keys to select ‘Toggle Active Data’ and press to activate
your choice.
• The active cursor will switch to the plot of force data.
9. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the point in the force data at the beginning of the
collision. Open the ‘Tools’ menu and select ‘Area Tool’. Press to activate your choice.
Use the arrow keys to move the
cursor to the end of the collision.
• The graph will display the area under
the curve of force versus time.
10. Record the area under the curve as
the impulse.
Fig. 5: ‘Toggle Active Data’ Fig. 6: ‘Area Tool’

Record Data: Try Other Types of Collisions

1. Repeat the data recording and analysis for other collisions.
• Vary the mass of the cart.
• Change the type of bumper.
2. Record your values for the masses and velocities of the cart and the amount of impulse in
the Data Table.
Analysis
2. Repeat the analysis process for each of your runs of data.
To open a specific GLX file, go to the Home Screen ( ). In the
Home Screen, select Data Files and press to activate your
choice. In the Data Files screen, use the arrow keys to navigate to
the file you want. Press to open the file. Press the Home
button to return to the Home Screen. Press to open the
Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 15: Impulse and Change in Momentum

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
the collision?
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of velocity versus time and force versus time. Include units and labels
for your axes.

Data Table
Item Mass Velocity, before Velocity, after Momentum, before Momentum, after
(kg) (m/s) (m/s) (kg•m/s) (kg•m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
Calculations
Calculate the momentum before and the momentum after and find the change in momentum.
!mv = mv after " mv before
Compare the change in momentum (∆ momentum) to the impulse (area under the curve).
Calculate the percent difference of the change in
momentum (∆mv) and the impulse.
!mv " impulse
%diff = ) 100%
# !mv + impulse &
%$ 2 ('
Item ∆ Momentum Impulse Percent

(kg•m/s) (N•s) Difference
1
2
3
4
5
Questions
1. Why does the velocity of the cart change from a positive value before the collision to a
negative value after the collision?
2. Why can you use the area under the curve of force versus time to get the value of the
impulse?

3. What are possible reasons why the change in momentum is different from the measured
impulse?
4. In general, how does the change in momentum compare to the impulse?
5. Do your results support your prediction?
6. The units of momentum are kg•m/s and the units of impulse are N•s. Show how these two
units are equivalent. (Hint: What is the definition of the newton, N?)


Activity 16 PS-2826
Safety Bumper Design Competition

Mechanics: momentum, impulse, impact force GLX setup file: bumper

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Accessory Bracket with Bumpers CI-6545
1 Balance SE-8723
1 Student designed safety bumper
100 g Paper clips (or equivalent)
2 Book (heavy)
Purpose
The purpose of this competition is to test student designed safety bumpers during a collision.
Determine which bumper design provides the lowest force during impact.
Background
When an object collides with an obstacle, its momentum changes. The amount of change in
momentum is the same whether the collision is abrupt or the collision is spread out over an
interval of time. The difference between a quick, hard collision and the slower collision is the
amount of force that is applied during the impact. In a quick collision, the amount of impact
force is greater than during a slower collision.
Impulse is the net force applied to an object multiplied by the amount of time during which the
net force acts. When a net force acts on an object, the change in momentum is equal to the
impulse:
Impulse = F!t = !mv = mv final " mv initial
Vehicle Safety Features

Air bags, safety belts, collapsible steering columns, padded
dashboards, ‘crumple zones’, and impact-absorbing bumpers
are examples of safety features on vehicles. One thing they
have in common is the ability to extend the time of a collision
in order to reduce the impact force. They ‘cushion’ the impact
so that the vehicle occupant experiences less force.
Safety Precautions
Fig. 1: The vehicle occupant
• Follow all directions for using the equipment. survived a 50 mile per hour
collision unharmed.
Preview
Design a safety bumper for the cart. Use a Force Sensor to measure the force of impact during a
collision between the cart and the sensor. Compare the maximum impact force for different kinds
of bumpers attached to the front of the cart.

Activity 16 Safety Bumper Design Competition PS-2826
Competition Rules
The change in momentum must be the same for each cart. Therefore, each cart must have the
same total mass and the same final velocity when it collides with the bumper on the sensor.
Mass Requirement
• Each cart must meet the mass requirement before data recording starts.
• The competition requirement for the total mass of the cart with the safety bumper is 100 g
(0.1 kg) more than the mass of the cart by itself. (For example, if the cart is 250 g (0.25
kg), the total mass requirement for the competition is 350 g or 0.35 kg.)
• If the cart and the safety bumper have a combined mass less than the requirement, more
mass must be added to the accessory tray of the cart so that the total is at the competition
requirement.
Velocity Requirement
• The bumper must not interfere with the motion of the cart down the track.
• The cart must be placed on the track so that the front of the bumper is exactly 40 cm (0.4
m) from the bumper on the sensor.
• Each track in the competition must be at the same angle relative to horizontal. (For
example, if the 1.2 m PASCO track is used, raise one end so its top edge is 6 cm (0.06 m)
higher than the top edge of the other end in order to have a 3º angle.)
Other Requirements
• The bumper must be designed to attach to and detach from the cart easily.
• The bumper must not extend more than 5 cm (0.05 m) in front of the cart.
• The bumper must not make contact with any part of the sensor except the rubber bumper.
• The bumper must not damage the sensor.
General Rules
• Each competitor (or team) will be allowed three trials with a maximum of two minutes
between trials to make modifications.
• The instructor will be the judge of whether a cart meets the requirements and will be final
arbitrator of any disputes.

Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup file labeled bumper. (Check the Appendix
at the end of this activity.)
• The file is set up so that force is measured 500 times per second (500 Hz). The Graph
screen opens with a graph of Force (N) versus Time (s).
2. Connect the Force Sensor to a sensor port on the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Mount the Force Sensor on the Accessory Bracket. Attach the rubber bumper that comes
with the sensor to the front of the sensor.
2. Mount the Accessory Bracket in the T-slot on the side of the track.
3. Raise the other end of the track to the competition limit.
4. Brace the lower end of the track against a heavy object, such as a thick book, so the track
will not move during the collision.
5. Measure and record the mass of the cart. Attach your bumper to the front end of the cart
and re-measure the mass of the cart plus bumper. If needed, add mass to the accessory tray
of the cart so the total mass is at the competition requirement. (Hint: Use paper clips.)
• Be sure to align your bumper so it will make contact with the bumper on the front of the
sensor.
the Xplorer GLX.
Record Data
1. Place the cart on the
track so the front of the 40 cm (0.4 m)
bumper is exactly 40
cm (0.4 m) from the
bumper on the sensor.
2. Press the ZERO button Fig. 3: Record data setup
on top of the Force
Sensor to zero the sensor.

3. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Release the cart so it rolls down the track.
4. Press to stop recording after the cart collides with the sensor.
5. Repeat the process for a total of three trials.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the force versus time for the cart. Determine the maximum
force during the collision.
2. If needed, stretch out the horizontal scale of the Graph
screen. Press F2 to activate ‘Scale/Move’. Toggle between
‘Scale’ and ‘Move’ and use the left-right arrow keys.
3. Use the built-in statistics to find the maximum force during
impact. Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select
‘Statistics’ and press to activate your choice.
4. Record the ‘Max’ force value in the Data Table. Fig. 4: Select ‘Statistics’
Extension: Try Other Types of Bumpers
1. Repeat the data recording and analysis for other types of bumpers.
2. Record your values for the maximum impact force.
navigate to the file you want. Press to open the file.
Press the Home button to return to the Home Screen. Press
to open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 16: Safety Bumper Design Competition

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Pre-competition Data
Record the total mass requirement for the cart plus bumper.
Item Value
Mass requirement
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of force versus time data. Include units and labels for your axes.
Data Table
Trial Mass (kg) Max. Force (N)

1
2
3
Average
Calculations
Calculate the average maximum impact force. Record and report your value.

Questions
1. What kind of bumper gave the lowest impact force? What kind of bumper gave the highest
impact force?
2. During the impact, in what direction are the force and acceleration? Explain.
3. Why do vehicle safety features like impact-absorbing bumpers, air bags, and safety belts
save lives? Explain using terms such as force, time, impulse, and change in momentum.

Activity 17 PS-2826
Explore Gravitational Potential Energy

Mechanics: potential energy, weight, GPE GLX setup file: explore gpe

1 Balance (optional) SE-8723
1 Softball or similar ball (about 10 cm in diameter)
1 Book
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the relationship between an object’s distance from a
reference point and its gravitational potential energy.
Background
Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its vertical position relative to a
reference point (such as the surface of the Earth).
When an object is lifted a certain vertical distance, it gains gravitational potential energy. How
much it has depends on its weight (mg) and the vertical distance. As the object changes its
position, its gravitational potential energy changes.
GPE = mgh . where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of an object such as a ball as it is moved up and
down relative to the sensor. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion and the
gravitational potential energy of the object. Compare the position of the object to its gravitational
potential energy.
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled explore gpe. (Check the Appendix at the end
of this activity.)
• The file is set up to measure motion 20 times per
second (20 Hz). The Graph screen opens with a graph
of energy (joules) versus Time (s). The file has a
second graph (Graph 2) of energy (joules) versus Fig. 1: ‘Graph 2’
Position (m).
2. Connect the Motion Sensor to a sensor port on top of the GLX.

Activity 17 Explore Gravitational Potential Energy PS-2826
Equipment Setup
1. Set the range selection switch on top of the sensor to the ‘far’
(person) setting.
2. Place the sensor on the floor and adjust the sensor so it is aimed
straight up.
Fig. 2: Select range
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the object
and a second person handles the Xplorer GLX.
1. Measure and record the mass of the ball.
2. Hold the ball about a meter directly above the Motion Sensor.
3. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Move the ball up and down slowly above the
sensor.
4. Watch the plot of data on the energy versus Time graph display.
5. After ten seconds, press to stop data recording.

6. Repeat the process again, but move the ball differently (higher, lower, faster, slower, etc.)
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the energy versus Time for each
run. Use the second graph (Graph 2) to compare the energy versus
Position for each run.
1. To change the Graph screen to show a specific run of data,
press to activate the vertical axis menu. Press the arrow Fig. 3: Select data run
keys ( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in the upper left hand corner.
Press to open the menu, select the data run in the menu,
2. To change the Graph screen to show ‘Graph 2’, press F4
( ) to open the Graphs menu. Use the arrow keys to select
Graph 2 and press to activate your choice.
Record your results and answer the questions in the Lab
Report section.
to open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 17: Explore Gravitational Potential Energy

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Record the mass of the ball.
Item Value
Mass
Sketch a graph of energy versus Time for one run of data. Include units and labels for your axes.
Sketch a graph of energy versus Position for one run. Include units and labels.

Questions
1. What happens to the gravitational potential energy (energy) as the ball moves down?
2. What happens to the gravitational potential energy (energy) as the ball moves up?
3. If you moved the ball between a high point and a low point slowly, and then repeated the
move from the same two points more rapidly, would the energy the ball has at each point
be the same or different? Explain.
4. What is the shape of the plot of data in the ‘energy versus Position’ graph?
5. What do you think that this means about the gravitational potential energy relative to the
height?

Activity 18 PS-2826
Conserve Energy
Mechanics: kinetic energy, potential energy, conservation of energy GLX setup file: energy

1 Large Table Clamp ME-9472
2 Rod, 120 cm ME-8741
1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Balance SE-8723
1 Meter Stick (or metric tape measure) SE-8695
1 Softball or similar ball (about 10 cm in diameter)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the relationship between the change in the
gravitational potential energy and the kinetic energy of a falling object.
Background
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion of an object. Gravitational potential energy is the energy
of an object due to its vertical position relative to a reference point (such as the surface of the
Earth). An object at a given height has potential energy relative to a lower reference point. If the
object is dropped, it gains kinetic energy. What happens to the potential energy as it falls?
When an object is lifted, the amount its gravitational potential energy changes depends on its
mass, the acceleration due to gravity, and its height. The formula for gravitational potential
energy is GPE = mgh where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the
height. When an object is moving, its kinetic energy depends on its mass and its speed. The
1
formula for kinetic energy is KE = mv 2 where m is the mass and v is the speed.
2
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a ball as it falls from a given height. Use the
Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion. Determine the ball’s gravitational potential
energy and its kinetic energy. Compare the change in potential energy to the final kinetic energy.
Prediction
1. As the ball falls, what will happen to its gravitational potential energy?
2. What will happen to the kinetic energy of the balls as it falls?
3. How will the change in potential energy compare to the final kinetic energy?

Activity 18 Conserve Energy PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup file labeled
energy. (Check the Appendix at the end of this activity.)
• The file is set up so that motion is measured 25 times per second
(25 Hz). The Graph screen opens with a graph of Position (m) and Fig. 1: Select range
Time (s). The file also has a second graph (Graph 2) of Velocity
(m/s) versus Time (s).
2. Connect the Motion Sensor to a sensor port on the top of the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Set the range selection switch on top of the sensor to the ‘far’
(person) setting.
2. Use rods and clamps to mount the sensor so it is facing
downwards. Put a pad on the floor underneath the sensor.
3. Adjust the height of the sensor so that it is at least 2.0 m
above the surface of the floor.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the ball
and a second person handles the Xplorer GLX.
1. Measure and record the mass of the ball (in kg).
2. Hold the ball 15 cm (0.15 m) directly below the Motion
Sensor. Fig. 2: Equipment setup
3. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Release the ball so

it drops straight down from the sensor.
4. Press to stop data recording when the ball hits the pad.

Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the Position versus Time data.
Use the second graph (Graph 2) to examine the Velocity versus
Time.
2. Use the ‘Delta Tool’ to determine the distance that the ball
fell. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the beginning
of the fall. Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select
‘Delta Tool’ and press to activate your choice.
3. Use the arrow keys to move the ‘Delta Tool’ to the end of Fig. 4: Select ‘Delta Tool’
the fall on the graph. Record the distance that the ball fell in
the Data Table.
4. Use the distance that the ball fell and the mass of the ball to calculate the change in
potential energy. Record this in the Lab Report.
5. On the graph, determine the time at which the ball reached its maximum distance. Record
the time. (You will use this time when you examine ‘Graph 2’.)
6. Switch to ‘Graph 2’. Press F4 ( ) to open the ‘Graphs’ menu. Select Graph 2 and press
7. Move the cursor to find the velocity at the time that is closest to the time at which the ball
reached its maximum distance. (You may not be able to get the exact time coordinate
because of the way that velocity is calculated from the position data.) Record the velocity.
8. Use the velocity and the mass of the ball to calculate the final kinetic energy of the ball.
Extension
Try balls of different sizes and masses. Do you get the same percentage of conversion of
potential energy to kinetic energy?
Devise a different method using other sensors to get the data for the distance the ball falls and its
final velocity.


to open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 18: Conserve Energy

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data
Sketch a graph of position versus time and velocity versus time for one run of data. Include units
and labels for your axes.

Data Table
Item Value
Mass of ball
Distance, maximum
Time (distance, maximum)
Final velocity
Change in potential energy
Final kinetic energy
Percent difference
Calculations
Use the mass of the ball and the distance it fell to calculate the change in potential energy.
Remember, GPE = mgh where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the
height (the distance the ball fell).
Use the mass of the ball and the final velocity to calculate the final kinetic energy. The kinetic
1
energy is KE = mv 2 where m is the mass and v is the velocity.
2
Calculate the percent difference between the change in potential energy and the final kinetic
!PE " KE
energy. %diff = # 100% .
!PE
Questions
1. What happens to the ball’s gravitational energy as the ball falls?
2. What happens to the ball’s kinetic energy as the ball falls?
3. What is the relationship of kinetic energy and potential energy as the ball falls?

Activity 19 PS-2826
Work and Energy

Mechanics: work-energy theorem, conservation of energy GLX setup file: work energy

1 1.2 m PASCO Track
1 GOcar ME-6951
1 Balance SE-8723
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to compare the work done on a cart to the change in kinetic energy
of the cart. Determine the relationship of work done to the change in energy.
Background
For an object with mass m that experiences a net force Fnet over a distance d that is W = Fnet d
parallel to the net force, the equation shows the work done, W.
If the work changes the object's vertical position, the
object's gravitational potential energy changes. 1 1
However, if the work changes only the object's W = !KE = KEf " KE i = mv f 2 " mv i 2
2 2
speed, the object's kinetic energy, KE, changes as
shown in the second equation where W is the work, vf is the final speed of the object and vi is the
initial speed of the object.
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use a Force Sensor to measure the force applied to a cart by a string attached to a descending
mass. Use the Motion Sensor to measure the motion of the cart as it is pulled by the string. Use
the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force and the motion. Determine the work done on the
system and the final kinetic energy of the system. Compare the work done to the final kinetic
energy.
Prediction
1. As work is done to accelerate a cart, what will happen to its kinetic energy?
2. How would the work done on the cart compare to its final kinetic energy?

Activity 19 Work and Energy PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup file labeled work energy. (Check the
• The file is set up to measure force 50 times per second (50 Hz) and to measure motion 20
times per second (20 Hz). The Graph screen opens with a graph of Position (m) and Time
(s). The file also has a second graph (Graph 2) of Force (N) versus Position (m).
2. Connect the Motion Sensor to sensor port 1 on the GLX and connect the Force Sensor to
sensor port 2.
Equipment Setup
1. Set the range selection switch on top of the Motion Sensor to the
‘near’ (cart) setting.
2. Place the track on a horizontal surface and level the track. If a
cart rolls one way or the other on the track, raise or lower one
Fig. 1: Select range
end of the track so the carts does not roll.
3. Attach the Super Pulley with Clamp to one end of the track.
Mount the Motion Sensor at the other end of the track and adjust the sensor so it is aimed at
the pulley
4. Mount the Force Sensor on the top of the cart. Add a 200 g (0.2 kg) mass to the cart. Place
the cart on the track. Press the ZERO button on the sensor to zero the sensor.
5. Attach a string to the cart and put the string over the pulley. Adjust the length of the string
so that when the cart is almost to the pulley, the end of the string almost reaches the floor.
6. Put a 20 g (0.02 kg) mass on the end of the string. Adjust the pulley up or down so the
string is parallel to the track.
7. Put the cart, string, and hanging mass together on a balance and measure and record the
total mass of the system. (The kinetic energy of the system depends on all the mass that is
in motion.) Place the cart, string, and hanging mass back on the track after you record the
mass.

Record Data
the Xplorer GLX.
1. Pull the cart away from the pulley until the hanging mass is just below the pulley.
2. Support the Force Sensor’s cable so the cart can move freely.
3. Press Start ( ) to start recording data. Release the cart so it moves toward the pulley.
4. Press to stop data recording just before the cart reaches the pulley.
• NOTE: Don’t let the cart hit the pulley.
Analysis
Use the Graph screen to examine the Position versus Time and the
Velocity versus Time data. Use the second graph (Graph 2) to
examine the Force versus Position.
Press to open the menu, select the data run in the
menu, and press to activate your choice.
2. Change the Graph screen to show Velocity versus Time.
Press to activate the vertical axis. Press to
open the vertical axis menu. Use the arrow keys to
select ‘Velocity’ and press again to activate your
choice.
3. Move the cursor to the maximum value of velocity and
record the value in the Data Table.
4. Switch to Graph 2. Press F4 ( ) to open the ‘Graphs’
menu. Select ‘Graph 2’ and press to activate your choice.
5. Find the area under the curve. Move the cursor to the beginning of the data. Press F3 ( )
to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select ‘Area Tool’ and press to activate your choice.
6. The area under the curve is shown below the X-axis. Record the value as the work done.
7. Use the maximum velocity and the mass of the system (cart, sensor, string, hanging mass)
to calculate the final kinetic energy of the system.


open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 19: Work and Energy

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data
Sketch a graph of velocity versus time and a graph of force versus position for one run of data.
Include units and labels for your axes.

Data Table
Item Value
Mass of system, total
Velocity, maximum
Work done
Kinetic energy, final
Percent difference
Calculations
Use the mass of the system and the final (maximum) velocity to calculate the final kinetic energy
1
of the system. Kinetic energy is KE = mv 2 where m is the mass and v is the velocity.
2
Calculate the percent difference between the work done (area under force-position curve) and the
W ! KE
final kinetic energy. %diff = " 100% .
W
Questions
1. What happens to the kinetic energy as work is done on the system?
2. How does the final kinetic energy compare to the work done?
3. The kinetic energy is measured in joules and the work done is measured in newton•meters
(N m). What is the relationship between a joule and a newton•meter?

Activity 20 PS-2826
Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time of Flight

Mechanics: projectile motion, free fall, time of flight GLX setup file: projectile

2 PASPORT Photogate Port PS-2123A
2 Photogate Head ME-9498
1 Time-of-Flight Accessory ME-6810
1 Photogate Mounting Bracket ME-6821
1 Projectile Launcher ME-6800
1 Metric Measuring Tape, 30 m (or equivalent) SE-8712
1 Extension Cord, 6 m PI-8117
1 C-clamp, large SE-7285
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to compare the time-of-flight of a projectile for different values of
initial speed when the projectile launcher is aimed horizontally.
Background
A student stands on a platform and aims a ball thrower so the ball
will fly horizontally. The student pulls back on the thrower about
halfway and releases the ball. The ball is released from a vertical
height of about 5 meters and it reaches the ground about one second
later.
The student decides to launch a second ball, but pulls back as far as possible so the ball will have
more than twice its original speed. Will this faster ball take a longer time before it hits the
ground? Assume that the student still aims the thrower horizontally.
Projectile motion is a kind of two-dimensional motion that occurs when the moving object (the
projectile) experiences only the acceleration due to gravity, which acts in the vertical direction.
The acceleration of the projectile has no horizontal component if the effects of air resistance are
ignored. The vertical component of the acceleration equals the acceleration due to gravity, ‘g’.
Is the vertical motion of a projectile independent of any horizontal motion the ball may have? Is
the time for a ball to fall to the ground independent of its horizontal speed if the ball is launched
horizontally?
Safety Precautions
• Follow all directions for using the equipment. Wear safety goggles.
Preview
Use Photogates and a Time-of-Flight pad connected to the Xplorer GLX with Digital Adapters to
measure the initial speed and time-of-flight of a projectile. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and
display the times. Determine the relationship between the initial speed of the projectile and the
overall time-of-flight?

Activity 20 Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time of Flight PS-2826
Prediction
How would the time-of-flight of a projectile change if its initial speed is increased but the angle
of launch is always horizontal?
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup file labeled projectile. (Check the
2. In the Home Screen, press F2 ( ) to open the
Table screen.
• The Table screen has a column of initial velocity
(m/s) and a column of Time of Flight (s).
3. Connect one Photogate Port into sensor port 1 on
the GLX and connect the other Photogate Port
into sensor port 2.
Fig. 1: GLX Table
Equipment Setup
1. Plug the two Photogate Heads into the jacks on the
first Photogate Port.
2. Connect the extension cord to the Time-of-Flight Accessory and plug the extension cord
into the #1 jack on the second Photogate Port.
3. Clamp the base of the Projectile Launcher to the edge of a sturdy table. Aim the launcher
away from the table toward the center of an open area at least 3 meters away.
4. Adjust the angle of the launcher to zero degrees so Launcher Photogates Line of Sight
the plastic ball will be launched horizontally.
5. Slide the photogate mounting bracket into the T-
slot on the bottom side of the projectile launcher.
Mount one Photogate to the bracket in the position
closest to the end of the launcher. Mount the other
Photogate to the bracket in the other position.
• Note: Make sure the Photogates that are mounted
on the front of the projectile launcher are separated
by 10 centimeters (0.10 m).
Time of Flight pad

Record Data
Horizontal, Short Range
1. Put the plastic ball into the projectile launcher. Cock the launcher to the short-range
position.
2. Test fire the ball to determine where to place the timing pad on the floor. Put the Time-of-
Flight pad on the floor where the ball hits.
3. Reload the ball into the projectile launcher, and cock the launcher to the short-range
position.

5. Shoot the ball on the short-range position. After the ball hits the Time-of-Flight pad, press
to stop data recording. Record the initial speed and the time of flight in the Lab
Report section.
Horizontal, Middle Range
6. Reload the ball into the launcher, but cock the launcher to the middle-range position. Test
fire the ball to determine the new location to put the Time-of-Flight pad. Move the pad.
7. Reload the ball into the launcher and put the launcher in the middle-range position.
8. When you are ready, press to begin recording data.

9. Shoot the ball with the launcher in the middle-range position. After the ball hits the Time-
of-Flight pad, press to stop data recording. Record the initial speed and time of flight.
Horizontal, Long Range
10. Reload the ball into the launcher, but cock the launcher to the long-range position. Test fire
the ball to determine the new location to put the Time-of-Flight pad. Move the pad.
11. Reload the ball into the launcher and put the launcher in the long-range position.
12. When you are ready, press .

13. Shoot the ball with the launcher in the long-range position. After the ball hits the Time-of-
Flight pad, press . Record the initial speed and time of flight.

Analyze
Use your results to answer the questions in the Lab Report.
1. To change the Table screen to show a specific run of data,
press to activate the column label. Press the arrow keys
( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ above the column label. Press
to open the menu, select the data run in the menu, and
Fig. 3: Select data run
press to activate your choice.
open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 20: Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time of

Flight
Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data Table
Launch Angle Horizontal
Range Initial Speed (m/s) Time of Flight (s)

Short
Middle
Long
Questions
1. How do the values for the time of flight for the short, middle, and long-range distances
compare when the ball was launched horizontally?
2. What was the independent variable in this activity (what did you change from one run to
the next)?
3. Which variables did you measure?
4. How can you predict how long a ball will stay in the air? Does a change in its initial speed
change the "time of flight"? If so, how?


Activity 21A PS-2826
Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius and Mass

Mechanics: circular motion, circular speed, centripetal force GLX setup file: centripetal-speed

1 Discover Centripetal Force Kit ME-9837
1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Metric ruler
1 Marker pen
Purpose
This is the first part of a three-part activity. The purpose is to derive the centripetal force
equation. Specifically, the purpose of this part of the activity is to explore the relationship of
centripetal force and circular speed.
Background
A student is watching cars as they go through a curve on a
winding road. As the first car goes through the curve in the
road, the student notices that the tendency of the car is to
continue in a straight-line path, so the car ‘leans’ as it goes
through the curve. The next car goes through the curve at a
faster speed than the first car. The car ‘leans’ more and the tires
squeal against the road. The third car is faster than the second
car, and there is not enough friction between the tires and the
road to keep the car on the road. The car skids onto the
shoulder.
How does the centripetal force that causes an object to follow a circular path relate to the speed
of the object?
Safety Precautions
• Wear safety goggles! Clear the area where you will record your data.
• Follow all directions for using the equipment. Do not let the rubber stopper hit anything.
Preview
Use a Force Sensor to measure the centripetal force applied to a mass as it moves in a circle at
different speeds. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force. Determine the period of
motion of the twirling mass and calculate its circular speed. Compare the centripetal force to the
circular speed.
Prediction
A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed radius. How would the centripetal force change if its
speed were increased?

Activity 21A Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius and Mass PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled centripetal-speed. (Check the Appendix at
the end of this activity.)
• The file opens with a Graph screen showing Force,
pull positive (N) versus Time (s). The file is set to
measure force 100 times per second (100 Hz). (Note:
If the Graph screen shows ‘circular speed (m/s)’ and
‘average force (n)’ instead of Force, pull positive,
press F4 ( ) to open the Graphs menu and select Fig. 1: GLX Graph
‘Graph 1’. Press to activate your choice.)
2. Connect the Force Sensor into a sensor port on the top of the GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Use a clamp and rod to mount the Force Sensor with its
hook end up as shown.
2. Secure a plastic tie through the center of the #10 rubber
stopper (third smallest in the Discover Centripetal Force
Kit).
3. Tie a 1.5-m piece of string to the plastic tie. Thread the
string through the hollow tube of the kit. Tie the other end Fig. 2: Sensor setup
to the hook on the sensor.
3. Use a marker and metric ruler to make marks on the string at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 cm
from the center of the stopper.

Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the equipment, a second person
checks the radius, and a third person handles the Xplorer GLX.
• The goal is to twirl the stopper at the slowest speed for the first run, and then increase the
twirling speed for each run for a total of eight runs.
Circular Speed: Constant Radius and Mass
1. Press the ZERO button on the sensor to zero the sensor.
2. Spin the stopper in a horizontal circle of fixed radius (try
50 cm or 0.5 m) above your head. Record the radius that
you are using in the Data Table.
• BE CAREFUL! Wear safety goggles. Don’t let the
stopper hit anything.
3. When you are able to twirl the stopper at a constant
Fig. 4: Twirl the stopper
speed, press Start ( ) to start recording data.
4. After more than 7 revolutions, press to stop data recording.

• Observe your graph of force versus time. If it shows 7 or more oscillations that are fairly
consistent, then continue to the next part. If not, repeat the previous steps.
On-The-Spot Analysis
Find the period from the graph of force versus time. Use the period and the radius to calculate
the circular speed. Use the graph to find the average force.
1. Auto-scale the Graph screen if necessary (press F1).
2. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to one of the peaks in
the Graph screen.
3. Use the ‘Delta Tool’ to find the time of at least 7 revolutions.
Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select ‘Delta Tool’
4. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to a peak that is at Fig. 5: Select ‘Delta Tool’
least 7 revolutions after the first peak you selected.

Record the time for the revolutions in the Data Table.
5. Count the number of revolutions and record the number
in the Data Table.
6. Divide the time by the number of revolutions to
calculate the period. Record the value.
Fig. 6: Measure the time

7. Calculate the circular speed based on the radius and the

period. Circular speed, v, is as follows, where r is
2! r
radius and T is period: v =
T
8. Use the ‘Statistics’ tool to find the average force. Press
to open the ‘Tools’ menu and select ‘Statistics’.
9. Record the ‘Avg’ value as the average force in the Data
Table. Fig. 7: Find average force
Other Speeds: Fixed Radius and Constant Mass
1. Repeat the data recording and ‘on-the-spot’ analysis using the same radius and the same
stopper for seven more speeds.
2. Record your results in the Data Table for each new run.
• To change the Graph screen to show a specific run of data,
press to activate the column label. Press the arrow keys
( ) to move to ‘Run #_’ in the upper corner of the screen.
Fig. 8: Select data run
Create a Graph: Circular Speed versus Average Force
Create a graph of circular speed versus average force with circular speed on the vertical axis.
1. To create a graph of circular speed versus average force, start with a table where you can
enter your data. Press to enter the Home Screen. Press F2 under the Table icon
( ) to open the Table screen.

• The Table screen has two columns labeled ‘circular
speed (m/s)’ and ‘average force (n)’.
2. Use the arrow keys to select the first cell under
‘circular speed (m/s)’. Press F2 (Edit Cell) to make
the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys
to enter your value of Circular Speed for the first run
(from your Data Table). Press to activate your
entry.
Fig. 9: GLX Table
3. Enter your next value of Circular Speed and press to activate your entry (and
automatically select the third cell). Continue to enter the rest of your values for Circular
Speed and press each time to activate your entry and select the next cell.

4. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘average force (n)’.
Press F2 to make the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter your value
of Average Force for the first run (from your Data Table). Press to activate your entry
(and automatically select the next cell in the column).
5. Enter the rest of your values for Average Force and press to activate each entry (and
automatically select the next cell).
6. When you are finished, press to return to the Home
Screen.
7. Press F1 to open the Graph screen. In the Graph, press F4 to
open the ‘Graphs’ menu. Select ‘Graph 2’ (at the bottom of
the menu) and press to activate your choice.
• ‘Graph 2’ has ‘circular speed (m/s)’ on the vertical axis and
‘average force (n)’ on the horizontal axis.
8. Sketch your graph of circular speed versus average force in
the Lab Report.
open the Graph.


Lab Report – Activity 21A: Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius

and Mass
Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
A mass is moving in a circle and the radius of the circle is kept constant. How would the
centripetal force change if the speed of the mass were increased?
Data Table
Radius (m) Time (s) Revolutions Period (s) Circular Speed (m/s) Average Force (N)
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
Calculations
Calculate the period by dividing the time by the number of revolutions.
2! r
Calculate the circular speed based on the radius and the period. Circular speed, v, is v = ,
T
where r is radius and T is period.
Data
Sketch the graph of circular speed versus
average force for your data. Include labels
and units on the axes.

Questions
1. How does the centripetal force change as the circular speed of an object increases?
2. What is the shape of your graph of circular speed versus average force? (Example: linear,
parabolic, inverse, inverse-square, etc.)
3. Using words (or a mathematical expression), describe the apparent relationship between
centripetal force and circular speed for uniform circular motion when mass and radius are
constant.

Activity 21B PS-2826
Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius and Force

Mechanics: circular motion, circular speed, centripetal force GLX setup file: centripetal-mass

1 Balance SE-8723
Purpose
This is the second part of a three-part activity. The purpose of the activity is to derive the
centripetal force equation. Specifically, the purpose of this part of the activity is to explore the
relationship of centripetal force, circular speed, and mass.
Background
A student is a member of the track and field team. One of the field
events is the ‘hammer throw’. In this event, a spherical mass is
twirled around at great speed on the end of a chain and then
released. In order to learn the skill of the ‘hammer throw’, the
student first uses a lightweight aluminum sphere. Later, when the
student begins to use the heavy iron sphere, the student discovers
that it takes a great deal more force to twirl the ‘hammer’ at the
same speed as before. In fact, when the student uses the same force
to twirl the iron sphere as was used to twirl the aluminum sphere, the speed of the iron sphere
was much less.
How does the centripetal force on an object relate to the mass of the object? If centripetal force
and radius are kept constant, how does the circular speed of the object relate to its mass?
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use the Stopwatch mode of the Xplorer GLX to measure the time for ten revolutions of a mass
as it moves in a circle on the end of a string. Determine the period of motion of the twirling mass
and calculate its circular speed. Repeat the process with different masses. Compare the circular
speed to the mass when the force and radius are constant.
Prediction
A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed radius and the amount of force applied to the mass is
kept constant. How would the circular speed change if the mass increased but the force remained
constant?

Activity 21B Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius and Force PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled centripetal-mass. (Check the Appendix at
• The file opens at the Home screen. The file has a Table
of ‘circular speed (m/s)’ and ‘mass (kg)’ and a Graph
of the same quantities.
2. In the Home screen, use the arrow keys to select
Fig. 1: Stopwatch screen

Stopwatch ( ) and press to activate your
choice.
Equipment Setup
1. Measure and record the mass of each of the rubber stoppers
in the Discover Centripetal Force Kit in order from smallest
to largest.
2. Secure a plastic tie through the center of the smallest rubber
stopper and tie a 1.5-m piece of string to the plastic tie.
Thread the string through the hollow tube of the kit. Tie the
other end to the hook on a 500 g (0.5 kg) mass.
• The weight of the 500 g mass is the constant force for each Fig. 2: Equipment setup
run of the activity.
Record Data
watches the radius, and a third person handles the Xplorer GLX.
Circular Speed: Constant Radius and Force
1. Twirl the stopper in a horizontal circle of fixed radius
(try 50 cm or 0.5 m) above your head. Record the
radius that you are using in the Data Table.
speed, get ready to count 10 revolutions as you time the
motion with the Stopwatch screen on the Xplorer GLX. Fig. 3: Twirl the stopper
3. Press F1 ( ) to start timing. Count 10 revolutions
and then press F1 again to stop recording data.
4. Record the time and the number of revolutions in the Data Table. Press F2 ( ) to Reset
the Stopwatch to 00:00.00.

5. Replace the smallest stopper with the next smallest stopper and repeat the data recording
procedure to find the period of motion.
6. Repeat the data recording using the same radius and the same force (same hanging mass)
for all the other stoppers in the Discover Centripetal Force Kit.
7. Record your results in the Data Table for each stopper.
Analysis
Find the period of the circular motion for each stopper. Calculate the circular speed.
1. Divide the time for the revolutions by the number of revolutions to calculate the period of
motion for each stopper. Record the value.
2. Calculate and record the circular speed based on the radius and the period. Circular speed,
2! r
v, is v = , where r is radius and T is period.
T
Create a Graph: Circular Speed versus Mass
Create a graph of circular speed versus mass with circular speed on the vertical axis.
1. To create a graph of circular speed versus mass, start with a table where you can enter your
data. Press to enter the Home Screen. Press F2 under the Table icon to open the Table
screen.
speed (m/s)’ and ‘mass (kg)’.
‘circular speed (m/s)’. Press F2 (Edit Cell) to make the
cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to
enter your value of Circular Speed for the first run
entry.
Fig. 4: GLX Table
4. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘mass (kg)’. Press F2
to make the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter your value of Mass
for the first run (from your Data Table). Press to activate your entry (and
automatically select the next cell in the column).
5. Enter the rest of your values for Mass and press to activate each entry (and
6. When you are finished, press to return to the Home screen.

7. Press F1 to open the Graph screen.

• The graph has ‘circular speed (m/s)’ on the vertical axis
and ‘mass (kg)’ on the horizontal axis.
8. Sketch your graph of circular speed versus mass in the
Lab Report.
Fig. 5: Press F1

open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 21B: Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius

and Force
Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
constant?
Data Table
Radius (m) Time (s) Revolutions Period (s) Circular Speed (m/s) Mass, stopper (kg)
Same
Same
Same
Same
Calculations
2! r
T
where r is radius and T is period:
Data
mass for your data. Include labels and units
on the axes.

Questions
1. A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed radius and the amount of force applied to the
mass must be kept constant. How does the circular speed change if the mass is increased
but the force is kept constant?
2. What is the shape of your graph of circular speed versus mass? (Example: linear, parabolic,
inverse, inverse-square, etc.)
circular speed and mass for uniform circular motion when the force is kept constant.

Activity 21C PS-2826
Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant Mass and Force

Mechanics: circular motion, circular speed, centripetal force GLX setup file: centripetal-radius

1 Metric Ruler
1 Marking Pen
Purpose
This is the last part of a three-part activity. The purpose of the activity is to derive the centripetal
force equation. Specifically, the purpose of this part of the activity is to explore the relationship
of centripetal force, circular speed, and radius.
Background
On a visit to a science museum, a student saw an exhibit called
the ‘gravity well’. The exhibit is a model for the gravitational
field around massive objects. A ball rolled into the well at the
top edge spirals in toward the hole in the center. The student
observed that the ball appeared to move faster and faster as it
got closer to the hole in the center. However, the student knew
that the ball covered a smaller distance as the radius of its
circular motion decreased.
How does the centripetal force that causes an object to follow a
circular path relate to the circular speed and radius of the object?
Safety Precautions
Preview
Use the Stopwatch mode of the Xplorer GLX to measure the time for ten revolutions of a mass
as it moves in a circle on the end of a string. Determine the period of motion of the twirling mass
and calculate its circular speed. Repeat the process with different radii for the mass on the string.
Compare the circular speed to the radius when the force and mass are constant.
Prediction
A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed amount of force applied to the mass. How would the
circular speed change if the radius changes but the force remains constant?

Activity 21C Centripetal Force, Part 3–Constant Mass and Force PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled centripetal-radius. (Check the Appendix at
• The file opens at the Home screen. The file has a Table
of ‘circular speed (m/s)’ and ‘radius (m)’ and a Graph
of the same quantitites.
2. In the Home screen, use the arrow keys to select Fig. 1: Stopwatch screen
‘Stopwatch’ ( ) and press to activate your

choice.
Equipment Setup
1. Use the same setup as in Activity 21B.
3. The string already has marks at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 cm.
Use a marker and metric ruler to add marks on the string at
60 cm and 80 cm from the center of the stopper.
2. Secure a plastic tie through the center of the third smallest
rubber stopper (the #10 stopper) and tie a 1.5-m piece of
string to the plastic tie.
3. Thread the string through the hollow tube of the kit. Tie the Fig. 2: Equipment setup
other end to the hook on a 500 g (0.5 kg) mass.
• The weight of the 500 g mass is the constant force for each run of the activity.
Record Data
watches the radius, and a third person handles the Xplorer GLX.
Circular Speed: Constant Mass and Force
4. Twirl the stopper in a horizontal circle at a radius of 20
cm (0.2 m) above your head.
speed, get ready to count 10 revolutions as you time the
motion with the ‘Stopwatch’ on the Xplorer GLX.
6. Press F1 ( ) to start timing. Count 10 revolutions Fig. 3: Twirl the stopper
and then press F1 again to stop recording data.

7. Record the time and the number of revolutions in the Data Table. Press F2 ( ) to ‘Reset’
the Stopwatch to 00:00.00.
8. Repeat the data recording using the same mass (#10 stopper) and the same force (same
hanging mass) for the other longer radii that are marked on the string (30, 40, 50, 60, and
80 cm).
9. Record your results in the Data Table for each stopper.
Analysis
Find the period of the circular motion for each radius. Calculate the circular speed.
1. Divide the time for the revolutions by the number of revolutions to calculate the period of
motion for each stopper. Record the value.
2. Calculate and record the circular speed based on the radius and the period. Circular speed,
2! r
v, is v = , where r is radius and T is period.
T
Create a Graph: Circular Speed versus Radius
Create a graph of circular speed versus radius with circular speed on the vertical axis.
1. To create a graph of circular speed versus radius, start with a table where you can enter
your data. Press to enter the Home Screen. Press F2 under the Table icon to open the
Table screen.
speed (m/s)’ and ‘radius (m)’.
‘circular speed (m/s)’. Press F2 (Edit Cell) to make the
cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to
enter your value of Circular Speed for the first run
entry.
Fig. 4: GLX Table
4. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘radius (m)’. Press F2
to make the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter your value of
Radius for the first run (from your Data Table). Press to activate your entry (and
automatically select the next cell in the column).
5. Enter the rest of your values for Radius and press to activate each entry (and


• The graph has ‘circular speed (m/s)’ on the vertical axis
and ‘radius (kg)’ on the horizontal axis.
8. Sketch your graph of circular speed versus radius in the
Lab Report.
Fig. 5: Press F1

open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 21C: Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant Radius

and Force
Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data Table
Radius (m) Time (s) Revolutions Period (s) Circular Speed (m/s)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
Calculations
2! r
T
Data
radius for your data. Include labels and
units on the axes.

Questions
1. A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed amount of force applied to the mass. How does
the circular speed change if the radius is changed but the force is kept constant?
2. What is the shape of your graph of circular speed versus radius? (Example: linear,
circular speed and radius for uniform circular motion when the force is kept constant.

Activity 22 PS-2826
Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance

Electricity: Ohm’s Law, current, voltage, resistance GLX setup file: ohm’s law

1 PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor PS-2115
1 CASTLE Kit EM-8624A
4 ‘D’ Cell PI-6602
2 Alligator Clip Adapters SE-9756
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure the voltage across a resistor and the current through the
resistor as the voltage is changed.
Background
In the early 1800’s, Georg Simon Ohm discovered a fundamental
relationship of the current through a circuit, the voltage across the circuit,
and the resistance of the circuit.
Prediction
How would the current through a circuit consisting of a voltage source and
a resistor change as more D cells are added to the circuit?
Georg Simon Ohm
Preview
Use a PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor to measure the voltage across a resistor and the current
through a resistor as the voltage is increased. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the
voltage and current. Graph the voltage versus the current.
Safety Precaution
• The resistor can get very hot. Be careful not to touch the
resistor when the circuit is closed.
Procedure
GLX Setup
Fig. 1: Digits screen
1. Turn on the Xplorer GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup
file labeled ohm’s law. (Check the Appendix at the end of this activity.)
• The GLX displays Voltage (V) versus Time (s). The setup file has a Table for ‘current (a)’
and ‘voltage (v)’ and also a Graph with the same quantities.
2. Plug the PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor into a sensor port on the top of the GLX.
3. Press to go to the Home screen. Select Digits and press to activate your choice.
4. The Digits screen shows Current (A) and Voltage (A).

Activity 22 Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance PS-2826
Equipment Setup
1. Put one D cell into the battery holder (from the
CASTLE Kit).
2. Set up a circuit with a 10 ohm (10 Ω) resistor, the
PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor, and the voltage
source as shown. Record the value of the resistor’s
resistance in the Data Table.
• Be careful to connect an alligator clip to a spring in
the battery holder as shown.
5. Leave one clip disconnected until you are ready to
collect data.
6. Put alligator clip adapters on the ends of the voltage
probes and connect the voltage probes to the ends of
the resistor.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles
the equipment and a second person handles the
Xplorer GLX.
One D Cell
1. Connect the clip to the voltage source to complete
the circuit. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to start
recording data.
2. Record the values of the current and the voltage in
the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
3. Press to stop data recording. Disconnect the

clip to the voltage source to open the circuit.
Two D Cells
1. Put another D cell into the battery holder.
the circuit. Press to start recording data.
3. Record the values of the current and the voltage in
the Data Table.

Fig. 4: Two D cells

Three and Four D Cells

1. Repeat the procedure for three D cells and then for four D cells.
2. Disconnect the clip to the voltage source to open the circuit.
Analysis
Create a graph of voltage versus current with voltage on the vertical axis, and determine the
slope of the best-fit line on the graph.
1. To create a graph of voltage versus current, start with a
table where you can enter your data. Press to enter
the Home screen. Press F2 under the Table icon to
open the Table screen.
• The Table screen has two columns labeled ‘current (a)’
and ‘voltage (v)’.
‘current (a)’. Press F2 (Edit Cell) to make the cell
active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter Fig. 5: GLX Table
your first value of Current from your Data Table. Press
to activate your entry.
3. Enter your next value of Current and press to activate your entry (and automatically
select the third cell). Continue to enter the rest of your values for Current and press
each time to activate your entry and select the next cell.
4. Press Esc ( ) and use the arrow keys to select the first cell under ‘voltage (v)’. Press F2
to make the cell active for editing. Use the alphanumeric keys to enter your first value of
Voltage from your Data Table. Press to activate your entry (and automatically select
the next cell in the column).
5. Enter the rest of your values for Voltage and press to activate each entry (and
• The graph has ‘voltage (v)’ on the vertical axis and
‘current (a)’ on the horizontal axis.
8. Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu and select
‘Linear Fit’. Record the value of the slope in the Data
Table.
9. Sketch your graph of voltage versus current in the Lab
Report. Fig. 6: Select ‘Graph’

Extension
Repeat the procedure with a different resistor.
Repeat the procedure with a light bulb instead of a resistor. NOTE: If you use a light bulb from
the CASTLE Kit, do not use four D cells in the voltage source.
To open a specific GLX file, go to the Home Screen ( ). In the Home screen, select Data Files
the file you want. Press to open the file. Press the Home button to return to the Home
Screen. Press to open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 22: Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
How would the current through a circuit consisting of a voltage source and a resistor change as
more D cells are added to the circuit?
Data
Sketch a graph of voltage versus current. Include units and labels for your axes.
Data
Item Value
Resistor resistance
Slope of Linear Fit
Percent difference
Data Table
Item Current (A) Voltage (V)

One D cell
Two D cells
Three D cells
Four D cells

Calculations
Calculate the percent difference between the resistor’s resistance - slope
value and the slope of the Linear Fit from the graph of %diff = !100%
voltage and current. resistance
Questions
1. The ratio of voltage to current is the resistance. Compare the resistor’s resistance to the
slope of the Linear Fit of your graph.
2. What is the physical meaning of the slope from your graph?
3. Write an equation that relates current, I, voltage, V, and resistance, R, based on your
results.
Problems
1. If the voltage source provided 4 volts, and the resistor’s resistance is 10 ohms (10 Ω), what
current would the Voltage-Current Sensor measure?
2. A 330 ohm (330 Ω) resistor is connected to an unknown voltage source. The Voltage-
Current Sensor measures a current of 0.50 amps (0.50 A). What is the voltage of the
voltage source?

Voltage in a Series Circuit

Electricity: voltage, series circuit

1 Voltage Probe (included with GLX)
2 ‘D’ Cell PI-6602
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the relationship between voltage and the number of
light bulbs that are connected to a voltage source in a series circuit.
Background
Light bulbs in a series circuit are connected end-to-end like links in a
chain. If light bulbs are connected in series to a voltage source, what
happens to the brightness of the individual bulbs as more bulbs are
added to the “chain”? What will happen to the voltage across each
individual bulb as more bulbs are added to the circuit?
If one bulb in a series circuit is removed, what happens to the rest of
the bulbs?
Preview
Fig. 1: Series circuit
Use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across a voltage source
(‘D’ cells) and the voltage across each bulb in a series circuit. Use
the Xplorer GLX to record and display the voltage. Compare the voltages.
Predict
1. How will the voltages in a series circuit change as more light bulbs are added to the
circuit?
2. How will the voltage across the voltage source compare to the total voltage across the light
bulbs in a series circuit?
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Plug a Voltage Probe into the voltage input port on the left side of the Xplorer GLX
and then turn on the GLX ( ). A graph of Voltage (V) and Time (s) will open.

Activity 23A Voltage in a Series Circuit PS-2826
2. Press to go to the Home Screen. Select Digits
( ) and press the Activate key ( ) to open the

Digits screen. The Digits screen shows Voltage (V).
Equipment Setup
1. Put two D cells into the battery holder (from the
CASTLE Kit). Put a round light bulb in a lamp socket.
2. Use a pair of alligator clip patch cords to set up a circuit
with the light bulb and voltage source. Fig. 2: Digits display
• Be careful to connect an alligator clip to the spring

as shown.
3. Leave one clip disconnected until you are ready to
collect data.
Record Data: One Light Bulb
1. Connect the ends of the Voltage Probe to the lamp
socket in order to measure the voltage across the
light bulb.
2. Connect the clip to the voltage source to

complete the circuit. Observe the
brightness of the bulb.
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to

measure the signal from the Voltage
Probe.
• The voltage appears in the digits
Fig. 4: Record voltage across light bulb
display.
4. Record the voltage across the light bulb
in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
5. Move the ends of the Voltage Probe to the
alligator clips that are connected to the voltage
source in order to measure the voltage across
the two D cells.
6. Record the voltage across the two D cells in the
Data Table in the Lab Report section.
Fig. 5: Record voltage across D cells
7. Press to stop data recording. Disconnect
the clip to the voltage source to open the circuit.

Record Data: Two Light Bulbs

1. Connect a second light bulb in series with the first
light bulb in the circuit.
the circuit. Record the apparent brightness of the
two bulbs.
3. Connect the ends of the Voltage Probe to the
second lamp socket in order to measure the
voltage across the second light bulb.
4. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure the

signal from the Voltage Probe. Fig. 6: Two-bulb setup
5. Record the voltage across the second light bulb in
the Data Table in the Lab Report
section.
6. Next, move the ends of the Voltage
Probe back to the first lamp socket to
measure the voltage across the first
light bulb. Record the voltage across
the first light bulb in the Data Table in
the Lab Report.
7. Finally, move the Voltage Probe back
to the voltage source and measure and
record the voltage across the batteries.
Fig. 7: Record voltage
8. Press to stop data recording.
Disconnect the clip to the voltage source to open the circuit.
Record Data: Three Light Bulbs
1. Connect a third light bulb in series with
the other two light bulbs in the circuit.
2. Repeat the procedure to measure the
voltage across each of the light bulbs
and the voltage across the batteries and
record the voltages in the Data Table in
the Lab Report.
Fig. 8: Three-bulb setup

3. After recording the voltages, remove the light bulb from the middle lamp socket. Record
what happens to the other two light bulbs.
4. Press to stop data recording. Disconnect the clip to the voltage source to open the
circuit.
Analysis
Examine your recorded voltage data and answer the questions in the Lab Report.
Extension
Repeat the procedure with the resistors included in the CASTLE Kit instead of light bulbs.

Lab Report - Activity 23A: Voltage in a Series Circuit

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Predict
circuit?
2. How will the voltage across the voltage source compare to the total voltage across the light
Data
1. How bright were the two light bulbs in series compared to the first light bulb?
2. How bright were the three light bulbs in series compared to the first light bulb?
3. What happened in the three-light bulb circuit when you removed the light bulb from the
middle lamp socket?
Data Table
One Light Bulb
Voltage Across Light Bulb:
Voltage Across Batteries:
Two Light Bulbs in Series

Voltage Across Light Bulb 1:
Sum of the Voltages Across Both Bulbs:

Three Light Bulbs in Series

Sum of the Voltages Across Three Bulbs:
Questions
1. How did the voltage across the two D cells compare to the voltage across the first light
bulb?
2. How did the voltage across the two light bulbs in series compare to the voltage across one
light bulb? How did the sum of the voltages across two bulbs compare to the voltage
across the D cells?
3. What did you notice about the voltage across each light bulb and the total voltage across
all three light bulbs in the third part of the procedure?
4. What can you say about the voltage in a series circuit?
5. What happened to the light bulbs when you removed the middle bulb from the socket?
Why?
6. If all the lights in a house are connected together in series and they are all turned on, what
would happen to the lights when you turn one of them off (or it burns out)?

Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

Electricity: voltage, parallel circuit

2 ‘D’ Cell PI-6602
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the relationship between voltage and the number of
light bulbs that are connected to a voltage source in a parallel circuit.
Background
Light bulbs in a parallel circuit are connected like steps of a
ladder. Each light bulb is connected directly to the voltage
source. If light bulbs are connected in parallel to a voltage
source, what happens to the brightness of the individual
bulbs as more bulbs are added to the “ladder”? What will
happen to the voltage across each individual bulb as more
bulbs are added to the circuit? Fig. 1: Parallel circuit
Preview
Use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across a voltage source (‘D’ cells) and the voltage
across each bulb in a parallel circuit. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the voltage.
Compare the voltages.
Predict
1. How would the voltages across each light bulb in a parallel circuit change as more bulbs
are added to the circuit?
2. How would the brightness of the light bulbs in a parallel circuit change as more bulbs are
added to the circuit?
3. If one bulb in a parallel circuit is removed, what happens to the rest of the bulbs?
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Plug a Voltage Probe into the voltage input port on the left side of the Xplorer GLX
and then turn on the GLX ( ). A graph of Voltage (V) and Time (s) will open.

Activity 23B Voltage in a Parallel Circuit PS-2826
2. Press to go to the Home Screen. Select Digits
( ) and press to open the Digits screen.

Equipment Setup
1. Put two D cells into the battery holder (from the
CASTLE Kit). Put a round light bulb in a lamp socket.
2. Use a pair of alligator clip patch cords to set up a circuit
with the light bulb and voltage source.
Fig. 2: Digits display
• Be careful to connect an alligator clip to the spring as
shown.
3. Leave one clip disconnected until you are ready to collect data.
Record Data: One Light Bulb
1. Connect the ends of the Voltage Probe to the lamp socket
in order to measure the voltage across the light bulb.
2. Connect the clip to the voltage source to complete the
circuit. Observe the brightness of the bulb.
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure the signal from

the Voltage Probe.
• The voltage appears in the digits display. Fig. 3: Equipment setup
4. Record the voltage across the light bulb in the
Data Table in the Lab Report section.
5. Move the ends of the Voltage Probe to the
alligator clips that are connected to the
voltage source in order to measure the voltage
across the two D cells.
6. Record the voltage across the two D cells in
the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
7. Press to stop data recording. Disconnect Fig. 4: Record voltage across light bulb
the clip to the voltage source to open the
circuit.

Record Data: Two Light Bulbs

1. Connect a second light bulb in parallel with the first light bulb in the circuit.
2. Connect the clip to the voltage source to complete the circuit. Record the apparent
brightness of the two bulbs.
3. Connect the ends of the Voltage Probe to
the second lamp socket in order to measure
the voltage across the second light bulb.
4. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure

the signal from the Voltage Probe.
5. Record the voltage across the seco:nd light
bulb in the Data Table in the Lab Report Fig. 6: Two bulb setup
section.
6. Next, move the ends of the
Voltage Probe back to the first
lamp socket to measure the
voltage across the first light
bulb.
7. Record the voltage across the
first light bulb in the Data Table.
8. Finally, move the Voltage Probe
back to the source and measure Fig. 7 Record voltage
the voltage across the batteries.
circuit.
Record Data: Three Light Bulbs
1. Connect a third light bulb in parallel with the other two light bulbs in the circuit.
2. Repeat the procedure to
measure the voltage across the
source and across each of the
light bulbs and record the
voltages in the Data Table in
the Lab Report.
Fig. 8: Three bulb setup

3. After recording the voltages, remove the light bulb from the middle lamp socket. Record
what happens to the other two light bulbs.
circuit.
Analysis
Examine your recorded voltage data and answer the questions in the Lab Report.
Extension

Lab Report - Activity 23B: Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Predict
Data
1. How bright were the two light bulbs in parallel compared to the first light bulb?
2. How bright were the three light bulbs in parallel compared to the first light bulb?
3. What happened in the three-light bulb parallel circuit when you removed the light bulb
from the middle lamp socket?
Data Table
One Light Bulb
Voltage Across Light Bulb:
Two Light Bulbs in Parallel


Three Light Bulbs in Parallel

Questions
bulb?
2. How did the voltage across each of the two light bulbs in parallel compare to the voltage
across the D cells?
3. What did you notice about the voltage across each light bulb and the voltage across the D
cells when three bulbs are in parallel?
4. What can you say about the voltage in a parallel circuit?
Why?
6. If all the lights in a house are connected together in parallel and they are all turned on,
what would happen to the lights when you turn one of them off (or it burns out)?

Current in a Series Circuit

Electricity: current, parallel circuit

2 ‘D’ Cell PI-6602
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the relationship between current and the number of
light bulbs that are connected to a voltage source in a series circuit.
Background
Light bulbs in a series circuit are connected end-to-end like links in a
chain. If light bulbs are connected in series to a voltage source, what
happens to the brightness of the individual bulbs as more bulbs are
added to the “chain”? What will happen to the current through the
circuit as more bulbs are added to the circuit?
If one bulb in a series circuit is removed, what happens to the rest of
the bulbs?
Preview
Use a PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor to measure the current
through a series circuit that has one, two and then three light bulbs. Fig. 1: Series circuit
Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the current. Compare the
current for one, two, and three light bulbs.
Prediction
How would the current through a series circuit change as more light bulbs are added to the
circuit?
Safety Precaution

Activity 24A Current in a Series Circuit PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Connect a PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor to a
sensor port on the top of the GLX and then turn on the
GLX ( ).
• The GLX displays a Graph screen of Current (A)
versus Time (s).
2. Press to go to the Home screen. Use the arrow
keys to select Digits and press to activate your
choice. Fig. 1: Select ‘Digits’
3. In the Digits screen, press to activate the
measurement name. Use the arrow keys to select
‘Voltage’ and press to open the measurement
name menu.
4. Select ‘Clear Input’ and press to activate your
choice.
Equipment Setup
1. Put two D cells into the battery holder (from the Fig. 2: Select ‘Clear Input’
CASTLE Kit). Put a round light bulb in each of three
lamp sockets.
2. Set up a circuit with one light bulb, the
Voltage-Current Sensor, and the voltage
source as shown.
• Be careful to connect an alligator clip to the
spring as shown.
3. Leave one clip disconnected until you are
ready to collect data.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person
handles the equipment and a second person

Series Circuit: One Light Bulb

2. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure the signal

from the Voltage-Current Sensor.
3. Record the current through the circuit in the Data
Table in the Lab Report section.
4. Press to stop data recording. Disconnect the clip

to the voltage source to open the circuit.
Fig. 4: Record data
Series Circuit: Two Light Bulbs
1. Connect a second light bulb in series with the
first light bulb in the circuit.
complete the circuit. Record the apparent
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure the

signal from the sensor.
4. Record the current through the circuit for two
light bulbs in the Data Table.
5. Press to stop data recording. Disconnect

the clip to the voltage source to open the circuit.
Series Circuit: Three Light Bulbs
1. Connect a third light bulb in series with the
other light bulbs in the circuit.
Fig. 5: Two bulbs in series
complete the circuit. Record the apparent brightness of
the three bulbs.
3. Press to measure the signal from the sensor.

4. Record the current through the circuit for three light
bulbs in the Data Table.

Analysis
Examine your recorded current data and answer the questions
in the Lab Report.
Fig. 6: Three bulbs in series

Extension

Lab Report – Activity 24A: Current in a Series Circuit

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
circuit?
Data
Data Table
Item Current (A)

One light bulb in series
Two light bulbs in series
Three light bulbs in series
Questions
1. What did you notice about the brightness of each bulb in series as the second and third
bulbs were added to the circuit?
2. How did the current for three light bulbs and two light bulbs in series compare to the
current for one light bulb?
3. How does the current in a series circuit change as you add more light bulbs to the circuit?


Current in a Parallel Circuit

Electricity: current, parallel circuit

2 ‘D’ Cell PI-6602
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the relationship between current and the number of
light bulbs that are connected to a voltage source in a parallel circuit.
Background
Light bulbs in a parallel circuit are connected like steps of a
ladder. Each light bulb is connected directly to the voltage
source. If light bulbs are connected in parallel to a voltage
source, what happens to the brightness of the individual
bulbs as more bulbs are added to the “ladder”? What will
happen to the current through the circuit as more bulbs are
added to the circuit? Fig. 1: Parallel circuit
Preview
Use a PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor to measure the current through a parallel circuit that
has one, two and then three light bulbs. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the current.
Compare the current for one, two, and three light bulbs.
Prediction
How would the current through a parallel circuit change as more light bulbs are added to the
circuit?
Safety Precaution

Activity 24B Current in a Parallel Circuit PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Connect a PASPORT Voltage-Current Sensor to a
sensor port on the top of the GLX and then turn on the
GLX ( ).
• The GLX displays a Graph screen of ‘Current (A)’
versus ‘Time (s)’.
2. Press to go to the Home screen. Use the arrow
keys to select ‘Digits’ and press to activate your
choice. Fig. 1: Select ‘Digits’
3. In the Digits display, press to activate the
measurement name. Use the arrow keys to select
‘Voltage’ and press to open the measurement
name menu.
4. Select ‘Clear Input’ and press to activate your
choice.
Equipment Setup
1. Start with the same setup as in Activity 24A. Fig. 2: Select ‘Clear Input’
2. Set up a circuit with one light bulb, the

Voltage-Current Sensor, and the voltage
source as shown.
spring as shown.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person
handles the equipment and a second person

Parallel Circuit: One Light Bulb


from the Voltage-Current Sensor.
3. Record the current through the circuit in the Data
Table in the Lab Report section.

Fig. 4: Record data
Parallel Circuit: Two Light Bulbs
1. Connect a second light bulb in parallel with
the first light bulb in the circuit.
complete the circuit. Record the apparent
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure

the signal from the sensor.
4. Record the current through the circuit for
two light bulbs in the Data Table.

Disconnect the clip to the voltage source to
open the circuit.
Fig. 5: Two bulbs in parallel

Parallel Circuit: Three Light Bulbs

1. Connect a third light bulb in parallel with the
other light bulbs in the circuit.
the circuit. Record the apparent brightness of the
three bulbs.
3. Press to measure the signal from the sensor.

4. Record the current through the circuit for three
light bulbs in the Data Table.

Analysis
Examine your recorded current data and answer the
questions in the Lab Report. Fig. 6: Three bulbs in parallel
Extension

Lab Report – Activity 24B: Current in a Parallel Circuit

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
circuit?
Data
Data Table
Item Current (A)

One light bulb
Two light bulbs in parallel
Three light bulbs in parallel
Questions
1. What did you notice about the brightness of each bulb in parallel as the second and third
2. How did the current for three light bulbs and two light bulbs in parallel compare to the
3. How does the current in a parallel circuit change as you add more light bulbs to the circuit?


Activity 25 PS-2826
Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor Circuit

Electricity: resistor-capacitor circuit, time constant GLX setup file: time constant

2 ‘D’ Cell PI-6602
2 Alligator Clip Adapters SE-9756
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure the voltage across a capacitor as it is charged and then
discharged through a resistor that is in series in a circuit with the capacitor.
Background
When a DC voltage source is connected across an uncharged capacitor, the rate at which the
capacitor charges up decreases as time passes. At first, the capacitor is easy to charge because
there is very little charge on the plates. But as charge accumulates on the plates, the voltage
source must “do more work” to move additional charges onto the plates
because the plates already have charge of the same sign on them. As a
result, the capacitor charges exponentially, quickly at the beginning and
more slowly as the capacitor becomes fully charged.
If the capacitor is in a circuit with a resistor, the time it takes to charge
the capacitor to a maximum value depends on both the capacitance, C,
of the capacitor and the resistance, R, of the resistor. The product of R Fig. 1: RC circuit
and C is called the ‘capacitive time constant’ and it is symbolized by τ
where τ = RC.
NOTE: The stated value of a capacitor may vary by as much as ±20% from the actual value.
The capacitive time constant is the amount of time it takes to charge the capacitor to 63.2% of its
maximum charge, or the amount of time it takes to discharge a capacitor to 36.8% of its
maximum charge.
Can the charge on a capacitor be determined by measuring the voltage across the capacitor? The
charge, q, is the product of the capacitance, C, and the voltage, V. Therefore, the charge is
directly proportional to the voltage, or q = CV.
Preview
Use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across a capacitor as it is charged and then
discharged through a resistor. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the voltage. Determine
the time constant of the circuit from the graph of voltage versus time. Compare the time constant
to the product of the capacitance, C, of the capacitor and the resistance, R, of the resistor.

Activity 25 Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor Circuit PS-2826
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled time constant. (Check the Appendix at the
2. The GLX displays a Graph screen of ‘Voltage (V)’
versus ‘Time (s)’. The file is set to measure voltage
100 times per second (100 Hz).
3. Plug a Voltage Probe into the voltage input port

on the left side of the Xplorer GLX. Fig. 2: GLX Graph
Equipment Setup
1. Put two D cells into the battery holder (from the CASTLE Kit).
2. Set up a circuit with one 10 ohm (10 Ω)
resistor, the 25,000 microfarad (25,000 µF
or 0.025 F) capacitor, and the voltage
source as shown.
spring in the battery holder as shown.
5. Put alligator clip adapters on the ends of the
Voltage Probe.
6. Connect the Voltage Probe to the posts on
the top of the capacitor.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one
person handles the equipment and a second Fig. 3: Equipment setup
person handles the Xplorer GLX.

Charge the Capacitor
1. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to start recording data.

2. Wait about 2 seconds and then connect the clip to the voltage source to complete the
circuit. Watch the Voltage-Time Graph on the
GLX.
3. When the voltage reaches its maximum value
and does not change, disconnect the resistor
from the voltage source to open the circuit.
DO NOT STOP RECORDING DATA YET.
Discharge the Capacitor
1. Move the clip that had been connected to the
voltage source to the end of the resistor that
was previously connected to the battery holder
as shown.
2. Watch the Voltage-Time Graph on the GLX.
3. When the voltage reaches its minimum value
and does not change anymore, press to
stop data recording.
Fig. 4: Discharge capacitor
Analysis
Examine your graph of voltage versus time to find the maximum voltage.
1. In the Graph screen, move the cursor to the maximum value of voltage and record the
value in the Data Table.
Use the data during the charging of the capacitor to find the time to
charge to 63.2% of the maximum voltage.
2. Calculate the voltage that is 63.2% of the maximum voltage
and record the value.
3. Move the cursor to the point on the Graph screen where the
capacitor begins to charge. Press to open the ‘Tools’
menu and select ‘Delta Tool’.
4. Carefully move the cursor to the point closest to the voltage
that is 63.2% of maximum and record the time displayed by
the ‘Delta Tool’.
Use the data for the discharging of the capacitor to find the time to discharge to 36.8% of
maximum voltage.
5. Calculate the voltage that is 36.8% of the maximum voltage and record the value. Subtract
that voltage from the maximum voltage to determine the change in voltage from the
maximum to the value that is 36.8% of maximum. (For example, if the maximum voltage
is 3 V, and the value that is 36.8% of maximum is 1 V, the change in voltage is –2 V.)

6. Turn off ‘Delta Tool’ for the moment.

7. Move the cursor to the point on the Graph screen where the capacitor begins to discharge,
and turn on the ‘Delta Tool’ again.
8. Carefully move the cursor until the ‘Delta Tool’ shows the change in voltage you
calculated previously. Record the time displayed by the ‘Delta Tool’.
9. Calculate the average of the two times.
Calculate the theoretical value for the capacitive time constant based on the resistance and
capacitance values on the resistor and capacitor, respectively. Compare the average of your
experimental results to the theoretical value.
Extension
Repeat the procedure with a light bulb instead of a resistor.

Lab Report – Activity 25: Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor

Circuit
Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch a graph of voltage versus time. Include units and labels for your axes.
Data Table
Item Value
Resistance of resistor
Capacitance of capacitor
Maximum voltage
63.2% of maximum voltage
Time to 63.2% of max. voltage
36.8% of maximum voltage
Time to 36.8% of max. voltage
Average time constant
Theoretical time constant
Percent difference
theoretical ! average
%diff = " 100%
theoretical

Calculations
Based on the maximum voltage, calculate and record the value that is 63.2% of maximum, and
the value that is 36.8% of maximum.
Calculate the average time constant based on the two experimental values.
Calculate the theoretical capacitive time constant, τ, based on R and C, where ! = RC .
Calculate the percent difference between the theoretical and average values of the time constant.
Questions
1. Is the Voltage Probe placed in parallel or in series in this circuit? Explain.
2. What component of the circuit is the Voltage Probe measuring?
3. How does your average experimental value for the time constant compare to the theoretical
value?
4. What are some reasons for the difference, if any, between the average experimental value
and the theoretical value of the time constant?
5. The time constant is the produce of resistance, measured in ohms, and capacitance,
measured in farads. Use the following definitions of units to show algebraically that the
unit for the time constant is seconds.
volt coulomb coulomb
ohm = , farad = , amp =
amp volt second

Activity 26 PS-2826
Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and a Coil

Electricity: electromagnetic induction, Faraday’s law GLX setup file: faraday

1 Alnico Bar Magnet (set of two) EM-8620
1 200-turn Coil (or equivalent) SF-8609
1 400-turn Coil (or equivalent) SF-8610
1 Three Finger Clamp SE-9445
1 No-Bounce Pad SE-7347
1m Tape (optional)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure the voltage across a coil of wire when a bar magnet
moves through the coil of wire. Compare the voltage to the number of turns of wire in the coil.
Background
Michael Faraday was one of the first scientists to show that electricity
can be produced from magnetism. The essence of his discovery is
described in the following statement:
A changing magnetic field in the presence of a conductor
induces a voltage in the conductor.
For example, if a coil of wire is near a magnet, and the magnetic field of
the magnet somehow changes, there will be a voltage across the coil of
wire as a result.
How do you change the magnetic field of a magnet? Can the magnetic Michael Faraday
field be turned on and off like a light bulb? The answer is ‘no’ (at least
for permanent magnets). However, you can change the magnetic
field in the presence of the coil of wire by moving the magnet
relative to the coil, or moving the coil relative to the magnet.
Because electricity is induced by a changing magnetic field, this
process is called electromagnetic induction. It’s the concept
behind the electric generator (and countless other electrical
devices).
Faraday discovered several factors that determine how much
voltage is induced. One is the strength of the magnetic field. A
second is how fast the magnetic field changes. Another factor is
the number of turns (loops) of wire that are in the coil. Fig. 1: Electromagnetic
induction

Activity 26 Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and a Coil PS-2826
Prediction
How would the voltage produced in a coil with more turns of wire compare to the voltage
produced in a coil with fewer turns of wire?
Preview
Use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across a coil of wire as a bar magnet moves through
the coil of wire. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the voltage. Examine the graph of
voltage versus time to determine the amount of voltage. Compare the voltage for coils that have
different numbers of turns of wire.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled faraday. (Check the Appendix at the end of
this activity.)
2. The GLX displays a Graph screen of ‘Voltage (V)’
versus ‘Time (s)’. The file is set to measure voltage
100 times per second (100 Hz).
3. Plug a Voltage Probe into the voltage input port

on the left side of the Xplorer GLX. Fig. 2: GLX Graph
Equipment Setup
1. Set up the coil that has the least
number of turns of wire so that you
can drop a bar magnet vertically
through the center of the coil.
2. Connect the Voltage Probe to the
coil.
3. Place a protective pad or cushion
underneath the coil to catch the bar
magnet after it falls through the
coil.
• Be careful to leave enough room
under the coil so the magnet can
fall completely through the coil Fig. 3: Equipment setup
before it reaches the pad or
cushion.

Record Data: First Coil

North Pole
1. Record the number of turns of wire in the first coil in the Data Table.
2. Arrange the bar magnet above the coil so the ‘north’ end of the magnet is at the bottom.
(On some bar magnets, the north end is marked with a stripe or notch.)
3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to start recording data.
4. Drop the bar magnet through the center of the coil, and then press to stop data
recording.
South Pole
5. Reverse the arrangement of the bar magnet so the south end of the magnet will fall through
the coil first.
Record Data: Second Coil
1. Replace the first coil with the coil that has more turns of wire. Record the number of turns
of wire in the second coil.
2. Repeat the data recording process for both ends of the bar magnet.
Analysis
Examine each run of data in your graph of voltage versus time to find the maximum voltage for
each pole of the bar magnet.
2. In the Graph screen, press to open the ‘Tools’ menu and
select ‘Smart Tool’.
3. Move the cursor to the first peak of voltage and record the
value in the Data Table. Move the cursor to the second peak of
voltage and record its value.
How does the voltage of the second peak compare to the voltage of
the first peak? Fig. 5: Select ‘Smart Tool’

Extension
Repeat the procedure using a pair of bar magnets instead of just one bar magnet.
Double Bar Magnet
North–South Poles
1. Tape two bar magnets together so each end has a ‘north’ and ‘south’ pole together.
2. Repeat the process to record data.
North–North, South–South Poles
3. Rearrange the two bar magnets so one end is ‘north-north’ and the other end is ‘south-
south’.
To open a specific GLX file, go to the Home screen ( ). In the Home screen, select Data Files
and press to activate your choice. In the Data Files screen,
use the arrow keys to navigate to the file you want. Press to
open the file. Press the Home button to return to the Home

Lab Report – Activity 26: Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and a

Coil
Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data
Sketch a graph of voltage versus time for one run. Include units and labels for your axes.
Data Table
Run Pole Turns Voltage, peak 1 Voltage, peak 2

1 North
2 South
3 North
4 South

Questions
1. For each run, why are there two peaks of voltage? Why do the two peaks point in opposite
directions (that is, why is one positive when the other is negative)?
2. For each run, how does the magnitude (amount) of the voltage of the second peak compare
to the magnitude of the voltage of the first peak? Explain why you think this happens.
3. How does the shape of the voltage versus time graph when the north pole of the magnet is
dropped first compare to the overall shape of the graph when the south pole is dropped
first?
4. How does the maximum voltage for the coil with more turns compare to the maximum
voltage for the coil with fewer turns?

Activity 27 PS-2826
Sound Wave Properties

Waves and Sound: sound waves, period, frequency, wavelength

1 Sound Sensor (built in the GLX)
1 Adjustable Tuning Fork SE-7343
1 Chime (optional)
2 Musical instrument (optional)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the frequency and wavelength of sound waves that
they create.
Background
A mechanical wave is a traveling disturbance that carries energy from one place to another. As
an object vibrates, it transfers energy to the particles of the matter that surround it, causing the
particles to also vibrate. These vibrations cause a series of compressions (a pulse of compressed
air or other matter) and rarefactions (a region in the air or other matter where the pressure is
lowered) as energy moves away from the source. When the vibrations reach the eardrum, the
eardrum vibrates. If the vibration is at the right frequency, we recognize it as “sound.”
Frequency is the number of vibrations (or ‘cycles’) per second. One cycle or vibration per second
is one ‘hertz’ (abbreviated Hz). The amount of time for one vibration is called the period and it is
1
usually measured in seconds. Frequency and period are inversely proportional, or f = where f
T
is frequency and T is period.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Longitudinal waves occur when a medium vibrates parallel
to the direction in which the wave travels. A medium is the material through which the sound
travels. Without a medium (i.e., in a
vacuum such as space) there can be no
sound. The distance that a wave travels
during one period of time is called the
wavelength. The speed of a wave is called
the wave speed. Wave speed can be
calculated from wavelength and period as
!
v = where v is wave speed and the
T
Greek letter ‘lambda’ is wavelength.
Because of the relationship of frequency
and period, wave speed can also be
expressed as v = ! f .
It is useful to represent sound waves in a
wave diagram (Fig. 1) in which the crests Fig. 1: Wave diagram
represent areas of compression of

Activity 27 Sound Wave Properties PS-2826
molecules in the medium, the troughs represent areas of rarefaction, and the baseline is the
average or normal pressure of the molecules in the medium.
Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive similar points on a wave as shown in Fig. 1.
The wave speed of sound in air at room temperature is about 344 m/s. (The wave speed varies as
the temperature and other properties of the air vary.)
Preview
Use the built in GLX Sound Sensor to measure the sound waves from various sources. Use the
Xplorer to record and display the data. Analyze the sound waves to determine the period,
frequency, and wavelength of each sound.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ). Press F4 ( ) to open the
Sensors screen.
2. Press F3 ( ) to open the Microphone menu. Use the
up arrow key to select Sound Sensor and press the
Activate ( ) key.
3. Press Home ( ) to return to the Home screen.
4. Press F1 ( ) to open the Graph screen. Press F4 to
open the Graphs menu. Use the up arrow key to select
Fig. 2: Select Sound Sensor
‘Scope Mode’ and press Activate ( ).
• The graph shows Sound Wave and Time (ms).
Record Data

from the Sound Sensor.
2. Whistle into the built-in microphone (at the bottom left
corner of the GLX).
3. After a few seconds, press Start again to end data
recording of the sound. Fig. 3: Select Scope Mode
Analysis
1. Use the graph of to find the period of the sound. From the period, determine the frequency.
From the frequency and the speed of sound in air (use 344 m/s), calculate the wavelength.
2. Press F1 to Auto Scale the graph. Press F4 to open the Graphs menu. Select ‘Data Cursor’
and press Activate to turn it on.

3. Use the right-left arrow keys to move the cursor to the

beginning of a wave cycle (Fig. 5). Press F3 to open
the Tools menu. Select ‘Delta Tool’ and press Activate.
• The beginning position of the ‘Delta Tool’ will show a
time of 0.0 ms.
4. Use the right-left arrow buttons to move the ‘Delta
Tool’ to the beginning of the next wave cycle (Fig. 6).
Record the change in time as the period of the wave.
Record More Data Fig. 4: Turn on Data Cursor
Repeat the data recording and analysis steps from above for
as many different sound sources as you have. Find the period
for each sound wave you measure.
Record your values for period in the Data Table in the Lab
Report.
For the Adjustable Tuning Fork, set the two adjustable
weights at the marks for the different notes and measure the
sound wave for each note.
Fig. 5: ‘Delta Tool’
Adjustable Tuning Fork
Fig. 6: Period of the wave

Extension
1. Return to the Home screen.
2. Use the arrow and Activate keys to navigate to and
select the Output screen.
3. Use the arrow keys to navigate to ‘Freq. (Hz)’ under
‘Left Output Channel’. Press Activate to select the
Freq (Hz) text area.
4. Enter the frequency to one of your calculated
frequencies from the Data Table.
Fig. 7: Output Settings
5. Press F1 to turn on the internal speaker. (Press F1 again
to turn the speaker off.) Repeat for other frequencies.

Lab Report - Activity 27: Sound Wave Properties

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch one graph of a sound wave versus time.
Data Table
Item Period Frequency Wavelength

(s) (Hz) (m)
Person 1 Whistle
Person 2 Whistle
Tuning Fork #1
Tuning Fork #2
Tuning Fork #3
Tuning Fork #4
Instrument #1
Instrument #2
Calculations
Calculate the frequency based on the period. Calculate the wavelength from the wave speed of
sound (344 m/s) and the period or the frequency.

Question
Describe and explain the differences between the wave patterns produced by people and the
wave patterns produced by the tuning fork or by musical instruments.
Extension Question
Describe and explain the physical and sound quality differences between the frequencies you
measured and the frequencies generated by the internal speaker of the GLX.

Activity 28 PS-2826
Interference–Beat Frequency
Waves and Sound: sound waves, interference, beats, beat frequency

1 Sound Generator (built in the GLX)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the relationship of the beat frequency and the
difference in frequency of the two sound waves.
Background
When two sound waves with slightly different frequencies combine, the warbling pattern of
noise is known as ‘beats’. The rate at which the beats occur is called the beat frequency .The
principle of linear superposition provides an explanation of what happens when the waves
overlap.
The diagram helps to explain why beats occur. The drawing
displays graphical representations of the pressure patterns of
a 10-Hz wave and a 12-Hz wave, along with the pressure
pattern that results when the two overlap.
The amplitude in the bottom part of the drawing changes
from a minimum to a maximum, back to a minimum, and so
on. The two waves produce a loud sound when the amplitude
is a maximum and a faint sound when the amplitude is a
minimum.
The periodic variations in loudness are the ‘beats’ and result Fig. 1: Beats
from the interference between two sound waves with slightly
different frequencies.
Two loud-faint cycles, or beats, occur in the one-second interval shown in the drawing,
corresponding to a beat frequency of 2 Hz.
Preview
Use the built in Xplorer GLX Sound Generator to create two sound waves with slightly different
frequencies. Use the GLX Stopwatch to record the amount of time for several beats to occur.
Determine the period of the beats and calculate the beat frequency. Compare the beat frequency
to the difference in frequency, ∆f.
Safety Precaution
Prediction
How would the beat frequency change when the difference in frequency between the two sound
waves is changed?

Activity 28 Interference–Beat Frequency PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ). In the Home Screen, use the
arrow keys to select the Output icon ( ) and press

• The Output Settings screen opens. Make sure that the
Speaker Configuration is set to ‘Mono’.
2. Use the arrow keys to select frequency (‘Freq. (Hz)’)
for the Left Output Channel and press to increase Fig. 2: Output Settings Screen
the frequency from 440.0 to 441.0.
3. Press F2 ( ) to open the Left Step Size menu. Use
the up arrow key to select ‘Step 0.1’ and press to
Sound Check
Before you record data, do a sound check.
1. Press and to turn on the Left and Right Output
Channels.
Fig. 3: Freq. (Hz) at 441.0
2. Describe what you hear in the Data section of the Lab
Report.
3. Record the frequencies of the Left and Right Output
Channels in the Data Table.
Record Data
Use the GLX Stopwatch screen to time the beat period. Since
it is not practical to measure the short time between two
beats, you will measure the time for 10 full beat cycles and
then calculate the beat period by dividing the total elapsed Fig. 4: Select ‘Step 0.1’
time by 10. Start timing on beat “zero” and stop timing on
beat “ten” as shown in the illustration.

1. Press to return to the Home Screen, use the arrow keys to select Stopwatch, and press
2. Count the beats: “zero, one, two, three, …, ten”. Press on beat “zero” to start timing
and press again on beat “ten” to stop timing.
3. Record the total elapsed time for 10 beat cycles in the Data Table.
4. Press to reset the Stopwatch.
Record More Data
5. Press to return to the Home Screen, use the arrow keys to select Output, and press
6. Use the arrow keys to select the frequency (‘Freq. (Hz)’) of the Left Output Channel.
7. Press twice to increase the frequency by 0.2 Hz (to 441.2 Hz).
8. Record the frequencies of the Left and Right Output Channels in the Data Table.
9. Repeat the steps to measure and record the total elapsed time for 10 beat cycles.
10. Repeat the entire process for a total of six trials.
Analysis
1. Use your data to calculate the frequency differences for each trial and record the results in
the Data Table.
2. Calculate the beat period for each trial by dividing the elapsed time for 10 beat cycles by
10 and record the results.
3. Calculate the beat frequency for each trial. The frequency is the reciprocal of the period
1
( fbeat = ).
Tbeat
Note: Press to return to the Home Screen and press to open the Calculator. Use the
Calculator to calculate the beat frequency.


Lab Report - Activity 28: Interference–Beat Frequency

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Describe what you heard when you did a sound check:
Data Table
Left Channel Right Channel Frequency Elapsed Time for Beat Period, Beat Frequency,
Frequency, fleft Frequency, fright Difference ∆f 10 Beat Cycles Tbeat fbeat
441.0 Hz 440.0 Hz 1.0 Hz
Calculations
Calculate and record the frequency difference (∆f = fleft – fright) and the beat period, Tbeat.
1
Calculate the beat frequency, fbeat, based on the following: fbeat = .
Tbeat
Questions
1. According to your data, what is the relationship between the difference in frequencies of
the two sound waves (∆f) and the beat frequency (fbeat)?


Activity 29 PS-2826
Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force

Fluid mechanics: Archimedes’ principle, buoyant force, volume GLX setup file: buoyancy

1 Basic Calorimetry Set (metal objects) TD-8557
1 Rod, 45 cm ME-8736
1 Overflow Can SE-8568
1 Balance SE-8723
1 Beaker, 250 mL (or equivalent)
1L Water at room temperature
1 mL Liquid detergent
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the relationship between the buoyant force on
objects immersed in water and the amount of the water the objects displace when submerged.
Background
You know from experience that some objects float in water and other
objects sink. Many people say that ‘heavy’ objects sink, while ‘light’
objects float. However, a heavy supertanker floats, while a light
penny sinks to the bottom of a bowl of water. There must be more to
the reason why some objects float and others sink than just the weight
of the object.
Archimedes (287 to 211 B.C.) lived in Syracuse on the island of
Sicily, and is considered to be one of the greatest mathematicians of
all time. One of his discoveries is that an object submerged in a fluid
displaces a volume of the fluid that is equal to the volume of the
object. Archimedes
When an object is submerged in a fluid, the fluid applies a buoyant

force on the object. If the object weighs less than the buoyant force on it, it rises. If the object
weighs more than the buoyant force, it sinks.
Archimedes discovered a relationship between the weight of the liquid displaced by the
submerged object, and the amount of buoyant force on the object.
Prediction
How would the buoyant force on a fully submerged object compare to the weight of the water
displaced by the object?

Activity 29 Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force PS-2826
Preview
Use a Force Sensor to measure the buoyant force on a fully submerged object. Use the Xplorer
GLX to record and display the force. Measure the weight of the water displaced by the
submerged object, and compare the buoyant force to the weight of the displaced water.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Turn on the GLX ( ) and open the GLX setup file labeled buoyancy. (Check the
• The file is set to measure force at 10 times per second
(10 Hz). The file has a Digits display of Force, pull
positive (N) and shows the force with three digits to
the right of the decimal point.
2. Open the Digits screen. Press to go to the Home
Screen. Use the arrow keys to select Digits and press
Fig. 1: ‘Force, pull positive’
• The Digits screen shows Force, push positive (N).
3. Plug a PASCO Force Sensor into a sensor port on the
top of the Xplorer GLX.
Equipment Setup
1. Mount the Force Sensor so its hook is
down. Tie a piece of string to the first
object.
2. Set up the beaker below the spout of the
overflow can. Fill the overflow can with
room temperature water until it begins to
overflow into the beaker. Add a few
drops of liquid detergent to reduce the
water’s surface tension.
3. Wait for the dripping from the overflow
spout to stop and then empty and dry the
beaker.

Record Data
• Measure and record the mass of the empty beaker and place the beaker under the spout of
the overflow can.
First Object
1. Press the ZERO button on the Force Sensor to zero the sensor.
2. Hang the first object from the sensor’s hook. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to start
recording data.
3. Record the dry weight of the first object in the Data Table in the Lab Report.
4. Rearrange the Force Sensor and object so the object is fully submerged in the water.
• Be sure that the displaced water is caught in the beaker that is below the spout on the
overflow can.
5. Wait for the water to stop dripping from the spout and the record the wet weight of the
object in the Data Table. Press to stop data recording.
6. Measure and record the mass of the beaker plus the displaced water.
7. Lift the object from the overflow can and remove the object from the sensor.
8. Empty the beaker and dry it.
Other Objects
1. Refill the overflow can as before.
2. Press the ZERO button on the Force Sensor to zero the sensor. Hang the new object from
the sensor’s hook.
3. Repeat the data recording procedure for each new object.
Analysis
Calculate the buoyant force for each object. The buoyant force is the weight of the object in air
minus the weight of the object when it is submerged in water.
Calculate the mass of the displaced water by subtracting the mass of the empty beaker from the
mass of the beaker plus the displaced water.
Calculate the weight of the displaced water by multiplying the mass, in kilograms, by 9.8
newtons per kilogram (9.8 N/kg).
Note: Press to return to the Home Screen and press to open the Calculator. You can use
the Calculator to calculate the weight of the water.


to open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 29: Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of empty beaker
Run Dry Weight (N) Wet Weight (N) Buoyant Force Mass of Water Weight of Percent
(N) (kg) Water (N) Difference
1
2
3
Calculations
Calculate the mass of water by subtracting the mass of the empty beaker from the mass of the
displaced water.
Calculate the weight of the water by multiplying the water by 9.8 N/kg.
Calculate the percent difference between the
buoyant force and the weight of displaced Wt. of water - Buoyant Force
%diff = !100
water. Buoyant Force
Questions
1. For each object, why is there a difference between the dry weight and the wet weight?
2. For each run, how does the weight of the displaced water compare to the buoyant force?
Explain why you think this happens.

3. Archimedes’ Principle of Floating Objects is as follows:

The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
How do your results compare to this statement?

Activity 30 PS-2826
Transfer of Energy
Thermodynamics: thermal energy transfer, radiation, convection, conduction GLX setup file radiation

2 Fast-Response Temperature Probe (included with GLX)
1 Thermal Radiation Cans TD-8570A
1 Graduated Cylinder, 50 mL SE-7289
2 Beaker, 250 mL (or equivalent)
2 Thermal Insulation Pad
1 pair Tongs (for handling cans with hot water)
500 mL Water, hot (about 70º C)
1 set Protective Gear (gloves, goggles, lab coat)
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure the change in temperature of equal amounts of water
that have the same initial temperature, and are in two similar metal cans that have different
surfaces. Determine which surface transfers thermal energy fastest.
Background
Heat is transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and
radiation. When an aluminum can full of hot water sits in a
room, the water loses heat by conduction through the aluminum
sides (by direct contact with cooler molecules), by convection
as air molecules collide with the aluminum, and by radiation as
electromagnetic waves are emitted from the can’s surface.
Preview
Use Fast-Response Temperature Probes to measure the change
in temperature of initially hot water as equal quantities of it
cool in two similar aluminum cans. Use the Xplorer GLX to
record and display the temperatures. Determine the amount of
change in temperature in fifteen minutes of cooling time.
Prediction
In which metal can would the water cool down the most in
fifteen minutes: aluminum unpainted, or aluminum painted
black?
Safety Precaution
• Follow all directions for using the equipment. Be careful when handling hot water.
• Wear protective gear such as gloves, goggles, and a lab coat.

Activity 30 Transfer of Energy PS-2826
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled radiation. (Check the Appendix at the end of
this activity.)
2. Press F1 ( ) to open the Graph screen.
• The Graph screen shows a graph of Temperature (ºC)
and Time (s) for two temperatures. The file is set to
measure temperature at 2 times per second (2 Hz).
3. Plug a Fast-Response Temperature Probe into the first Fig. 1: GLX Graph
temperature port on the left side of the Xplorer

GLX. Plug a second probe into the second temperature port.
Equipment Setup
1. Put the end of the first
temperature probe into the
unpainted aluminum can. Put the
end of the second temperature
probe into the black aluminum
can.
2. Put a thermal insulation pad
under the cans.
• Get ready to add equal amounts
of hot water to both cans.
3. Pour 250 mL of hot water into
each of two beakers. Fig. 2: Equipment setup
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the hot water and the equipment and
a second person handles the Xplorer GLX.
1. Quickly but carefully pour 250 mL of hot water from the beakers into each of the two
aluminum cans.
2. Wait 10 seconds and then press Start ( ) on the GLX to start recording data.
3. Watch the Graph screen of temperature and time.
4. After fifteen minutes (900 seconds), press to stop data recording.

Analysis
Examine the graph of temperature versus time for each probe. Determine the initial temperature
and the final temperature for each can of water.
1. Press F1 ( ) to autoscale the Graph screen.
2. Press F3 ( ) to open the Tools menu and select Smart Tool.
3. Move the cursor to the beginning of the data for the first
temperature probe and record the initial temperature of the
water. Move the cursor to the end of the data and record the final
temperature. Fig. 3: Select ‘Smart Tool’
Repeat the analysis for the other temperature probe.
4. Press to open the ‘Tools’ menu and select ‘Toggle Active Data’. Press to activate
your choice.
5. Select ‘Smart Tool’ from the Tools menu. Measure and record the initial and final
temperature of the water in the second can.
Calculate the change in temperature from initial to final for both cans of water.
Note: Press to return to the Home Screen and press to open the Calculator. You can use
the Calculator to calculate the difference in temperature.


and press to activate your choice. In the Data Files
screen, use the arrow keys to navigate to the file you want.
Press to open the file. Press the Home button to return to
the Home Screen. Press to open the Graph.

Lab Report – Activity 30: Transfer of Energy

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
In which metal can would the water cool down the most in fifteen minutes: aluminum unpainted,
or aluminum painted black?
Data
Sketch your graph of temperatures versus time. Include units and labels for your axes.
Data Table
Item Unpainted Black

Initial Temperature
Final Temperature
Change in Temperature
Calculations
Calculate the change in temperature of the water in both cans.
Questions
1. Which can cooled down faster?

2. When the cans are cooling, which processes transfer thermal energy? Which process do
you think is dominant?
3. When a can is cooling, does it cool faster at the beginning of the experiment or toward the
end of the experiment? Why?
4. Does the thermal insulation pad under each can hinder transfer of energy by conduction, or
help transfer of energy by conduction? Explain.
5. Does the narrow opening at the top of the can hinder transfer of energy by convection, or
help transfer of energy by convection? Explain.

Activity 31 PS-2826
Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal

Thermodynamics: specific heat, calorimetry, thermal energy

1 Basic Calorimetry Set (1 metal object and 2 calorimeter cups) TD-8557
1 Balance SE-8723
1 Graduated Cylinder, 50-mL SE-7289
20 cm Braided Physics String SE-8050
1 Stir rod
300 mL Water
100 mL Ice (cube or crushed)
1 Towel
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the specific heat of a metal object and identity the
metal based on its specific heat.
Background
The amount of thermal energy that an object must absorb to
change its temperature by one degree is called its heat capacity.
The amount of thermal energy that a single gram of a specific
material must absorb in order to change its temperature by one
degree is the material's specific heat capacity, or specific heat. The
specific heat of water is a standard to which specific heats of other
substances are compared.
When thermal energy flows into or out of an object, its temperature changes. The amount of
change depends on the mass of the object, the material from which the object is made, and the
temperature of the environment. The specific heat of the material can be found using a known
quantity of water and a calorimeter. The calorimeter is relatively well insulated so very little
thermal energy will come from or go into the surrounding air. Assume that thermal energy is
conserved inside the calorimeter. This means that whatever thermal energy is gained or lost by
an object put into the calorimeter is equal to the thermal energy gained or lost by the water in the
calorimeter. The equation describes that the change in thermal energy, ∆Q, depends on the mass,
m, the specific heat, c, and the change in temperature, ∆T.
!Q = mc!T
When an unknown metal object is put into water in a calorimeter, the change in thermal energy
of the object equals the change of thermal energy of the water.
mobject cobject !Tobject = mwater cwater !Twater
The initial temperatures of the object and water will be different, but the final temperature–called
the equilibrium temperature–will be the same.

Activity 31 Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal PS-2826
Preview
Use a Fast-Response Temperature Probe to measure the change in temperature of a known mass
of water at room temperature when a metal object of known mass and known initial temperature
is put into the water. Use the Xplorer to record and display the data.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Plug a Fast-Response Temperature Probe into the first

GLX and then turn on the GLX ( ).
• The Graph screen shows Temperature (ºC) and Time Fig. 1: GLX graph
(s).
Equipment Setup
1. Measure and record the mass of one of the metal objects from the PASCO Basic
Calorimetry Set.
2. Put ice and water into one calorimeter cup to make an ice
water bath. Tie a piece of string to the metal object and
lower the object into the ice bath.
3. Leave the metal object in the ice water for 10 minutes. Add
more ice as the ice begins to melt.
4. Prepare a known quantity of water that is at room
temperature (about 20–25 ºC). Measure and record the
mass of the second calorimeter cup. Add about 200 mL of
water to the calorimeter. Measure and record the total mass
of the cup plus the water.
5. Put the end of the Fast-Response Temperature Probe into Fig. 2: Equipment setup
the room temperature water. Add a stir rod to the water.
Record Data
1. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to measure the signal from the Temperature Probe.
• The temperature appears in the graph display.
2. After 1 minute, lift the cold metal object out of the ice water bath and quickly dry any
droplets of water still on the object.
3. Suspend the object in the room temperature water in the calorimeter. It should be
completely covered by water but not touch the bottom of the calorimeter.
4. Stir the water gently as you continue to record temperature data.

5. Wait until the graph of temperature stops changing (the object and the water are in thermal
equilibrium), and then press to stop data recording.
6. Remove the Temperature Probe and the metal object from the calorimeter. Clean up the
equipment as instructed.
Analysis
1. Use the graph of temperature versus time to find the initial temperature of the water and
the equilibrium temperature, or final temperature, of the water and the metal object after
the object warms up and the water cools down.
2. Press F3 ( ) to open the Tools menu. Select Smart Tool. Use the arrow keys to move the
cursor to the part of the graph that shows the initial temperature of the water. Record the
value.
3. Repeat the process to find the final temperature (equilibrium temperature) of the water and
the metal object.
4. Use your data to calculate the specific heat of the metal object.
5. Use your calculated value of the specific heat to identify the type of metal.
Extension
Repeat the procedure with the other metal objects in the Basic Calorimetry Set.


Lab Report - Activity 31: Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch your graph of temperature versus time. Include labels and units on the axes.
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of object kg
Mass of cup kg
Mass of cup plus water kg
Mass of water kg
Initial Temperature of Metal 0 ºC
Initial Temperature of Water ºC
Final Temperature of Water ºC
Calculations
Calculate the specific heat of the unknown metal. The specific heat of water, cwater is 4186
J/kg˚C. Remember that the final temperature of the water–the equilibrium temperature–is also
the final temperature of the metal object. Assume that the initial temperature of the metal object
is 0ºC (the temperature of the ice-water bath).
(
mobject cobject Tfinal " Tinitial )
object
(
= mwater cwater Tinitial " Tfinal )
water

Solve for the specific heat of the object, cobject.
Item Value
Specific Heat of Metal J/kg˚C
The table shows some specific heats of common metals:
Metal Specific Heat (J/kg˚C) Metal Specific Heat (J/kg˚C)

aluminum 901 iron 449
brass 380 lead 128
copper 386 silver 234
gold 129 steel 450
Questions
1. Describe, in words, what happened to the temperature on the graph.
2. What kind of metal is the object?
3. Compare the value you obtained with your data (measured) to the value in the list
(accepted). For example, what is the percent difference between your measured value and
accepted ! measured
the accepted value? %diff = "100
accepted
4. What are some possible sources of error?

Activity 32 PS-2826
Latent Heat of Vaporization

Thermodynamics: phase change, latent heat of vaporization, boiling

1 Basic Calorimetry Set (1 calorimeter cup, plastic tubing) TD-8557
1 Steam Generator TD-8556A
1 Large Base and Support Rod (optional) ME-9355
1 Three-Finger Clamp (optional) SE-9445
1 Balance SE-8723
1 Glass tube, ¼” outside diameter, about 2” long
1L Water, about 10 degrees cooler than room temperature
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the amount of thermal energy contained in a specific
quantity of steam (one gram) at a specific temperature (100º C). This amount of thermal energy
is called the Latent Heat of Vaporization of water.
Background
When a substance warms or cools, thermal energy is
transferred from or to the substance, and the substance changes
temperature (up or down). The thermal energy, ∆Q, depends on
the mass, m, the specific heat of the substance, c, and the
temperature change, ∆T.
!Qtemperature change = mc!T
When a substance changes phase, the arrangement of its

molecules changes, but its temperature does not change. If the new arrangement has a higher
amount of thermal energy, the substance must absorb thermal energy from its environment in
order to make the phase change. If the new arrangement has a lower amount of thermal energy,
the substance must release thermal energy to its environment.
For example, the molecules in a gas have more kinetic energy, and the molecules in a liquid have
less kinetic energy. The phase change from gas to liquid involves a transfer of thermal energy
out of the substance, but doesn’t involve a temperature change for the substance. The thermal
energy, ∆Q, depends on the mass, m, and the latent heat of vaporization, Hv (the amount of
energy per gram needed to change phase at a specific temperature).
!Qphase change = mHv
If the substance changes from gas to liquid, and then the liquid undergoes a temperature change,
the total amount of thermal energy involved is the sum of the thermal energy for the phase
change and the thermal energy for the temperature change.
!Qtotal = !Qphase change + !Qtemperature change = mHv + mc!T

Activity 32 Latent Heat of Vaporization PS-2826
The thermal energy comes from the environment that surrounds the substance.
Preview
of water as steam changes from gas to liquid in the water. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and
display the temperature. Determine the latent heat of vaporization of the steam.
Safety Precaution
• Follow all directions for using the equipment. Be very careful around the Steam Generator.
• Wear protective gear (such as gloves, goggles, and lab coat.)
Procedure
GLX Setup

• The Graph shows Temperature (ºC) and Time (s).
Equipment Setup
1. Set up a PASCO Steam Generator with a water trap and
plastic tubing as shown. Put a glass tube in the end of
Fig. 1: GLX graph
the piece of plastic tubing that will go into the
calorimeter.
2. Fill the generator about two-thirds
full of water and turn on the
generator to “HIGH”. Adjust the
height of the water trap if necessary.
• NOTE: It is very important to have
the bottom of the water trap above
the level of water in the Steam
Generator.
3. Measure and record the mass of a
calorimeter from the PASCO Basic
Calorimetry Set.
4. Fill the calorimeter approximately
half-full of cool water (about 10º C
below room temperature). Fig. 2: Equipment setup
5. Measure and record the mass of the
calorimeter plus water.
6. Wait until the steam flows freely for at least a minute, and then get ready to start recording
data. BE EXTREMELY CAREFUL! True steam is invisible, and very, very hot!

Record Data
• The temperature appears in the graph display. Make a note of the initial temperature of the
water.
2. Immerse the end of the tube from the steam generator into the cool water in the
calorimeter. Gently swirl the water in the calorimeter.
3. Carefully watch the temperature in the Graph screen. When the water temperature gets as
far above room temperature as it was initially below room temperature, remove the steam
tube from the water and turn off the generator.
4. Continue to record data and to swirl the water until the water temperature reaches its
highest value and begins to drop.

6. Remove the Temperature Probe and then immediately measure and record the mass of the
calorimeter plus water plus condensed steam.
7. Clean up the equipment as instructed.
Analysis
the equilibrium temperature, or final temperature, of the water and the condensed steam.
2. Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select ‘Smart Tool’. Use the arrow keys to move
the cursor to the part of the graph that shows the initial temperature of the water. Record
the value.
the condensed steam.
4. Use your measurements of the mass of the calorimeter, the calorimeter plus water, and the
calorimeter plus water plus steam to determine the mass of the water and the mass of the
condensed steam.
5. Use the mass of the water, the mass of the steam, and the initial and final temperatures of
the water to calculate the heat of vaporization of water.
The steam starts at 100º C, condenses, and then cools down to the same final temperature as the
water. The thermal energy transferred from the steam as it changed to water and then cooled
down is the same as the thermal energy transferred to the water as it warmed up from its initial
cool temperature to the final temperature.

In other words, the sum of the latent heat of vaporization, ∆Qphase change plus the thermal energy
for changing the temperature of the condensed steam, ∆Qtemperature change, is the same as the
thermal energy for changing the temperature of the water.
( !Q phase change
+ !Qtemperature change )
steam
= !Qwater
msteamHv + msteamcwater !Tsteam = mwater cwater !Twater
( )( ) ( )(
msteamHv + msteam 4186J / kg°C Tfinal "100°C = mwater 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " Tinital )
The first task is to solve for Hv, the latent heat of vaporization. Then, substitute values for the
mass of the steam, the mass of the water, the initial temperature of the water, and the final
temperature of the water.

Lab Report - Activity 32: Latent Heat of Vaporization

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch your graph of temperature versus time. Include labels and units on the axes.
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of calorimeter kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water kg
Mass of water, mwater kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water plus condensed steam kg
Mass of steam, msteam kg
Initial Temperature of Water, Tinitial ºC
Final Temperature of Water, Tfinal ºC
Calculations
Calculate the mass of the water, mwater. Calculate the mass of the steam, msteam.
Use the mass of the water, mass of the steam, specific heat of water (cwater is 4186 J/kg˚C), initial
temperature of the water, and final temperature of the water to calculate the latent heat of
vaporization.

( !Q phase change
steam
= !Qwater
( )( ) (
msteamHv + msteam 4186J / kg°C Tfinal "100°C = mwater 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " Tinital )( )
First, solve the final equation for Hv, the latent heat of vaporization. Next, substitute your values
for mass of water, mwater, mass of steam, msteam, initial temperature, Tinitial, and final
temperature, Tfinal. Finally, calculate the results. The units for the latent heat of vaporization are
joules per kilogram, or J/kg.
Get the accepted value for the latent heat of vaporization for water from your instructor, and
calculate the percent difference between your value and the accepted value.
Item Value
Latent Heat of Vaporization, measured kJ/kg
Latent Heat of Vaporization, accepted kJ/kg
Percent difference %
measured ! accepted
%diff = "100%
accepted
Questions
1. How does your measured value for the latent heat of vaporization compare to the accepted
value?
2. What factors do you think may have caused a difference, if any?
3. Why would a burn produced by 1 gram of steam at 100 ºC do more damage to your skin
than a burn caused by I gram of hot water at 100 ªC?

Activity 33 PS-2826
Latent Heat of Fusion

Thermodynamics: phase change, latent heat of fusion, melting

1 Fast-Response Temperature Probe (included with GLX) PS-2135
1 Basic Calorimetry Set (1 calorimeter cup) TD-8557
1 Balance SE-8723
1L Water, about 15 degrees warmer than room temperature
0.5 L Ice, crushed
1 Towel
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to determine the amount of thermal energy needed to change a
specific quantity of ice (one gram) into water at a specific temperature (0º C). This amount of
thermal energy is called the Latent Heat of Fusion of water.
Background
Just as steam has a higher internal energy than water, so water has a higher
internal energy content than ice. When ice melts into water, it absorbs
thermal energy from its surroundings, but does not change temperature.
The absorbed energy enables water molecules in the crystalline form of
ice to break free of the bonds that hold them together.
The phase change from solid to liquid involves a transfer of thermal
energy into the substance, but doesn’t involve a temperature change for
the substance. The thermal energy, ∆Q, depends on the mass, m, and the
latent heat of fusion, Hf (the amount of energy per gram needed to change
phase at a specific temperature).
!Qphase change = mHf
If the substance changes from solid to liquid, and then the liquid undergoes a temperature
change, the total amount of thermal energy involved is the sum of the thermal energy for the
phase change and the thermal energy for the temperature change.
!Qtotal = !Qphase change + !Qtemperature change = mHf + mc!T
The thermal energy comes from the environment that surrounds the substance.
Preview
of water as ice changes from solid to liquid in the water. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and
display the temperature. Determine the latent heat of fusion of the ice.

Activity 33 Latent Heat of Fusion PS-2826
Safety Precaution
• Wear protective gear (such as gloves, goggles, and lab coat.)
Procedure
GLX Setup

• The Graph screen shows Temperature (ºC) and Time
(s).
Equipment Setup
1. Measure and record the mass of a calorimeter from the
Fig. 1: GLX graph
PASCO Basic Calorimetry Set.
2. Fill the calorimeter approximately half-full of warm
water (about 15 ºC above room temperature).
3. Measure and record the mass of the calorimeter plus water.
4. Put the end of the Temperature Probe into the water.
5. Get ready to add chunks of ice to the warm water.
Record Data
• The temperature appears in the graph display. Make a note of the initial temperature of the
water.
2. Wipe off any excess water on several small chunks of ice and immediately add them to the
warm water in the calorimeter. Gently swirl the water in the calorimeter.
3. Carefully watch the temperature in the Graph screen.
4. As the ice melts, dry more chunks and add them to the water, swirling the water
continuously.
5. When the water temperature gets as far below room temperature as it was initially above
room temperature, and all the ice in the water is melted, stop adding ice.

7. Remove the Temperature Probe and then immediately measure and record the mass of the
calorimeter plus water plus melted ice.
8. Clean up the equipment as instructed.

Analysis
the equilibrium temperature, or final temperature, of the water and the melted ice.
2. Press F3 ( ) to open the ‘Tools’ menu. Select ‘Smart Tool’. Use the arrow keys to move
the cursor to the part of the graph that shows the initial temperature of the water. Record
the value.
the melted ice.
4. Use your measurements of the mass of the calorimeter, the calorimeter plus water, and the
calorimeter plus water plus ice to determine the mass of the water and the mass of the ice.
5. Use the mass of the water, the mass of the ice, and the initial and final temperatures of the
water to calculate the heat of fusion of water.
The ice starts at 0 ºC, melts into water, and then warms up to the same final temperature as the
water. The thermal energy transferred to the ice as it changed to water and then warmed up is the
same as the thermal energy transferred from the initially warm water as it cooled down from its
initial temperature to the final, cooler temperature.
In other words, the sum of the latent heat of fusion, ∆Qphase change plus the thermal energy for
changing the temperature of the melted ice, ∆Qtemperature change, is the same as the thermal energy
for changing the temperature of the warm water.
( !Q phase change
+ !Qtemperature change ) ice
= !Qwater
mice Hf + mice cwater !Tsteam = mwater cwater !Twater
( )( ) ( )(
mice Hf + mice 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " 0°C = mwater 4186J / kg°C Tinitial " Tfinal )
The first task is to solve for Hf, the latent heat of fusion. Then, substitute values for the mass of
the ice, the mass of the water, the initial temperature of the water, and the final temperature of
the water.


Lab Report - Activity 33: Latent Heat of Fusion

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Data
Sketch your graph of temperature versus time. Include labels and units on the axes. (See Sample
Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of calorimeter kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water kg
Mass of water, mwater kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water plus melted ice kg
Mass of ice, mice kg
Initial Temperature of Water, Tinitial ºC
Final Temperature of Water, Tfinal ºC
Calculations
Calculate the mass of the water, mwater, where the mass of the water is the mass of the
calorimeter plus water minus the mass of the calorimeter.
Calculate the mass of the ice, mice, where the mass of the ice is the mass of the calorimeter plus
water plus melted ice (the final mass) minus the mass of the calorimeter plus water
Use the mass of the water, mass of the ice, specific heat of water (cwater is 4186 J/kgºC), initial
temperature of the water, and final temperature of the water to calculate the latent heat of fusion.

( !Q phase change
= !Qwater
mice Hf + mice cwater !Tice = mwater cwater !Twater
( )( ) (
mice Hf + mice 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " 0°C = mwater 4186J / kg°C Tinitial " Tfinal )( )
First, solve the final equation for Hf, the latent heat of fusion. Next, substitute your values for
mass of water, mwater, mass of ice, mice, initial temperature, Tinitial, and final temperature, Tfinal.
Finally, calculate the results. The units for the latent heat of fusion are joules per kilogram, or
J/kg.
Get the accepted value for the latent heat of fusion for water from your instructor, and calculate
the percent difference between your value and the accepted value.
Item Value
Latent Heat of Fusion, measured kJ/kg
Latent Heat of Fusion, accepted kJ/kg
Percent difference %
measured ! accepted
%diff = "100%
accepted
Questions
1. How does your measured value for the latent heat of fusion compare to the accepted value?

Activity 34 PS-2826
Light Intensity versus Distance

Light and Optics: inverse square law, light intensity GLX setup file: light intensity

1 PASPORT Light Sensor PS-2106
1 PASPORT Extension Cable PS-2500
1 Basic Optics Light Source OS-8470
1 Three-Finger Clamp SE-9445
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate the relationship of the intensity of light from a small
light source and the distance from the source. Compare the light intensity to the square of the
distance from the source.
Background
The farther you are from a light source, the less
bright the source looks. The light from a point light
source spreads out uniformly in all directions, so as
you move away from the source, less light reaches
you.
Imagine that the light source is surrounded by a
transparent sphere. The intensity at a given distance
from the light will be equal to the power output of
the light source divided by the surface area of the
sphere through which the light has spread.
If the sphere expands so its radius is twice as great, Light intensity and distance
the light intensity at the surface of that sphere is
spread out over an area that is four times larger. If the sphere expands so its radius is three times
as great, the light intensity at the surface of that sphere is spread out over an area that is nine
times larger.
Prediction
Since the area of the sphere varies as the square of its radius, r, will the intensity of the light vary
as 1/r2 ?
Preview
Use a PASPORT Light Sensor to measure the light intensity from a small light source as the
distance of the sensor from the source increases. Use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the
light intensity and the distance. Examine the graph of light intensity versus distance to determine
their relationship.

Activity 34 Light Intensity versus Distance PS-2826
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
labeled light intensity. (Check the Appendix at the
• The GLX setup file has a Graph screen of Light
Intensity (lux) versus distance (m). The file is set to
measure light intensity 5 times per second (5 Hz). It’s
also set for ‘Manual’ entry of the distance values. The
Graph screen includes a calculation of 1/distance2.
2. Connect a PASPORT Extension Cable to the
PASPORT Light Sensor and plug the extension cable
into a sensor port on the top of the Xplorer GLX.
3. In the Home Screen ( ), use the arrow keys to select Digits and press to activate
your choice. The Digits screen shows ‘Light Intensity (lux)’ and ‘distance (m)’.
Equipment Setup
1. Set up the Basic Optics Light Source
on a table so the point source aims
upward.
2. Mount the Light Sensor to a support
rod and adjust the sensor so it is
aligned with the point source on the
light source. Put the end of the
sensor on top of the point source.
3. Press the range selection button on
the Light Sensor next to the icon of
the sun ( ).
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if
one person handles the equipment and a second person
1. Connect the power cord to the Light Source to turn it on.
2. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin recording data.

• The Digits screen shows the values of light intensity and
distance.
Fig. 3: Light intensity data

3. Press the Flag key ( ) on the GLX.

• The Digits screen prompts you for the distance of the
sensor.
4. Since the light bulb inside the Light Source is 2 cm (0.02
m) from the point source opening, use the alphanumeric
keys to enter ‘0.02’ for the distance. Press F1 ( )
under ‘OK’ to record your entry.
5. Adjust the position of the sensor so the end of the sensor
Fig. 4: Enter the distance
is 2 cm (0.02 m) above the point source opening, or 4
cm from the light bulb inside the Light Source.
6. Press on the GLX and then enter ‘0.04’ as the new distance. Press to record it.
7. Adjust the position of the sensor so the end of the sensor is another 2 cm farther away from
the opening on the Light Source. Press on the GLX and enter ‘0.06’ as the new
distance. Press to record your entry.
8. Continue the process. Move the sensor another 2 cm farther away from the opening each
time until you are 20 cm (0.20 m) away from the light bulb (0.18 m above the opening on
the Light Source). Press , enter the new distance, and press each time.
9. When the sensor is 20 cm from the light bulb inside the source and you have recorded the
last data, press to stop data recording.
Analysis
Examine your graph of light intensity versus distance to determine whether light intensity varies
as the inverse square of the distance. In this case, you can linearize your data so you can use the
‘Linear Fit’ tool in the Graph screen.
1. Press to go to the Home Screen, and press F1 ( ) to open the Graph screen.
2. Change the Graph screen to show ‘1/distance2’ on the
horizontal axis.
a. Press to activate the vertical axis menu. Use
the arrow keys to move to horizontal axis.
b. When ‘distance’ is highlighted, press to open
the menu.
c. Select ‘1/distance sqr’ in the menu, and press
to activate your choice. Fig. 5: Select ‘1/distance sqr’
3. In the Graph screen, press to open the ‘Tools’

menu and select ‘Linear Fit’.
• The value of ‘r’ is the coefficient of linear regression; a measure of how well the data fit a
straight line. A value of ‘1.00’ means that the data fit a straight line perfectly well.
4. Record your value of ‘r’ in the Data Table of the Lab Report.


Lab Report – Activity 34: Light Intensity versus Distance

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
as 1/r2 ?
Data
Sketch a graph of light intensity versus distance. Include units and labels for your axes.
Data Table
Item Value
Coefficient of linear regression, r
Questions
1. What is the shape of your graph of light intensity versus distance?

2. How well does your data for light intensity versus 1/distance2 fit a straight line? Hint: The
closer the value of ‘r’ is to 1.00, the better the fit.
3. What are some reasons why the results might not support the inverse square relationship of
light intensity to distance?

Activity 35 PS-2826
Polarized Light
Light and Optics: polarization, unpolarized, polarized

1 PASPORT Light Sensor PS-2106
1 PASPORT Extension Cable PS-2500
1 Polarizing Sheets (set of 2) OS-9477
1 Basic Optics Light Source OS-8470
1 Three-Finger Clamp SE-9445
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to investigate how the intensity of light from a small light source
changes as it passes through a single polarizer, and how it changes when it passes through two
polarizers.
Background
Normally, light is unpolarized. That means that the
light waves vibrate in all planes perpendicular to the
direction that the light wave travels.
A polarizer only allows light that is vibrating in a
particular plane to pass through it. This plane forms
the “axis” of polarization. For example, if the
polarizer is arranged in such a way that it only allows
the vertical plane of light to pass through it, then its
axis of polarization would be vertical (that is, at 0º to
the vertical).
If unpolarized light shines through an “ideal”
polarizer, how much of the original light would be Fig. 1: Unpolarized and
transmitted through the polarizer? An ideal polarizer polarized light
transmits half of the original light. Since in reality no
polarizer is “ideal”, how much would be transmitted?
The light that is transmitted through one polarizer is polarized in one plane. If this polarized light
shines upon a second polarizer, the axis of which is at an angle that it is perpendicular to the first
polarizer, no light would be transmitted through the second polarizer.
Prediction
1. What would happen to the intensity of light when it passes through one polarizer?
2. What would happen to the intensity of light when it passes through two polarizers that are
arranged at an angle of 0º to each other?

Activity 35 Polarized Light PS-2826
Preview
Use a PASPORT Light Sensor to measure the light intensity from a small light source when the
light travels through a single polarizer and then when it travels through two polarizers. Use the
Xplorer GLX to record and display the light intensity and the distance. Change the angle of one
polarizer relative to the other and compare the light intensity.
Safety Precaution
Procedure
GLX Setup
1. Connect a PASPORT Extension Cable to the
PASPORT Light Sensor and plug the extension cable
into a sensor port on the top of the Xplorer GLX.
2. Turn on the GLX.
• The Graph Screen shows Light Intensity (lux) versus
Time (s). The file is set to measure light intensity 5
times per second (5 Hz).
3. In the Home Screen ( ), use the arrow keys to select
Digits and press to activate your choice. The
Digits screen shows ‘Light Intensity (lux)’.
Equipment Setup
1. Set up the Basic Optics
Light Source on a table so
the point source aims
horizontallly.
2. Mount the Light Sensor to a
support rod and adjust the
sensor so it is aligned with
the point source on the light
source. Put the sensor a few
centimeters from the point
source.
3. Press the range selection
button on the Light Sensor
next to the icon of the sun Fig. 2: Equipment setup
( ).

Arranging the Polarizing Sheets

Two polarizers at 0º: The two polarizing sheets are arranged so the axis of
transmission of the second sheet is parallel to the axis of transmission of
the first sheet. (The second polarizing sheet does not change the light
intensity transmitted by the first polarizing sheet.)
Two polarizers at 45º: The second polarizing sheet is arranged so its edge
is along the imaginary diagonal of the first polarizing sheet.
Two polarizers at 90º: The second polarizing sheet is turned 90º to the
first polarizing sheet.
Record Data
• NOTE: The procedure is easier if one person handles the polarizing
sheets and a second person handles the Xplorer GLX.
1. Connect the power cord to the Light Source to turn it on.
2. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin recording data.

• The Digits screen shows the values of light intensity.
3. Record the value as the light intensity with no polarizer.

4. Put one polarizing sheet between the light source and the
sensor.
5. Record the value of the light intensity when the light
passes through one polarizer.
6. Arrange two polarizing sheets so the angle of the axes of
transmission is 0º.
7. Put the two polarizing sheets between the light source Fig. 3: No polarizer
and the sensor and record the new value of the light
intensity when the light passes through two polarizers at 0º.
8. Turn the second polarizing sheet so it is at an angle of 45º to the first polarizing sheet.
Record the new value of the light intensity.
9. Finally, turn the second polarizing sheet so it is at an angle of 90º to the first polarizing
sheet. Record the new value of the light intensity.
10. Remove the polarizing sheets. Press to stop data recording. Unplug the power cord
from the Light Source.
Analysis
Examine your recorded values of light intensity.
Use your results to answer the questions in the Lab Report section.


Lab Report – Activity 35: Polarized Light

Name ________________________________ Date ___________
Prediction
Data Table
Arrangement Light Intensity

No polarizer
One polarizer
Two polarizers at 0º
Questions
1. How did the light intensity through one polarizer compare to the light intensity through no
polarizer?
2. How did the light intensity with two polarizers at 45º compare to the light intensity with
two polarizers at 0º?

two polarizers at 0º
4. For two ideal polarizers, the light intensity when the polarizers are at 90º should be zero.
Why was the light intensity for the two polarizers at 90º not zero?

Activity 1 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 1: Position–Match Graph

Time Estimates Preparation: 15 min Activity: 30 min
Objectives
Students will be able to…
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion as they move back-and-forth in front of a vertical target in
a straight line.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion.
• determine the ‘match’ between their motion and a target plot of position versus time using the built-in
calculation provided.
• describe their motion in terms of speed, direction, and time.
Notes
• Check the equipment to make sure that the Motion Sensor points straight forward (parallel
to the floor), and that the range switch is set to Long Range (Stick Figure icon).
• Make sure that the area around the students is clear of
obstacles.
• Remind your students to hold the Xplorer GLX and
Motion Sensor firmly as they move back-and-forth.
If there is no pulley-mounting rod (or its equivalent) available,
students can just hold the Motion Sensor firmly against the
bottom of the Xplorer GLX.
Sample Data
The screenshot shows a sample of position versus time data.

Activity 1 Teacher Notes: Position–Match Graph PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 1: Position–Match Graph

Answers and Sample Data
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What will happen on a real-time graph of position versus time as you move the Motion
Sensor away from a wall? (Draw a sketch of how the graph will look.)
As you move away from the wall, the real-time graph of position versus time should go up, that
is, it will have a positive slope.
2. What will happen on the real-time graph of position versus time as you move the Motion
Sensor toward a wall? (Draw a sketch of how the graph will look.)
As you move away from the wall, the real-time graph of position versus time should go down,
that is, it will have a negative slope.
Data
Best (lowest) Position-Match Score = _________
Questions
1. How well did your motion graph match the provided graph.
Answers will vary.
2. What was the meaning of the part of the position plot where the slope was positive
(upward)?
When the position plot had a positive slope, the student was moving away from the wall.
3. Were certain parts of the plots easier to match than other parts? Why or why not?
Yes. The parts of the plots where the direction changes were harder to match than the parts of
the plots where the direction wasn’t changing and the speed was constant. This is because
instantaneous changes in direction are physically impossible.

Conclusion
1. Make a sketch of a velocity versus time graph from the position versus time graph
including labels for the y- and x-axes.
The vertical axis label should be ‘Velocity (m/s)’ and the horizontal axis label should be ‘Time
(s)’.
2. Write a short paragraph that describes your motion in the graph. Include speeds, directions,
positions, etc. Be as descriptive as possible.
Start at one meter from the wall and remain at rest for two seconds. Then move away from the
wall at one meter per second for two seconds until you are three meters from the wall. Stop for
one second. Then move toward the wall at one meter per second for one second. Instantly change
direction and move away from the wall at one-half meter per second for two seconds and then
instantly change direction and move toward the wall at one meter per second for two seconds.
You will be back where you started.


Activity 2 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 2: Relative Motion–Frames of Reference

Objectives
• use the Motion Sensor to measure the motion of one cart relative to another cart as they move toward
or way from to each other.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the velocities of the two carts.
• use the graph of velocity versus time to determine the maximum and relative velocities of the two
carts.
• describe the relative motion of the two carts.
Notes
1. There is some technique and timing required for this activity. Help students to practice
their data runs to ease their frustration.
2. Remind students how to erase a data run in the GLX.
• In the Graph screen, press Activate ( ) to highlight the vertical
axis label. Use the up arrow to move to ‘Run #1’ (for example).
Press Activate to open the ‘Run’ menu. Select the run to delete or
one of the other menu choices. Press Activate and then press F1
for ‘OK’ or F2 for ‘Cancel’.
Motion Sensor on Cart
3. If you do not have the ME-6743 Cart Adapter
Accessory, a rubber band can hold the motion sensor on
the PASCO cart.
4. Use strips of tape along the bottom edge of the card to
make it thicker so it stays in the slots of the accessory
tray on the cart.
5. Be certain that the motion sensor is set on the ‘near’
(cart) setting. In addition, the sensor must be rotated
such that it points directly at the cart.
Select a Run #
6. If the carts get closer than 15 cm, accurate data will not
be collected.
Motion Sensor Setting

Activity 2 Teacher Notes: Relative Motion–Frames of Reference PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of velocity and time for the three parts of the data recording.
Fig. 1: Part 1 graph Fig. 2: Part 2 graph
Fig. 3 Part 3 graph

Lab Report - Activity 2: Relative Motion–Frames of Reference

Data
Sketch one example of your graph of Velocity versus Time for the motion of the carts. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table
Part Value
1) Object Moves, “You” Are Maximum velocity of ‘object’ = –0.33 m/s
Stationary
2) Object and ‘You’ Move Toward Relative velocity of the carts = 0.23 m/s
Each Other
3) Object Moves, ‘You’ Move Velocity of ‘object’ relative to ‘you’ = about 0 m/s
Away
Questions
1. In part 1, what does the negative sign tell you about the motion?
The negative sign means that the ‘object’ is moving toward the Motion Sensor.

this value?
The ‘you’ (Motion Sensor) cart is moving at 0.23 m/s relative to the ground. Use the Smart Tool
to determine the difference between when only the ‘object’ cart is moving and when the ‘you’
cart is moving toward the ‘object’. In the Sample Data, the ‘object’ cart moves at –0.31 m/s. The
combined motion is –0.51 m/s. The difference is 0.23 m/s
this value?
The ‘you’ (Motion Sensor) cart is moving at -0.12 m/s relative to the ground. Use the Smart Tool
to determine the speed of the ‘object’ cart’s before the ‘you’ cart begins to move.
Summary
4. If you are an observer standing still, what can you say about the relative velocity of an
object moving toward you?
The object's velocity relative to the observer is equal to the object's velocity
5. If you are an observer moving towards an object that is also moving towards you, what can
you say about the relative velocity of the object moving towards you?
The relative velocity of the object is the sum of the object's velocity and the observer's velocity.
6. If you are an observer moving in the same direction as a moving object, what can you say
about the relative velocity of the object? Would it make a difference if you were leading or
following?
The relative velocity is the difference between the object's velocity and the observer's velocity.
Whether the object is leading or following would not make a difference in the relative velocity.
7. What do you notice about the positive and negative values of the velocity relative to the
motion sensor?
When the object is moving away from the motion sensor, the relative velocity is positive. When
the object is moving toward the motion sensor, the relative velocity is negative.

Activity 3 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 3: Velocity of a Motorized Cart

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart moving at constant speed.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion of the cart.
• use the ‘Linear Fit’ line for each trial of data to find the slope of the plot of the data.
• describe the relationship of the slope for each plot of data to the physical quantities represented by
the slope.
Notes
Changing the speed of the cart for each run changes the slope of the position vs. time plots on the
graph.
It is important that students understand the following graphical representations:
• Identification of the measurement and units of the vertical or y-axis.
• Identification of the measurement and units of the horizontal or x-axis.
• Meaning of the slope: The physical representation of the slope can be found by looking at the units
of the vertical axis divided by the units of the horizontal axis. The units are ‘meters per second’ –
the units of speed.
If you do not have a block for the cart to drag, a different way to slow down the cart for the
second and third run is to put the extra mass on top of the cart.
Be certain that the motion sensor is set on the ‘near’ (cart) setting. In addition, the sensor must be
rotated such that it points directly at its target.
If the cart is closer than 15 cm in front of the Motion Sensor, the sensor
won’t record accurate data.
Motion Sensor Setting

Activity 3 Teacher Notes: Velocity of a Motorized Cart PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of position and time and the linear fit for the three parts of the
data recording.
Fig. 1: ‘Slow’ graph Fig. 2: ‘Slower’ graph
Fig. 3 ‘Slowest’ graph

Lab Report - Activity 3: Velocity of a Motorized Cart

Data
1. Make a sketch of one run of position versus time data including labels for the y- and x-
axes. (See the Sample Data.)
2. Record your values for the Slope for each run.
Run Slope
1 0.34 m/s
2 0.08 m/s
3 0.01 m/s
Questions
1. What is shown on the vertical axis of your graph and what are the units?
The vertical axis of the graph shows position and the units are meters.
2. What is shown on the horizontal axis of your graph and what are the units?
The horizontal axis of the graph shows time measured in seconds.

1. How long was the motorized cart moving during each data run? (Hint: Use the ‘Smart
Tool’ in the Graph screen.
Run Time of Motion (s)

1 3.20
2 8.00
3 3.50
2. What physical quantity does the slope of each plot represent?

The slope of each plot represents the speed in meters per second of the motorized cart.
3. What are the units for the slope of each plot?

The units for the slope of each plot are meters per second.
Problem
1. If the cart moves at a constant speed of 0.33 m/s, how far will it move in 5 seconds?
If a cart moves at a constant speed of .033 m/s for 5 seconds, it will move 1.65 m.

Activity 4 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 4: Acceleration on an Inclined Track

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart as it moves up and down an inclined track.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion of the cart.
• analyze the graphs of position and velocity versus time for the motion of the accelerating cart.
• compare the slope of velocity versus time to the mean value of acceleration versus time.
Notes
Pushing the cart up the incline so that it does not get too close to the sensor may take some
practice before data collection is done.
It is important that students understand the following graphical representations:
• Identification of the measurement and units of the vertical or y-axis.
• Identification of the measurement and units of the horizontal or x-axis.
• Meaning of the slope on the velocity-time graph: The physical representation of the slope can be
found by looking at the units of the vertical axis divided by the units of the horizontal axis. The units
are ‘meters per second per second’ – the units of acceleration.
Be certain that the motion sensor is set on the ‘near’ (cart) setting. In
addition, the sensor must be aimed such that it points directly at its
target.
If the cart comes closer than 15 cm to the front of the Motion Sensor,
the sensor won’t record accurate data. Motion Sensor Setting
When students examine the Graph screen for velocity, they may
probably need to Scale and Move the axes before they select ‘Linear Fit’ to find the slope.
When students examine the Graph screen for acceleration, they may need to Scale and Move the
axes. Challenge them to re-scale the y-axis so the maximum and minimum values are
approximately the same as shown in the Sample Data section below.

Activity 4 Teacher Notes: Acceleration on an Inclined Track PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of position, velocity, and acceleration versus time for the cart
moving up and down the inclined track. The second screenshot shows the slope of the velocity
versus time (from the Linear Fit). The last screenshot shows the mean value of the selected
region of the acceleration.
Fig. 1: Position graph Fig. 2: Velocity graph
Fig. 3 Acceleration graph

Lab Report - Activity 4: Acceleration on an Inclined Track

Data
versus time for the cart up and down the incline. Include labels and units for your y-axes and x-
axes. (See the Sample Data screenshots.)

Data Table
Item Value
2
Acceleration (slope) 0.444 m/s
2
Acceleration (mean) 0.4 m/s
Questions
1. Describe the position versus time plot of the Graph screen. Why does the distance begin at
a maximum and decrease as the cart moves up the inclined plane?
The position plot is parabolic and is a ‘mirror image’ of the plot of position for an object that is
thrown upward and then falls downward. The distance begins at a maximum and then decreases
because the cart is decreasing its distance from the Motion Sensor as it goes up the inclined
plane. The Motion Sensor measures motion toward it as “negative” (decreasing distance).
2. Describe the velocity versus time plot.
In the region that corresponds to the motion of the cart after it is pushed and before it stops at
the bottom, the velocity plot is linear with a positive slope.
3. Describe the acceleration versus time plot of the Graph display.
In the region that corresponds to the motion of the cart after it is pushed and before it stops at
the bottom, the acceleration plot appears to be linear with almost zero slope.
4. How does the acceleration determined in the plot of velocity compare to the mean value of
acceleration from the plot of acceleration?
Answers will vary. In the example, the acceleration determined in the plot of velocity (0.444
m/s2) is nearly the same as the mean value of acceleration from the plot of acceleration (0.4
m/s2).

Activity 5 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 5: Acceleration Due to Gravity

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a falling object over a relatively small distance
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the data
• analyze the graph of data to determine the slope of the velocity versus time for the falling object
• compare the experimental value of acceleration (slope of velocity versus time) to the accepted value
for the acceleration due to gravity
Notes
• Technique note: The most important step in the equipment setup is to make sure that the
surface on which the ball will bounce is level. If the surface is level, the ball can bounce
straight up and down several times.
• How you drop the ball makes a difference. If the ball is dropped carefully, it will fall
straight down to the floor and bounce straight back up.
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of position and velocity versus time for the ball bouncing. The
second screenshot shows the slope of the velocity versus time (from the Linear Fit). The last
screenshot shows the ‘Linear Fit’ of the selected region of the velocity-time graph.
Fig. 1: Position graph Fig. 2: Velocity graph
Fig. 3 Linear Fit results

Activity 5 Teacher Notes: Acceleration Due to Gravity–Freely Falling Ball PS-2826

Lab Report – Activity 5: Acceleration Due to Gravity

Data
versus time for the ball. Include labels and units for your y-axes and x-axes. (See the Sample
Data).)

Data Table
‘g’ (slope of velocity versus time) = 9.79 m/s2
Questions
1. How does your value for ‘g’ (slope of velocity versus time) compare to the accepted value
of the acceleration of a free falling object (9.8 m/s2)?
accepted value - experimental value
• Reminder: percent difference = x100%
accepted value
For the graph in the sample data in the Teacher Notes, the percent difference between the
accepted value of 9.8 and the experimental value of 9.79 is minimal.
2. What factors do you think may cause the experimental value to be different from the
accepted value?
If the ball is not dropped straight down, or if the ball does not bounce very well, the results will
be different from the accepted value. Another factor is the selection of the region in the plot of
velocity.

Activity 6 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 6: Newton’s First Law

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart under four different conditions of force applied.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the position and velocity of the cart for the four conditions
of force applied.
• describe the condition that is necessary for an object to remain at rest or for an object in motion to
remain in motion without any changes.
• state Newton’s First Law of motion in conceptual terms.
Notes
Students will make four measurements:
• Motion of a cart that is at rest and does not experience a net force.
• Motion of a cart that is at rest, and experiences a net force for a short time interval.
• Motion of a cart that is moving, and has very little friction.
• Motion of a cart that is initially at rest, but experiences a constant net force.
For all four data measurements, students follow the same basic steps.
The mathematical shorthand for Newton’s First Law of Motion is if !F net

= 0, then a = 0 (if
the sum of all forces is zero, then acceleration is zero).

Sample Data
The screenshots in the Lab Report show the plots of position and velocity versus time for the
cart.
NOTE: The student sketches in the Lab Report could all be on the same set of axes; one set for
position and one set for velocity.

Activity 6 Teacher Notes: Newton’s First Law–No Net Force PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 6: Newton’s First Law–No Net Force

Predict
If no force is applied to an object at rest, it will remain at rest.
If an object at rest is pushed, but there is a large frictional force acting on it, the object will
move for a short time and then come to rest again.
If an object is pushed, and there is little frictional force acting on it, the object will continue to
move in a straight line at a relatively constant speed.
If an object experiences a constant net force, it will have constant acceleration.
Data
Sketch your graphs of position versus time for the cart for all four runs. Include labels and units
for your y-axes and x-axes. (See the Sample Data screenshots.)
Fig. 1: Run #1 position graph Fig. 2 Run #2 position graph
Fig. 3 Run #3 position graph Fig. 4 Run #4 position graph

Sketch your graphs for velocity versus time for the cart for all four runs. Include labels and units
Fig. 5: Run #1 velocity graph Fig. 6: Run #2 velocity graph
Fig. 7: Run #3 velocity graph Fig. 8: Run #4 velocity graph
Questions
1. What do your graphs show for the car in Run #1 (no force applied)?
Both the graphs of position and velocity show that there is no motion for the cart at rest.
2. What does your velocity graph show for the cart in Run #2 (friction cart – cart is pushed,
but has a large frictional force)?
The velocity graph shows that the cart that is pushed moves with for a short time and then stops.
3. Why does the cart keep moving in Run #3 (low friction cart – cart is pushed, and has little
frictional force)?
The low-friction cart continues to move because there is almost no force opposing its motion.
4. Which data run represents constantly accelerated motion?
The data run for the fan cart shows constantly accelerated motion.
5. Why does the cart sliding on the friction block (Run #2) come to a stop so quickly?
The cart sliding on the friction block comes to a stop quickly because there is a force opposing
its motion
6. What happens to an object at rest if no force is applied?
An object at rest remains at rest if no force is applied.

7. What happens to an object in motion is no force is applied?

An object in motion will continue in motion if no net force is applied.
Answers will vary.

Activity 7A PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 7A: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart as it accelerates due to a constant force.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the velocity of the cart.
• analyze each graph of velocity versus time to determine the acceleration of the cart.
• calculate the theoretical acceleration of the cart based on the total mass and the net force.
• compare the measured and theoretical values of acceleration.
Notes
The tension in the string accelerates the cart. If we assume that friction is zero, the net force on
the cart system is the weight of the mass hanger. The total mass of the cart system is the cart plus
the hanging mass.
• For all four data measurements, students follow the same basic steps. Remind them to stop
recording data just before the cart reaches the pulley.
• Data recording is easier if one person controls the cart and the second person operates the
Xplorer GLX to record data.
The equipment setup–sometimes called a ‘horizontal Atwood’s machine’–is often used as an
introduction to free-body diagrams. In the example, M1 is the mass of the cart, m2 is the hanging
mass, T is the tension in the string, Ff is the force of friction, and m2g is the weight of the
hanging mass. The net force on the cart is the tension minus the force of friction. The net force
on the hanging mass is the tension minus the weight.
Both the cart and the hanging mass have the same magnitude of acceleration, a1 = a2 = a, and
experience the same tension. M1
T
Fnet1 T ! Ffriction Ff
a1 = = T
M1 m2 m2
Fnet 2 m2 g ! T
a2 = = m2g
m2 m2
If friction is negligible, the tension, T, is M1a1. m2 g ! M1a1
a2 =
m2
m2a2 + M1a1 = m2 g
( )
a M1 + m2 = m2 g
m2 g
a=
M1 + m2

Activity 7A Teacher Notes: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of position and velocity versus time for Run #1, and the velocity
versus time for the other runs when extra mass was added to the cart.
Fig. 1: Position, Run #1 Fig. 2: Velocity, Run #1
Fig. 3: Cart plus 0.2 kg Fig. 4: Cart plus 0.4 kg
Fig. 5: Cart plus 0.6 kg

Lab Report – Activity 7A: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Force

Predict
1. What happens to an object when you apply a net force to it?
An object accelerates when a net force is applied to it. The acceleration is directly proportional
to, and in the same direction as, the net force.
2. What happens to the motion of an object if it has a constant net force but you change the
total mass?
If an object’s mass increases while a constant net force is applied, the acceleration will
decrease.
Data
axes and x-axes. (See Sample Data.)
Calculations
mhanging g
a=
mcart + mhanging
theoretical

Data Table 1
Item Mass (kg)

Run #1: Total mass of the hanging mass (mhanging): 0.019 kg
Run #1: Total mass of cart (mcart): 0.221 kg
Run #2: Total mass of cart plus 0.200 kg: 0.420 kg
Run #3: Total mass of cart plus 0.400 kg: 0.639 kg
Run #4: Total mass of cart plus 0.600 kg 0.840 kg
Net force (hanging mass x 9.8 N/kg): 0.186 N

2
#1 0.729
#2 0.405
#3 0.248
#4 0.212
Data Table 3
2 2
Run Mass, cart (kg) Total mass (kg) Acc., theory (m/s ) Acc., exp. (m/s ) % difference
#1 0.221 0.240 0.775 0.729 5.9
#2 0.420 0.439 0.423 0.405 4.2
#3 0.639 0.658 0.282 0.248 12
#4 0.840 0.859 0.216 0.212 0.4
Questions
1. For runs #2, #3, and #4, what did you observe about the slope of the Linear Fit as the net
force remained constant but the total mass increased?
As the total mass increased, the slope of the Linear Fit decreased.
2. What happens to an object’s acceleration if the net force applied to the object is kept
constant but the object’s mass increases?
As an object’s mass increases, the acceleration decreases if the net force applied to the object is
kept constant.

Activity 7B PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 7B: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart as it accelerates due to different amounts of
force applied.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the velocity of the cart.
• analyze each graph of velocity versus time to determine the acceleration of the cart.
• calculate the theoretical acceleration of the cart based on the total mass and the net force.
• compare the measured and theoretical values of acceleration.
Notes
The tension in the string accelerates the cart. If we assume that friction is zero, the net force on
the cart system is the weight of the mass hanger. The total mass of the cart system is the cart plus
the hanging mass.
For all four data measurements, students follow the same basic steps. Remind them to stop
recording data just before the cart reaches the pulley.
Data recording is easier if one person controls the cart and the second person operates the
The equipment setup–sometimes called a ‘horizontal Atwood’s machine’–is often used as an
introduction to free-body diagrams. In the example, M1 is the mass of the cart, m2 is the hanging
mass, T is the tension in the string, Ff is the force of friction, and m2g is the weight of the
hanging mass. The net force on the cart is the tension minus the force of friction. The net force
on the hanging mass is the tension minus the weight.
Both the cart and the hanging mass have the same magnitude of acceleration, a1 = a2 = a, and
experience the same tension. M1
T
Fnet1 T ! Ffriction Ff
a1 = = T
M1 m2 m2
Fnet 2 m2 g ! T
a2 = = m2g
m2 m2
If friction is negligible, the tension, T, is M1a1. m2 g ! M1a1
a2 =
m2
m2a2 + M1a1 = m2 g
( )
a M1 + m2 = m2 g
m2 g
a=
M1 + m2

Activity 7B Teacher Notes: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of position and velocity versus time for Run #1, and the velocity
versus time for the other runs when mass was transferred from the cart to the end of the string.
Fig. 1: Position, Run #1 Fig. 2: Velocity, Run #1
Fig. 3: Hanging 0.04 kg Fig. 4: Hanging 0.06 kg
Fig. 5: Hanging 0.08 kg

Lab Report – Activity 7B: Newton’s Second Law–Constant Mass

Predict
1. What happens to an object when you apply a net force to it?
An object accelerates when a net force is applied to it. The acceleration is directly proportional
to, and in the same direction as, the net force.
2. What happens to the motion of an object if it has a constant net force but you change the
total mass?
When the magnitude of a net force on an object increases and the mass is kept constant, the
object experiences more acceleration.
Data
Calculations
mhanging g
a=
mcart + mhanging
theoretical

Data Table 1
Item Mass (kg)

Run #1: Initial mass of cart + masses (mcart): 0.8010
Run #1: Initial mass of the hanging mass (mhanging): 0.0197
Run #2: Total mass of hanging masses (0.02 kg + 0.02 kg): 0.0395
Run #3: Total mass of hanging masses (0.05 kg + 0.01 kg) 0.0597
Run #4: Total mass of hanging masses (0.05 kg + 0.02 kg + 0.01 kg) 0.0796

2
#1 0.227
#2 0.458
#3 0.688
#4 0.957
Data Table 3
Fnet, (net force) = hanging mass x 9.8 N/kg
2 2
Run Hanging mass (kg) Fnet (N) Acc., theory (m/s ) Acc., exp. (m/s ) % difference
#1 0.0197 0.193 0.235 0.227 3.4
#2 0.0395 0.387 0.471 0.458 2.7
#3 0.0597 0.585 0.712 0.688 3.3
#4 0.0796 0.780 0.950 0.957 0.7
Questions
1. Why did the slope of velocity versus time change for each run?
The slope changed for each run because the net force increased but the mass remained constant,
so the acceleration increased.
2. For the runs, what did you observe about the slope of the Linear Fit as the net force
increased but the total mass remained?
As the net force increases, the slope of the Linear Fit for velocity became steeper.
3. What happens to an object’s acceleration if the net force applied to the object increases but
the total mass of the system remains constant?
If the net force applied to an object is increased but the object’s mass remains constant, the
object will experience an increased acceleration.

Activity 8 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 8: Newton’s Third Law

Objectives
• use Force Sensors to measure the forces during a tug-of-war between the two sensors.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the forces from both sensors.
• analyze each graph of force versus time to compare the forces for different types of pulling.
• state Newton’s Third Law as it applies to a tug-of-war.
Notes
An optional activity is to compare inelastic to elastic collisions between the sensors mounted on
carts.
Data recording is easier if one person handles the carts and the second person operates the
For all the data measurements, students follow the same basic steps. Remind them to pull on the
carts in such a way that the carts do not move one way or the other.
In any tug-of-war, the net force on the system (consisting of the two teams) is zero when the
teams exert equal but opposite forces on the two ends of the rope. The tension in the rope is the
force applied at either end. The team that wins the tug-of-war is the team that has the greater
traction (force against the ground).
Sample Data
The screenshots show the plots of force versus for all three runs.
Fig. 1: Run #1, equal masses Fig. 2: Run #2
Fig. 3: Run #3
Activity 8 Teacher Notes: Newton’s Third Law PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 8: Newton’s Third Law

Prediction
Case Prediction
Equal Masses Predictions will vary.
Cart 1: Extra Mass Students might predict that the more massive cart will have greater force on it.
Cart 2: Extra Mass Students might predict that the more massive cart will have greater force on it.
Data
Sketch a graph of force versus time for one run of data. Include labels and units for your y-axis
and x-axis. (See Sample Data.)
Data Table: Tug-of-War Results
What were the forces like in each of the following cases?
Case Results
Equal Masses The plots of force versus time were mirror-images of each other.
Cart 1: Extra Mass The plots of force versus time were mirror-images of each other.
Cart 2: Extra Mass The plots of force versus time were mirror-images of each other.
Questions
1. How did the shape of the graph for the first force sensor compare to the shape of the graph
for the second force sensor during the first run of the tug-of-war?
The graph for the first force sensor is a mirror image of the graph for the second force sensor.
The forces were equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
2. What happened to the forces measured by the two sensors when extra mass was put on top
of cart 1 or cart 2?
The forces were still equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to each other.
3. If two forces are equal and opposite, what should the sum of the forces be?
If the forces are equal and opposite, the sum of the forces would be zero.
4. From your data, how close are the forces to being equal but opposite?
In these examples, the forces are equal but opposite within the resolution of the sensors.
5. During a tug-of-war, how does the force on one force sensor compare to the force on the
other force sensor?
During a tug-of-war, the force on one force sensor is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the force on the other force sensor.

Activity 9 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 9: Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical

Objectives
• use a Force Sensor to measure the tension in a string that is holding a cart motionless on an inclined
track.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force from the sensor.
• use the tension and the angle of the track to determine the mass of the cart based on Tension = mg
sin θ .
Notes
A stack of books can be used in place of the Large Base and Rod for supporting the inclined
track.
• This activity is an excellent lab practical for the end of a unit on forces.
• The activity will take approximately one 50-minute class period.
• It may be done in groups or with the entire class working together.
• It is suggested that the mass of the cart and its contents are changed between class periods.
• Make sure that the string is parallel to the track.
The normal force of the track balances the component of the cart’s weight (force due to gravity)
that is perpendicular to the track. The tension in the string balances the component of the cart’s
weight that is parallel to the track.
The component of the cart’s weight that is parallel to the track is mg sin θ where m is the mass
of the cart and θ is the angle of the track. Since the tension equals the parallel component, the
mass of the cart can be calculated as follows:
T = mg sin !
T
m=
g sin !

Activity 9 Teacher Notes: Forces in Equilibrium–A Lab Practical PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshot shows the Digits display of force for a cart on a track inclined at 20º.
Fig. 1: Force in Digits display

Lab Report – Activity 9: Forces in Equilibrium

Data
Sketch a free-body diagram of the forces on the cart. Label the vectors in your diagram.
Forcenormal
Tension
mg sin θ
mg cos θ
Data
Item Value
Tension (N) 0.7
Angle of track 20º
Calculations
Use your data for the force in the string (tension) and the angle of the track to determine the mass
of the cart. Show all of your work.
If the tension of the string balances the force component parallel to the track, the mass of the cart
can be determined as follows:
T = mg sin !
T 0.7N
m= = = 0.208kg
g sin ! N
9.8 sin 20°
kg
Item Value
Calculated mass (kg 0.208

Conclusion
After you have calculated your value for the mass of the cart, find the actual mass of the cart
from your instructor (or use a balance to measure the mass of the cart).
Determine the percent difference between your calculated mass and the actual mass.
Item Value
Calculated mass (kg 0.208
Actual mass (kg) 0.221
Percent difference 5.8%
calculated ! actual
%diff = " 100
actual
Questions
1. How did you account for the friction? Explain.
There should not be any friction to account for because the cart is not moving.
2. How close was your calculated mass to the actual mass?

In this example, the calculated mass was 0.013 kg (13 g) or 5.8% below the actual mass.
3. What factors might contribute to the difference between your calculated value and the
actual mass of the cart?
One factor that might contribute to the difference between calculated and actual values is that
the resolution of the measurement of the tension is limited to 0.1 N. If the tension equals the
parallel component of the force, the calculated value of tension in this example would be 0.74 N.

Activity 10 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 10: Static and Kinetic Friction

Objectives
• use a Force Sensor to measure the force of static and kinetic friction for different materials.
• use the graph of force versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine the
maximum force of friction (static friction) and the force of kinetic (sliding) friction (average force during
sliding).
• calculate the normal force and the coefficients of static and kinetic friction for the different materials.
Notes
An alternative to sliding the Force Sensor along the top of the track is to place a block under the
sensor so that the string between the sensor and the friction tray is parallel to the track. (The
ME-9807 IDS Friction Block is the right height for this.)
A coefficient of friction is specific to a combination of surfaces. For example, the coefficient of
static friction for wood-on-wood is 0.5 and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3. However, for
rubber on dry concrete, µs is 1.0 and µk is 0.7. On the other hand, for shoes on ice, µs is 0.1 and µk
is 0.05.
Use a rubber band and a heavy block to demonstrate static friction. Connect the rubber band to
the block in such a way that you can drag the block across a horizontal surface by pulling the
rubber band. Start the demonstration with some slack in the
rubber band. Have students observe the rubber band as you
begin to pull the block. They should notice that the rubber
band becomes taut and then stretches a little bit before the
block moves.
Encourage the students to practice before they start recording data. Also, encourage them to
repeat a data run if they feel it does not “look right”.

Activity 10 Teacher Notes: Static and Kinetic Friction PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the Graph displays of force data for the felt friction tray and for the cork
friction tray, the Table displays for normal force, static friction, and kinetic friction, and the
Graph displays of static and kinetic friction versus normal force.
Run 1, felt, static friction Run 1, felt, kinetic friction
Table, felt Table, cork
Felt, coefficient of static friction Cork, coefficient of static friction
Felt, coefficient of kinetic friction Cork, coefficient of kinetic friction

Lab Report – Activity 10: Static and Kinetic Friction

Prediction
The cork surface will have the higher value for its coefficient of kinetic friction.
As the normal force increases, the force of friction increases.
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of force versus time data. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table 1
Item Mass (kg) Normal Force (N) Fs (N) static friction Fk (N) kinetic friction
Felt (0.2 kg added) 0.284 2.78 0.69 0.49
Felt (0.4 kg added) 0.484 4.74 0.90 0.76
Felt (0.6 kg added) 0.685 6.71 1.44 1.08
Item Mass (kg) Normal Force (N) Fs (N) static friction Fk (N) kinetic friction
Cork (0.2 kg added) 0.294 2.83 1.11 0.90
Cork (0.4 kg added) 0.493 4.83 1.85 1.50
Cork (0.6 kg added) 0.694 6.80 2.77 2.29
Calculations
Use your data for the mass of the friction tray to calculate the normal force for each run.
(Normal Force = FN = mg where g = 9.8 N/kg)
Data Table 2
Enter your values for ‘Normal Force’, ‘static friction’, and ‘kinetic friction’ into the GLX Table.
Use the graph of static friction versus normal force to determine the coefficient of static friction,
µs. Use the graph of kinetic friction versus normal force to determine the coefficient of kinetic
friction, µk.
Item µs µk
Felt 0.191 0.150
Cork 0.424 0.355

Questions
1. What is the physical quantity represented by the ratio of friction force to normal force?
The coefficient of friction is the physical quantity represented by the ratio of friction force to
normal force.
2. What pattern do you notice about the values for the coefficients of friction?
The value of static friction for both surfaces is higher than the value of kinetic (sliding) friction
for both surfaces.
3. What happens to the static friction force as the mass is increased? Why does this happen?
As the mass increases, the static friction increases. This is because the normal force increases as
the mass increases.
4. What happens to the kinetic friction force as the mass is increased? Why does this happen?
As the mass increases, the kinetic friction increases. This is also because the normal force
increases as the mass increases.
5. What are the units for the coefficient of friction? Explain.

The coefficient of friction is a unit-less number because it is the ratio of two forces (so the units
cancel).
6. Think about your experience with the friction trays. When a car skids to a stop (with
wheels “locked”), which friction force is at work? How do you know?
The friction when a car skids to a stop is kinetic friction. This is the kind of friction between
surfaces that are sliding over one another (such as car tires sliding over the road surface).

Answers will vary.

Activity 11 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 11: Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

Objectives
• use a Force Sensor to measure the force on a spring as it is stretched from its equilibrium length
• use Manual Sampling to enter the measured stretch values
• use a graph of force versus stretch to determine the spring constant (the ratio of force to stretch) for
the spring
• calculate the amount of force that is needed to stretch a spring a certain distance given the spring
constant of the spring
Notes
• If you use a spring that is relatively stiff, the first one or two points on the plot of Force vs.
Stretch may not be co-linear with the rest of the points. This is because some springs are
manufactured in such a way that they do not stretch until the applied force reaches a certain
threshold level (called the “pre-load”). If that is the case, have the students select the data
points in the graph that are most co-linear before they select ‘Linear Fit’ from the ‘Tools’
menu.
• It is very important to make an accurate measurement of the amount of stretch as each
increment of mass is added to the spring. Encourage students to be patient. The mass and
spring must be motionless for the measurement. The line they sight along from the bottom
edge of the spring to the mark on the meter stick must be horizontal.
For the PASCO Equal Length Spring Set, these are the accepted values for the spring constants.
The accepted spring constants are ±5%.
Color Spring Constant

Red 25 N/m
Blue 30 N/m
Yellow 35 N/m
White 40 N/m
Green 50 N/m
Sample Data
The first screenshot shows
force versus stretch for a
red spring. The Linear Fit
shows a slope of
22.8±1.10 N/m. The
second screenshot shows a
table display of the sample
data for a red spring.
Fig. 1: Sample graph Fig. 2: Sample table

Activity 11 Teacher Notes: Hooke’s Law of Elasticity PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 11: Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

Data
(See the screenshot of Sample Data in the Teacher Notes section.)
2. Record your value for the spring constant, k, of your spring.
Item Value
Equilibrium Position 0.00 m
Spring Constant, k (slope) 22.8 N/m
Question
1. How well did your measured value for the spring constant compare to the accepted value?
The percent difference between the measured value of 22.8 N/m and the accepted value of 25
N/m is 8.8%
Problem
1. If a spring has a spring constant of 3 newtons per meter (3 N/m), how much force is
needed to stretch the spring 0.15 m?
Assuming that F = -kx, the force needed to stretch the spring 0.15 m would be 0.45 N.

Activity 12 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 12: Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a

Spring
Objectives
• use a Force Sensor to measure the force on a spring as a mass on the spring oscillates up and down.
• use the graph of force versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine the
period of oscillation of the mass on the spring.
• calculate the effective mass of the spring and calculate the theoretical period of oscillation.
• compare the theoretical and experimental periods of oscillations.
Notes
This activity assumes that the students can use a spring whose spring constant is known. If they
have the same spring they measured in the Hooke’s Law of Elasticity activity, they can use their
measured value for the spring constant.
For the PASCO Equal Length Spring Set, these are the accepted values for the spring constants.
The accepted spring constants are ±5%.
Color Spring Constant
It is very important that the spring and mass be motionless
before the students press the ZERO button on the Force Sensor Red 25 N/m
to zero it. Encourage them to be patient. Blue 30 N/m
Yellow 35 N/m
Sample Data
White 40 N/m
The screenshots show the Graph screen for force versus time Green 50 N/m
data with the Delta Tool for finding the period of oscillation.
Period of one oscillation Period for five oscillations

Activity 12 Teacher Notes: Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring PS-2826

Lab Report – Activity 12: Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass on a Spring

Data
1. Make a sketch of your force versus time graph including labels for the y- and x-axes. (See
Sample Data.)
2. Record the value you are given for the spring constant, k, of your spring.
Item Value
Spring constant, k 22.8 N/m
Data Table 1
Item Value (s)
Period 1 0.90
Period 2 0.90
Period 3 0.92
Period 4 0.91
Period 5 0.91
Average period of oscillation 0.90
Data Table 2
Item Value
Mass of the spring 0.079 kg
Effective mass of the spring (one-third mass of the spring) 0.026 kg
Mass of the hanging mass 0.500 kg
Mass, m (hooked mass plus effective mass of the spring) 0.526 kg

Calculations
1. Calculate the theoretical period, T, based on the mass, m, and the spring constant, k.
m 0.526kg
T = 2! = 2! = 0.95s
k 22.8N / m
2. Calculate the percent difference between the theoretical value of the period of oscillation
and the average period of oscillation.
theoretical value - measured value
x100%
theoretical value
Theoretical Period of Oscillation 0.95 s

Average Period of Oscillation 0.90 s
Percent Difference 5.26%
Questions
1. How well did your measured value for the period compare to the theoretical value?
The measured value is within about 5% of the theoretical value.
2. Do your results support or not support the formula for the period of oscillation of a mass
on the end of a spring?
Answers will vary.

Activity 13 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 13: Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a pendulum as it swings.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion from the sensor.
• use the graph of position versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine
the period of oscillation of the pendulum for different masses and different lengths of the pendulum.
• calculate the theoretical period of the pendulum for a given length.
• compare the theoretical and measured periods.
Notes
You may want to mount the Motion Sensor on a vertical rod so the students can adjust the height
of the sensor.

Activity 13 Teacher Notes: Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the Graph displays of position versus time data for the pendulum.
Fig. 1: Run #1 Fig. 2: Period 1, Run #1
Fig. 3: Period 2, Run #2

Lab Report – Activity 13: Simple Harmonic Motion–Pendulum

Prediction
pendulum?
Answers will vary. Students may correctly predict that a change of mass of the pendulum should
not change the period of the pendulum.
pendulum?
Answers will vary. Students may correctly predict that a change of length of the pendulum should
also change the period of the pendulum.
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of position versus time. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table 1
Original length, L = 0.97 m
Item Mass (kg) Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5 Average

Pendulum 1 0.199 1.95 1.95 1.98 1.95 1.97
Pendulum 2 0.500 1.95 1.95 1.97 1.98 1.96
Pendulum 3 0.010 1.85 1.98 1.97 1.98 1.95
Item Length (m) Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5 Average

Length 1 0.87 2.00 2.00 1.98 1.99 1.98 1.99
Length 2 0.84 1.75 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.81 1.79
Length 3 0.71 1.65 1.68 1.67 1.68 1.67 1.67
Questions
1. What is the shape of the graph of position versus time for the pendulum?
The shape of the position versus time graph the pendulum is sinusoidal (a sine wave).
2. What happened to your measured values for the period when you changed the mass of the
pendulum bob?
The measured values for the period remained almost the same for each different pendulum bob.

3. What happened to your measured values for the period when you changed the length of the
pendulum?
The measured values for the period decreased when the length of the pendulum decreased.
Calculation
Calculate a theoretical value for the period of the pendulum for the original length of your
pendulum. Calculate the percent difference between the theoretical value for period and the
average measured value for period that you recorded in the data table.
L 0.97m
T = 2! = 2! = 1.98s
g 9.8m / s 2
theoretical ! measured
Item Value
%diff = " 100%
theoretical
Theoretical period 1.98
Average period 1.99

Activity 14 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 14: Momentum in Collisions

Objectives
• use Motion Sensors to measure the motion of two carts in a variety of collisions.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the velocity for each cart.
• use the graphs of velocity versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine
the velocity before and after for each cart in each collision.
• calculate the total momentum before and the total momentum after each collision.
• compare the momentum before and the momentum after for each collision.
Notes
For more information about this activity, refer to the following page on the PASCO Web site:
http://www.pasco.com/experiments/physics/march_2006/home.html
Students may ask how they can measure momentum in ten different types of collisions. Remind
them that they can change the mass of each cart, change the speeds, and change whether the carts
‘bounce’ or ‘stick together’.
Sample Data
The screenshots show the Graph displays of velocity versus time for one collision.
Fig. 1: Velocity before, cart 1 Fig. 2: Velocity after, cart 1
Fig. 3: Velocity before, cart 2 Fig. 4: Velocity after, cart 2

Activity 14 Teacher Notes: Momentum in Collisions PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 14: Momentum in Collisions

Pre-Lab Questions
Answers will vary. To calculate the total momentum for two carts that are about to collide,
calculate the momentum for each cart and combine the two. Note that if carts are moving in
opposite directions, the velocity of one of the carts is negative.
Answers will vary. The total momentum of two carts after a collision will equal the momentum of
the two carts before the collision (if the net external force is zero).
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of velocity versus time. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)

Data Table 1
Cart 1 Cart 2 Before After

Item Mass Mass Velocity, cart 1 Velocity, cart 2 Velocity, cart 1 Velocity, cart 2
(kg) (kg) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
1 0.239 0.253 0.25 -0.41 -0.42 0.23
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Calculations
Calculate the total momentum before and the total momentum after for each collision.
Item Momentum Momentum After

Before (kg•m/s) (kg•m/s)
1 -0.0439 -0.0422
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Questions
1. In general, how does the momentum after a collision compare to the momentum before the
collision?
Answers will vary. In general, the momentum after a collision will be close to–but probably less
than–the momentum before the collision.

2. In which type of collision was the before-and-after difference in momentum the least? In
which type of collision was the difference the most?
Answers will vary.
3. What factors might cause the total momentum after a collision to not equal the total
momentum before the collision?
Friction, misalignment of the carts during collision, and uncertainty in the measurement of mass
are some examples of factors that might cause the momentum after to not equal the momentum
before.
4. For a theoretical head-on collision between two carts of equal mass and equal speed, what
is the total momentum before the collision?
For a head-on collision between two carts of equal mass and equal speed, the total momentum
before the collision is zero.
5. Discuss the momentum of a firecracker at rest compared to the momentum of the

firecracker after it explodes.
The momentum of a firecracker at rest is zero. The momentum of all the fragments of the
firecracker after it explodes is also zero.
6. Imagine two carts, one with twice the mass of the other, that are going to have a head-on
collision. In order for the two carts to be at rest after the collision, how fast must the less
massive cart move compared to the more massive cart?
For two carts to be at rest after collision, their total momentum before collision would be zero.
For that to happen when one cart is half as massive as the other, it must have twice the speed of
the more massive cart.

Activity 15 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 15: Impulse and Change in Momentum

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart before and after a collision.
• use a Force Sensor to measure the force on the cart during a collision.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the velocity for the cart and the force for the collision.
• use the graphs of velocity versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine
the velocity before and after for the cart in each collision.
• use the graphs of force versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine the
impulse (area under force versus time curve) in each collision.
• calculate the total momentum before and the total momentum after each collision.
• compare the change in momentum to the impulse for each collision.
Notes
Make sure that the ‘impact’ end of the track is firmly braced so it will not slide during the
collision. Make sure that the Force Sensor is securely fastened to the bracket, and the bracket is
firmly mounted to the track.
Don’t raise the Motion Sensor end of the track too high. The faster the cart moves, the more
likely that it may move to one side or the other during the collision. A smooth but slow collision
is better than a fast, jerky one.
If you do not have the Accessory Bracket with Bumpers, the experiment can still be performed.
Leave the hook on the Force Sensor. Cut a small slit in a rubber stopper, and place the rubber
stopper over the hook. Mount the Force Sensor to the cart and create a barrier at the end of the
track for the stopper to hit. Make sure that only the stopper comes into contact with the barrier.
If velocity data does not correspond well to the Force Sensor data, try increasing the sample rate
of the Motion Sensor. In the Home Screen, press F4 to open the ‘Sensors’ screen. Select the
Motion Sensor icon and select the ‘Sample Rate’ menu.
Sample Data
The screenshot shows the Graph screen for one collision
before the ‘Scale/Move’ tool is used to expand the
horizontal axis.

Activity 15 Teacher Notes: Impulse and Change in Momentum PS-2826
Other screenshots show and example of velocity before and after a collision and the area under
the curve of force versus time.
Fig. 2: Velocity before Fig. 3: Velocity after
Fig. 4: Start of collision Fig. 5: Area under curve

Lab Report – Activity 15: Impulse and Change in Momentum

Prediction
the collision?
The change in momentum of the cart will equal the impulse.
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of velocity versus time and force versus time. Include units and labels
for your axes. (See Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Mass Velocity, before Velocity, after Momentum, before Momentum, after
(kg) (m/s) (m/s) (kg•m/s) (kg•m/s)
1 0.221 0.66 -0.59 0.146 -0.130
2
3
4
5
Calculations
Calculate the momentum before and the momentum after and find the change in momentum.
!mv = mv after " mv before
Compare the change in momentum (∆ momentum) to the impulse (area under the curve).
Calculate the percent difference of the change in
momentum (∆mv) and the impulse.
!mv " impulse
%diff = ) 100%
# !mv + impulse &
%$ 2 ('
Item ∆ Momentum Impulse Percent

(kg•m/s) (N•s) Difference
1 0.276 0.287 0.3%
2
3
4
5

Questions
1. Why does the velocity of the cart change from a positive value before the collision to a
negative value after the collision?
The positive value of velocity means that the cart is moving away from the Motion Sensor and
the negative value means it is moving back toward the sensor after the collision.
2. Why can you use the area under the curve of force versus time to get the value of the
impulse?
The area under the curve of force versus time is the product of the force and time; the definition
of impulse.
3. What are possible reasons why the change in momentum is different from the measured
impulse?
There is a component of gravity that accelerates the cart when it is moving down the track and
decelerates the cart when it is moving back up the track. In one direction, friction is against the
component of gravity but in the other, friction is with the component of gravity. Therefore, there
is a small external force that changes momentum but is not measured by the sensor.
4. In general, how does the change in momentum compare to the impulse?
In general, the change in momentum is very close to the impulse.

Answers will vary.
6. The units of momentum are kg•m/s and the units of impulse are N•s. Show how these two
units are equivalent. (Hint: What is the definition of the newton, N?)
A newton is a kg•m/s2. When this is multiplied by time measured in seconds, the product is
kg•m/s. The unit of momentum is equivalent to the unit of impulse.

Activity 16 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 16: Safety Bumper Design Competition

Time Estimates Preparation: one day Activity: 40 min
Objectives
• use a Force Sensor to measure the force on a cart during a collision.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force for the collision.
• use the graphs of force versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine the
maximum force in each collision.
• calculate the average maximum force for all the trials.
Notes
You may want to modify the ‘competition rules’ section of the activity and hand it out copies a
day or more before the activity so competitors will have time to design a bumper and gather
materials.
Make sure that the ‘impact’ end of the track is firmly braced so it will not slide during the
collision. Make sure that the Force Sensor is securely fastened to the bracket, and the bracket is
firmly mounted to the track.
Don’t set the required height of the end of the track too high. The faster the cart moves, the more
likely that it may slip to one side or the other during the collision. A track angle of 2º or 3º and a
distance along the track of 40 cm (0.4 cm) give good results.
If you do not have the Accessory Bracket with Bumpers, the activity can still be performed.
• Leave the hook on the Force Sensor.
• Cut a small slit in a rubber stopper, and place the rubber stopper over the hook.
• Mount the Force Sensor to the top of cart and create a barrier at the end of the track for the
stopper to hit.
• Have the students attach their bumpers to the barrier.
• Make sure that only the stopper comes into contact with the barrier.
For more information, see the Online Physics Experiment titled ‘Air Bag Collision Competition’
on the PASCO Web site. The Web address is as follows:
http://www.pasco.com/experiments/physics/november_2003/home.html

Activity 16 Teacher Notes: Safety Bumper Design Competition PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshot shows the Graph screen for one collision after the ‘Scale/Move’ tool is used to
expand the horizontal axis.

Lab Report – Activity 16: Safety Bumper Design Competition

Pre-competition Data
Record the total mass requirement for the cart plus bumper. (See notes)
Item Value
Mass requirement varies
Data
Sketch a graph for one run of force versus time data. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table
Trial Mass (kg) Max. Force (N)

1 33.7 N
2
3
Average 33.7 N
Calculations
Calculate the average maximum impact force. Record and report your value.

Questions
1. What kind of bumper gave the lowest impact force? What kind of bumper gave the highest
impact force?
Answers will vary.
2. During the impact, in what direction are the force and acceleration? Explain.
During impact the force and acceleration are opposite to the direction of motion of the cart as it
is slowing down, but with the motion of the cart when (if) it rebounds from the bumper. In other
words, the force on the cart is directed up the track, away from the sensor.
3. Why do vehicle safety features like impact-absorbing bumpers, air bags, and safety belts
save lives? Explain using terms such as force, time, impulse, and change in momentum.
Vehicle safety features like air bags are designed to less the force of impact because they can
extend the time of impact. The change in momentum of the occupants of the vehicle is the same,
and the total impulse is the same, but during a ‘slow’ collision, the amount of force is reduced.

Activity 17 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 17: Explore Gravitational Potential Energy

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the position of a ball relative to the sensor.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion of the ball.
• use the graphs of ‘energy’ versus time and ‘energy’ versus position to answer questions about the
gravitational energy of the ball when it is at different positions relative to the sensor.
• state a relationship about the gravitational potential energy of the ball and the height of the ball.
Notes
Remind your students to move the ball directly above the Motion Sensor when they are
recording data.
In addition, be sure to move all other objects that the sensor might ‘see’ out of the area.
The ‘energy’ in the Graph screen on the GLX is proportional to the gravitational potential energy
(GPE) of the ball because the mass of the ball does not change as it moves, and therefore its
weight is a constant. However, the ‘energy’ value in joules is not the actual amount of
gravitational potential energy unless the ball has a mass of 1 kilogram.
If you want your students to see an accurate measurement of
the GPE of the ball, they can open ‘Calculator’ in the Home
Screen on the GLX and enter the actual value of mass for the
ball into the calculation for ‘energy’. The mass, in
kilograms, can be entered anywhere on the right side of the
equal sign in the expression.
The unit for energy, the joule, is a newton of force over a
meter of distance, or a newton•meter. In the formula for
gravitational potential energy, GPE = mgh , the product of
Calculation for energy
mass and the acceleration due to gravity, mg, is the weight
of the object. Therefore, another way to express the formula
for gravitational potential energy is “Weight x Height”.
Sample Data
The screenshots shows the
Graph screen for ‘energy’
versus Time and for
‘energy’ versus Position.
‘energy’ versus Time (s) ‘energy’ versus Position (m)

Activity 17 Teacher Notes: Explore Gravitational Potential Energy PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 17: Explore Gravitational Potential Energy

Record the mass of the ball.
Item Value
Mass
Sketch a graph of energy versus Time for one run of data. Include units and labels for your axes.
Sketch a graph of energy versus Position for one run. Include units and labels. (See Sample
Data.)
Questions
1. What happens to the gravitational potential energy (energy) as the ball moves down?
The gravitational energy goes down as the ball moves down.
2. What happens to the gravitational potential energy (energy) as the ball moves up?
The gravitational energy goes up as the ball moves up.
3. If you moved the ball between a high point and a low point slowly, and then repeated the
move from the same two points more rapidly, would the energy the ball has at each point
be the same or different? Explain.
The energy should be the same at each point whether or not the ball moves slowly or rapidly.
Gravitational potential energy depends on position (height) and not on speed.
4. What is the shape of the plot of data in the ‘energy versus Position’ graph?
The shape of the plot of data is a straight line.
5. What do you think that this means about the gravitational potential energy relative to the
height?
The straight line in the plot of ‘energy versus Position’ means that the energy is directly
proportional to the height.

Activity 18 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 18: Conserve Energy

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a ball as it falls.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the position and velocity for the ball.
• use the graph of position versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine
the distance that the ball falls.
• use the graph of velocity versus time and the built-in analysis tools to determine the final velocity of
the ball as it lands.
• calculate the change in gravitational potential energy and the final kinetic energy of the ball.
• compare the change in potential energy to the final kinetic energy.
Notes
Remind students to drop the ball directly below the sensor during data collection. In addition, all
other objects that the sensor might ‘see’ should be moved away.
Sample Data
The screenshot shows the
Graph screen for position
versus time and for
velocity versus time for
one fall.
Lab Report – Activity 18: Conserve Energy

Prediction
As the ball falls, the gravitational potential energy will change to kinetic energy.
As the ball falls, the kinetic energy will increase.
The change in potential energy should equal the final kinetic energy.

Activity 18 Teacher Notes: Conserve Energy PS-2826
Data
Sketch a graph of position versus time and velocity versus time for one run of data. Include units
and labels for your axes. (See Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of ball 0.7343 kg
Distance, maximum 1.421 m
Time (distance, maximum)
Final velocity 5.02 m/s
Change in potential energy 10.22 J
Final kinetic energy 9.25 j
Calculations
Use the mass of the ball and the distance it fell to calculate the change in potential energy.
Remember, GPE = mgh where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the
height (the distance the ball fell).
Use the mass of the ball and the final velocity to calculate the final kinetic energy. The kinetic
1
energy is KE = mv 2 where m is the mass and v is the velocity.
2
Calculate the percent difference between the change in potential energy and the final kinetic
!PE " KE
energy. %diff = # 100% .
!PE
Questions
1. What happens to the ball’s gravitational energy as the ball falls?
The gravitational potential energy changes to kinetic energy as the ball falls.
2. What happens to the ball’s kinetic energy as the ball falls?
The ball’s kinetic energy increases as the ball falls.
3. What is the relationship of kinetic energy and potential energy as the ball falls?
The kinetic energy at the end of the fall equals the change in potential energy as the ball falls.
Answers will vary.

Activity 19 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 19: Work and Energy

Objectives
• use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a cart as it is pulled by a force and use a Force Sensor
to measure the force pulling the cart.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the motion of the cart and the force versus position for the
cart.
• use the graph of velocity versus time and the built-in analysis tools of the Xplorer GLX to determine
the maximum velocity of the cart.
• use the graph of force versus position and the built-in analysis tools to determine the area under the
curve.
• calculate the final kinetic energy of the system.
• compare the final kinetic energy to the work done on the system.
Notes
Remind students to check the alignment of the string to make sure it is parallel to the track.
Sample Data
The screenshots show the
Graph screen for position
versus time, velocity
versus time, and for force
versus position for one
run.

Activity 19 Teacher Notes: Work and Energy PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 19: Work and Energy

Prediction
As work is done, the kinetic energy will change.
The work done will equal the final kinetic energy.
Data
Sketch a graph of velocity versus time and a graph of force versus position for one run of data.
Include units and labels for your axes. (See Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of system, total 0.8426 kg
Velocity, maximum 0.510 m/s
Work done 0.112 N•m
Kinetic energy, final 0.110 J
Calculations
Use the mass of the system and the final (maximum) velocity to calculate the final kinetic energy
1
of the system. Kinetic energy is KE = mv 2 where m is the mass and v is the velocity.
2
Calculate the percent difference between the work done (area
W ! KE
under force-position curve) and the final kinetic energy. %diff = " 100%
W
Questions
1. What happens to the kinetic energy as work is done on the system?
The kinetic energy of the system changes as work is done on the system.
2. How does the final kinetic energy compare to the work done?
The final kinetic energy is within 2% of the work done.
3. The kinetic energy is measured in joules and the work done is measured in newton•meters
(N m). What is the relationship between a joule and a newton•meter?
A joule is defined as one newton of force applied over one meter, so the two units are identical.
Answers will vary.

Activity 20 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 20: Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time

of Flight
Objectives
• use two Photogates and a Time-of-Flight pad to measure the initial speed and the time of travel for a
projectile launched horizontally from a projectile launcher.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the initial speed and the time of flight of the projectile for
three settings of the projectile launcher.
• compare the initial speed and the time of flight for the projectile when it is launched horizontally.
• state a relationship between the time of flight and initial speed when the launch angle is horizontal.
Notes
It is important that the launcher be exactly horizontal. Use a sprit level for best results.
The Xplorer GLX has a built-in value for the distance between the two photogates of 10 cm
(0.10 m) and uses this distance to calculate the initial speed. If the distance between the
photogates is different, enter the actual distance in the ‘Sensors’ screen. To open the ‘Sensors’
screen, press F4 in the Home Screen.
These equations are used to describe the ‘x’ and ‘y’
components of projectile motion. x ! xo = v o cos " o t
Projectile motion is a kind of two-dimensional motion that 1
y ! y o = v o sin " o t ! gt 2
occurs when the moving object (the projectile) experiences 2
only the acceleration due to gravity, which acts in the v y = v o sin " o ! gt
vertical direction. The acceleration of the projectile has no
( ) ( )
2
horizontal component if the effects of air resistance are v y2 = v o sin " o ! 2g y ! y o
ignored. The vertical component of the acceleration equals
the acceleration due to gravity, ‘g’.
The vertical motion of a freely falling ball launched horizontally off a table of height 'y' is
independent of any horizontal motion the ball may have. Thus the time for a ball to fall to the
ground is independent of its horizontal speed. The distance 'y' a ball falls from rest as a function
of the time of fall 't' is given by the second equation where 'g' is the acceleration in free fall (and
the initial velocity is zero). The time for a ball to fall straight down a distance 'y' from rest to the
2y
ground is given by t = .
g
Sample Data
The screenshot shows the Table screen for Initial Velocity
and Time of Flight for one run.

Activity 20 Teacher Notes: Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time of Flight PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 20: Projectile Motion–Initial Speed and Time of

Flight
Prediction
The time-of-flight of a projectile launched horizontally is independent of the initial speed. It
depends on the vertical distance the projectile falls. Therefore, the time-of-flight should not
change as the initial speed is increased.
Data Table
Launch Angle Horizontal
Range Initial Speed (m/s) Time of Flight (s)

Short 2.94 0.501
Middle 4.65 0.513
Long 5.84 0.537
Questions
1. How do the values for the time of flight for the short, middle, and long-range distances
compare when the ball was launched horizontally?
The times of flight for the short, middle and long ranges were within 2% of one another.
2. What was the independent variable in this activity (what did you change from one run to
the next)?
The independent variable was initial speed.
3. Which variables did you measure?

Time of flight and initial speed were the measured variables.
4. How can you predict how long a ball will stay in the air? Does a change in its initial speed
change the "time of flight"? If so, how?
You can predict the time of flight based on the acceleration due to gravity and the initial height
of the projectile. If the launcher is horizontal, then the initial speed does not affect the time of
flight.

Teacher Notes – Activity 21A: Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant

Radius and Mass
Objectives
• use a Force Sensor and simple equipment to measure the centripetal force of an object twirled
around on the end of a string at different speeds.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force versus time.
• determine the period of the twirling mass from the force versus time data and calculate the circular
speed of the mass from the radius and period of the circular motion.
• use the Xplorer GLX to plot a graph of circular speed versus average force for different circular
speeds.
• state a relationship between circular speed and centripetal force when mass and radius are constant.
Notes
• While this lab can be done with just one person, it will yield the best results with three
students working together; one student running the GLX, another student twirling the mass
around, and the third student watching the radius.
• In determining the period, recording as many revolutions as possible gives greater
accuracy.
• Make sure that the area around the students is clear of obstacles. It is absolutely imperative
that all individuals in the lab wear safety goggles.
The goal of this three-part activity is to develop understanding of the relationship between
centripetal force and its factors: circular speed, mass, and radius. One approach is to measure
centripetal force directly as two of three factors are kept constant, and the third is varied. The
approach here is to determine circular speed as two of three factors are kept constant. The
circular speed is found using the period and radius. In part A, the period is determined from the
graph of force versus time.
v2
The formula for centripetal force is Fc = m where Fc is centripetal force, m is mass, v is
r
circular speed, and r is radius.
In part 1, the radius and mass are constant, and circular
speed is changed. The relationship of circular speed
Fc r
and centripetal force is v = = Fc k1 where k1 is
m
a constant (the ratio of radius to mass). Part 1 yields a
1
square root graph, or y ! x , where y represents
2
circular speed and x represents centripetal force. Graph: Speed v Force

Activity 21A Teacher Notes: Centripetal Force–Constant Radius and Mass PS-2826
In part B, the radius and force are constant, and the

mass is changed. Students determine the circular
speed for different masses. The graph of circular
speed versus mass yields the relationship
Fc r k2
v= = where k2 is constant (the product
m m
of centripetal force and radius).
In part C, the mass and force are constant, and the
radius is changed. Students determine the circular
speed for different radii. The graph of circular speed Graph: Speed v Mass
versus radius yields the relationship
Fc r
v= = k3r where k3 is constant (the
m
ratio of centripetal force to mass).
An advanced student may point out that it is
impossible to spin the mass in a perfectly
horizontal circle above one’s head. Let this
lead into a discussion of force diagrams,
centripetal force, and tension in the string. The
centripetal force is the horizontal component of Graph: Speed v Radius
the tension.
Sample Data
The screenshot shows the Graph screen for circular speed
versus average force.
For more information about centripetal force with the Xplorer GLX, see the PASCO Web site
“Online Experiment” at the following address:

Lab Report – Activity 21A: Centripetal Force, Part A–Constant Radius

and Mass
Prediction
A mass is moving in a circle and the radius of the circle is kept constant. How would the
centripetal force change if the speed of the mass were increased?
The centripetal force on a mass moving in a circle would increase if the speed of mass increases.
Data Table
Radius (m) Time (s) Revolutions Period (s) Circular Speed (m/s) Average Force (N)
0.5 5.73 7 0.75 4.19 0.52
Same 4.94 7 0.71 4.42 0.31
Same 4.23 7 0.60 5.24 1.23
Same 3.93 7 0.56 5.60 2.04
Same 3.45 6 0.58 5.42 2.15
Same 2.74 7 0.39 8.06 4.06
Same 2.32 7 0.33 9.52 8.07
Calculations
Calculate the circular speed based on the radius and the period. Circular speed, v, is as follows,
2! r
where r is radius and T is period: v =
T
Data
Sketch the graph of circular speed versus average force for your data. Include labels and units on
the axes. (See Sample Data.)

Questions
1. How does the centripetal force change as the circular speed of an object increases?
The centripetal force increases as the circular speed increases.
2. What is the shape of your graph of circular speed versus average force? (Example: linear,
Answers will vary. Some will speculate that the relationship of circular speed to average force is
1
linear. The relationship is y ! x , where y represents circular speed and x represents
2
centripetal force.
3. Using words and a mathematical expression, describe the apparent relationship between
centripetal force and circular speed for uniform circular motion.
The centripetal force is directly proportional to the square of the circular speed for uniform
circular motion.

Answers will vary.

Teacher Notes – Activity 21B: Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant

Radius and Force
Objectives
• use simple equipment to determine the relationship of centripetal force, circular speed, and mass for
an object twirled around on the end of a string.
• use the Stopwatch mode of the Xplorer GLX to record and display the time for 10 revolutions of a
mass in circular motion.
• determine the period of the twirling mass and calculate the circular speed of the mass from the radius
and period of the circular motion.
• use the Xplorer GLX to plot a graph of circular speed versus mass for objects of different mass twirled
on the string.
• state a relationship between centripetal force, circular speed, and mass speed when centripetal force
and radius are constant.
Notes
students working together; one student running the Xplorer GLX, another student twirling
the mass around, and the third student watching the radius.
The goal of this three-part activity is to develop understanding of the relationship between
centripetal force and its factors: circular speed, mass, and radius. The approach in this part of the
activity is to determine circular speed as two of three factors are kept constant. The circular
speed is found using the period and radius.
In this part, the radius and centripetal force are
constant, and the mass is changed. Students determine
the circular speed for different masses. The graph of
circular speed versus mass yields the relationship
Fc r k2
v= = where k2 is constant (the product of
m m
centripetal force and radius).
Graph: Speed v Mass

Activity 21B Teacher Notes: Centripetal Force–Constant Radius and Force PS-2826
Sample Data
versus mass.
For more information about centripetal force with the
Xplorer GLX, see the PASCO Web site “Online
Experiment” at the following address:

Lab Report – Activity 21B: Centripetal Force, Part B–Constant Radius

and Force
Prediction
constant?
If the centripetal force remains constant and the mass of an object in circular motion increases,
the circular speed would decrease.
Data Table
Radius (m) Time (s) Revolutions Period (s) Circular Speed (m/s) Mass, stopper (kg)
0.5 3.14 10 0.314 10.0 0.022
Same 3.83 10 0.383 8.2 0.034
Same 4.90 10 0.490 6.4 0.056
Same 6.04 10 0.604 5.2 0.086
Same 6.97 10 0.697 4.5 0.109
Calculations
2! r
T
Data
Sketch the graph of circular speed versus mass for your data. Include labels and units on the
axes. (See Sample Data.)

Questions
1. A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed radius and the amount of force applied to the
mass must be kept constant. How does the circular speed change if the mass is increased
but the force is kept constant?
For a mass moving in a circle with a fixed radius, the circular speed decreases if the mass is
increased but the centripetal force is kept constant.
2. What is the shape of your graph of circular speed versus mass? (Example: linear, parabolic,
inverse, inverse-square, etc.)
The shape of the graph of circular speed versus mass appears to show an inverse relationship.
However, the circular speed is proportional to the inverse square root of the mass.
circular speed and mass for uniform circular motion when the force is kept constant.
1
The circular speed is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass, or v ! .
m

Answers will vary.

Activity 21C PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 21C: Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant

Mass and Force
Objectives
• use simple equipment to determine the relationship of centripetal force, circular speed, and radius for
an object twirled around on the end of a string.
• use the Stopwatch mode of the Xplorer GLX to record and display the time for 10 revolutions of a
mass in circular motion for different radii of the circular path.
• determine the period of the twirling mass and calculate the circular speed of the mass from the radius
and period of the circular motion.
• use the Xplorer GLX to plot a graph of circular speed versus radius for the object.
• state a relationship between centripetal force, circular speed, and radius when mass and centripetal
force are constant.
Notes
students working together; one student running the Xplorer GLX, another student twirling
the mass around, and the third student watching the radius.
The goal of this three-part activity is to develop
understanding of the relationship between
centripetal force and its factors: circular speed,
mass, and radius. The approach in this part of
the activity is to determine circular speed as
two of three factors are kept constant. The
circular speed is found using the period and
radius.
In this part, the mass and centripetal force are
constant, and the radius is changed. Students
Graph: Speed v Radius
determine the circular speed for different radii
of the circular path. The graph of circular speed
Fc r
versus radius yields the relationship v = = k3r where
m
k3 is constant (the ratio of centripetal force to mass).
Sample Data
versus radius.

Activity 21C Teacher Notes: Centripetal Force–Constant Mass and Force PS-2826
Lab Report – Activity 21C: Centripetal Force, Part C–Constant Mass

and Force
For a mass moving in a circle, the circular speed will increase if the radius increases.
Data Table
Radius (m) Time (s) Revolutions Period (s) Circular Speed (m/s)
0.2 3.30 10 0.330 3.8
0.3 3.84 10 0.384 4.9
0.4 4.33 10 0.433 5.8
0.5 4.83 10 0.483 6.5
0.6 5.30 10 0.530 7.1
0.8 6.12 10 0.612 8.2
Calculations
Calculate the circular speed based on the radius and the period.
2! r
Data v=
T
Sketch the graph of circular speed versus radius for your data. (See Sample Data.)
Questions
1. A mass is moving in a circle with a fixed amount of force applied to the mass. How does
the circular speed change if the radius is changed but the force is kept constant?
For a mass moving in a circle with a constant centripetal force, the circular speed increases as
the radius of the circle increases.
2. What is the shape of your graph of circular speed versus radius? (Example: linear,
Answers will vary. The shape of the graph of circular speed versus radius shows a direct
relationship that is not quite linear. The relationship of circular speed to radius is linear with
respect to the square root of the radius.
circular speed and radius for uniform circular motion when the force is kept constant.
The circular speed is directly proportional to the square root of the radius, or v ! r .
Answers will vary.

Activity 22 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 22: Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance

Objectives
• use a Voltage-Current Sensor to measure the voltage across a resistor and the current through the
resistor in a simple circuit.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the current and voltage.
• create a graph of voltage versus current using the Xplorer GLX.
• determine the slope of the best-fit line for the graph of voltage versus current.
• compare the resistance of the resistor to the slope of voltage versus current.
Notes
Remind students to be especially careful when they handle the resistor. When connected to four
D cell batteries in series, the resistor can get very warm. Remind them to disconnect the clip
from the voltage source when they are not collecting data.
Background
Ohm discovered that when the voltage across a resistor changes, the current through the resistor
changes. He expressed this as
V
I=
R
where I is current, V is voltage (potential difference), and R is resistance. Current is directly
proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. In other words, as the voltage
increases, so does the current. The proportionality constant is the value of the resistance. Since
the current is inversely proportional to the resistance, as the resistance increases, the current
decreases.
A resistor is ‘Ohmic’ if as voltage across the resistor is increased, a
graph of voltage versus current shows a straight line (indicating a
constant resistance). The slope of the line is the value of the
resistance. A resistor is ‘non-Ohmic’ if the graph of voltage versus
current is not a straight line. For example, if resistance changes as
voltage changes, the graph of voltage versus current might show a
curve with a changing slope.
For a certain resistor, the value of its resistance does not change appreciably. However, for a
light bulb, the resistance of the filament will change as it heats up and cools down. At high AC
frequencies, the filament doesn’t have time to cool down, so it remains at a nearly constant
temperature and the resistance stays relatively constant. At low AC frequencies (e.g., less than
one hertz), the filament has time to change temperature. As a consequence, the resistance of the
filament changes dramatically and the resulting change in current through the filament is
interesting to watch.

Activity 22 Teacher Notes: Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the current and voltage table and the ‘Linear Fit’ of the graph of voltage
and current.
Table of current and voltage Linear Fit results
Introductory Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO p. 336

Lab Report - Activity 22: Ohm’s Law: Current, Voltage, Resistance

Prediction
How would the current through a circuit consisting of a voltage source and a resistor change as
more D cells are added to the circuit?
As the voltage across a resistor increases, the current through the resistor will increase.
Data
Sketch a graph of voltage versus current. Include units and labels for your axes. (See Sample
Data.)
Data
Item Value
Resistor resistance 10 Ω
Slope of Linear Fit 9.58 Ω
Data Table
Item Current (A) Voltage (V)

One D cell 0.14 1.36
Two D cells 0.27 2.62
Three D cells 0.39 3.84
Four D cells 0.52 4.98
Calculations

Calculate the percent difference between the resistor’s

value and the slope of the Linear Fit from the graph of resistance - slope
%diff = !100%
voltage and current. resistance
Questions
1. The ratio of voltage to current is the resistance. Compare the resistor’s resistance to the
slope of the Linear Fit of your graph.
The resistor’s resistance value of 10 Ω is very close to the slope of the Linear Fit of the graph,
9.58 volts per ampere.
2. What is the physical meaning of the slope from your graph?
The resistance of the resistor is the physical meaning of the slope of the graph.
3. Write an equation that relates current, I, voltage, V, and resistance, R, based on your
results.
The current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance,
V
or I =
R
Problems
1. If the voltage source provided 4 volts, and the resistor’s resistance is 10 ohms (10 Ω), what
current would the Voltage-Current Sensor measure?
If the voltage is 4 volts and the resistance is 10 ohms, the current is 0.4 amperes.
2. A 330 ohm (330 Ω) resistor is connected to an unknown voltage source. The Voltage-
Current Sensor measures a current of 0.50 amps (0.50 A). What is the voltage of the
voltage source?
Voltage is the product of current and resistance. If the current is 0.50 amps and the resistance is
330 ohms, the voltage is the 165 volts.

Teacher Notes – Activity 23A: Voltage in a Series Circuit

Objectives
• use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across small light bulbs and the voltage source in a
series circuit
• compare the voltages across the light bulbs in a series circuit to the voltage of the voltage source
• describe the relationship between the brightness of light bulbs in a series circuit and the number of
bulbs in the circuit
• describe what happens to a series circuit when one of the light bulbs in the circuit is removed from the
circuit
Notes
• It is possible to combine this activity with 23B Voltage in a Parallel Circuit. Both
activities use the same equipment.
• Theoretically, the voltage of a simple circuit consisting of light bulbs and ‘D’ cells remains
constant. For light bulbs in series, the sum of the voltages across individual bulbs is the
same as the source voltage. The voltage across each light bulb in the circuit decreases as
more bulbs are added.
• You do not need to calibrate the Voltage Probe for this activity.
Background
An array of resistors will have different measured resistances depending on how they are
connected. If they are connected in series (end-to-end), their total resistance equals the sum of all
of their individual resistances. If light bulbs are connected in series to a voltage source, the
brightness of the individual bulbs diminishes as more and more bulbs are added to the “chain”.
The current decreases as the overall resistance increases. In addition, if one bulb is removed from
the “chain” the other bulbs go out.
If resistors are connected in parallel (side-by-side), their total
resistance is less than the sum of their individual resistances. In fact, 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
the total resistance is related to the individual resistances as shown in Rp R1 R2 R3
the equation where Rp is the total resistance:
If light bulbs are connected in parallel to a voltage source, the brightness of the individual bulbs
remains more-or-less constant as more and more bulbs are added to the “ladder”. The current
increases as more bulbs are added to the circuit and the overall resistance decreases. In addition,
if one bulb is removed from the “ladder” the other bulbs do not go out. Each bulb is
independently linked to the voltage source.

Activity 23A Teacher Notes: Voltage in a Series Circuit PS-2826
Sample Data
The first screenshot shows a sample of voltage across a light bulb. The second shows voltage
across the D cells.
Voltage across light bulb Voltage across D cells

Lab Report - Activity 23A: Voltage in a Series Circuit

Predict
circuit?
The voltage across each light bulb in a series circuit decreases as more light bulbs are added to
the circuit.
2. How will the voltage across the voltage source compare to the voltage across the light
The voltage across the voltage source will be approximately equal to the sum of the voltages
across the light sources in a series circuit.
Data
The brightness of each of the two bulbs in series is about half the brightness of the first light
bulb.
The brightness of each of the three bulbs in series is less than the brightness of two bulbs and
much less than the brightness of the first light bulb.
3. What happened in the three-light bulb circuit when you removed the light bulb from the
middle lamp socket?
When the light bulb was removed from the middle lamp socket, the other two lights went out.
Data Table
One Light Bulb
Voltage Across Light Bulb: 2.72 V
Voltage Across Batteries: 2.88 V
Two Light Bulbs in Series

Voltage Across Light Bulb 1: 1.41 V
Sum of the Voltages Across Both Bulbs: 2.86 V
Three Light Bulbs in Series

Sum of the Voltages Across Three Bulbs: 2.83 V

Questions
bulb?
The voltage across the voltage source is slightly more than the voltage across the light bulb.
2. How did the voltage across the two light bulbs in series compare to the voltage across one
light bulb? How did the sum of the voltages across two bulbs compare to the voltage
across the D cells?
The voltage across each light bulb was less than the voltage of the single light bulb. The sum of
the voltages was about the same as the voltage of the D cells.
3. What did you notice about the voltage across each light bulb and the total voltage across
all three light bulbs in the third part of the procedure?
The sum of the voltage across all three bulbs is about the same as the voltage across the D cells.
4. What can you say about the voltage in a series circuit?
The sum of the voltages across the light bulbs in a series circuit is approximately the same as the
source voltage.
Why?
When one light bulb is removed from the series circuit, the other two light bulbs go out. When
one part of the series circuit is removed, the circuit is “open”; the other parts do not receive
electric energy.
6. If all the lights in a house are connected together in series and they are all turned on, what
would happen to the lights when you turn one of them off (or it burns out)?
All of the lights connected in series will go off if one of them is turned off (or if it burns out).

Teacher Notes – Activity 23B: Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

Objectives
• use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across small light bulbs and the voltage source in a
parallel circuit
• compare the voltages across the light bulbs in a parallel circuit to the voltage of the voltage source
• describe the relationship between the brightness of light bulbs in a parallel circuit and the number of
bulbs in the circuit
• describe what happens to a parallel circuit when one of the light bulbs in the circuit is removed from
the circuit
Notes
• It is possible to combine this activity with 23A Voltage in a Series Circuit. Both activities
use the same equipment.
constant. For light bulbs in parallel, the voltage across individual bulbs is the same as the
source voltage.
• You do not need to calibrate the Voltage Probe for this activity.
• Every simple circuit starts out as a series circuit, so the setup of one light bulb connected to
the voltage source for the first part of this activity is the same as the circuit setup in the
first part of the previous activity.
Background
= + + + ...
If light bulbs are connected in parallel to a voltage source, the brightness of the individual bulbs
remains more-or-less constant as more and more bulbs are added to the “ladder”. The current
increases as more bulbs are added to the circuit and the overall resistance decreases. In addition,
if one bulb is removed from the “ladder” the other bulbs do not go out. Each bulb is
independently linked to the voltage source.

Activity 23B Teacher Notes: Voltage in a Parallel Circuit PS-2826
Sample Data
The first screenshot shows a sample of voltage across a light bulb. The second shows voltage
across the D cells.
Voltage across light bulb Voltage across D cells

Lab Report - Activity 23B: Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

Predict
Since each light bulb in a parallel circuit is connected to the voltage source, the voltage for
each bulb should remain the same as more bulbs are added to the circuit.
The brightness of the light bulbs in a parallel circuit will not change as more bulbs are added to
the circuit.
In one bulb in a parallel circuit is removed, nothing happens to the rest of the bulbs.
Data
The two bulbs in parallel were each as bright as the first bulb.
All three bulbs in parallel were each as bright as the first bulb.
3. What happened in the three-light bulb parallel circuit when you removed the light bulb
from the middle lamp socket?
When the light bulb was removed from the middle lamp socket of the parallel circuit, the other
bulbs remained lit.
Data Table
One Light Bulb
Voltage Across Light Bulb: 2.81
Voltage Across Batteries: 2.82
Two Light Bulbs in Parallel

Voltage Across Light Bulb 1: 2.62
Three Light Bulbs in Parallel


Questions
bulb?
The voltage across the voltage source and the voltage across the first light bulb were almost the
same.
2. How did the voltage across each of the two light bulbs in parallel compare to the voltage
across the D cells?
The voltage across each of the two light bulbs in parallel was almost the same as the voltage
across the voltage source.
3. What did you notice about the voltage across each light bulb and the voltage across the D
cells when three bulbs are in parallel?
The voltage across each bulb in a parallel circuit is the same as the voltage source.
4. What can you say about the voltage in a parallel circuit?

The voltage across any branch in a parallel circuit is the same as the voltage source.
Why?
Nothing happens to the other light bulbs in a parallel circuit when the middle bulb is removed
because the other light bulbs still have a connection to the voltage source.
6. If all the lights in a house are connected together in parallel and they are all turned on,
what would happen to the lights when you turn one of them off (or it burns out)?
If all the lights in a house are connected in parallel and they are all turned on, they remain
turned on if one light is turned off (or it burns out).

Teacher Notes – Activity 24A: Current in a Series Circuit

Objectives
• use a Voltage-Current Sensor to measure the current through a series circuit consisting of small light
bulbs and a voltage source.
• compare the currents through the series circuit when one, two, and three bulbs are in the circuit.
• describe the relationship of the brightness of light bulbs in a series circuit and the number of bulbs in
the circuit
• describe the relationship of the current through a series circuit and the number of bulbs in the circuit.
Notes
• It is possible to combine this activity with 24B Current in a Parallel Circuit. Both
activities use the same equipment.
constant. For a series circuit, adding light bulbs increases the resistance and reduces the
current through the circuit.
Background
= + + + ...
If light bulbs are connected in parallel to a voltage source,
the brightness of the individual bulbs remains more-or-less
constant as more and more bulbs are added to the “ladder”.
The current increases as more bulbs are added to the circuit
and the overall resistance decreases. In addition, if one
bulb is removed from the “ladder” the other bulbs do not
go out. Each bulb is independently linked to the voltage
source.
Sample Data
Current through one light bulb
The screenshot shows current through the series circuit
with one light bulb.

Activity 24A Teacher Notes: Current in a Series Circuit PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 24A: Current in a Series Circuit

Prediction
circuit?
The current though a series circuit would decrease as more light bulbs are added to the circuit.
Data
When two bulbs were in series, each bulb was less bright than the first bulb.
When three bulbs were in series, each bulb was much less bright than the first bulb.
Data Table
Item Current (A)

One light bulb in series 0.30
Two light bulbs in series 0.21
Three light bulbs in series 0.17
Questions
1. What did you notice about the brightness of each bulb in series as the second and third
As more bulbs are added in a series circuit, the brightness of each bulb decreases.
2. How did the current for three light bulbs and two light bulbs in series compare to the
As more bulbs are added in a series circuit, the current through the circuit decreases.
The current in a series circuit decreases as you add more light bulbs to the circuit.
Answers will vary.

Teacher Notes – Activity 24B: Current in a Parallel Circuit

Objectives
• use a Voltage-Current Sensor to measure the current through a parallel circuit consisting of small
light bulbs and a voltage source.
• compare the currents through the parallel circuit when one, two, and three bulbs are in the circuit.
• describe the relationship of the brightness of light bulbs in a parallel circuit and the number of bulbs in
the circuit
• describe the relationship of the current through a parallel circuit and the number of bulbs in the circuit.
Notes
• It is possible to combine this activity with 24A Current in a Series Circuit. Both activities
use the same equipment.
constant. For a series circuit, adding light bulbs increases the resistance and reduces the
current through the circuit.
• Every simple circuit starts out as a series circuit, so the setup of one light bulb connected to
the voltage source for the first part of this activity is the same as the circuit setup in the
first part of the previous activity.
Background
If resistors are connected in parallel (side-by-side), their
total resistance is less than the sum of their individual
resistances.
If light bulbs are connected in parallel to a voltage source,
the brightness of the individual bulbs remains more-or-less
constant as more and more bulbs are added to the “ladder”.
The current increases as more bulbs are added to the circuit
and the overall resistance decreases. In addition, if one bulb Current, parallel circuit: 1 bulb
is removed from the “ladder” the other bulbs do not go out.
Each bulb is independently linked to the voltage source.
Sample Data
The screenshots show current through the parallel circuit
with one and two light bulbs.
Current, parallel circuit: 2 bulbs

Activity 24B Teacher Notes: Current in a Parallel Circuit PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 24B: Current in a Parallel Circuit

Prediction
circuit?
The current though a parallel circuit would increase as more light bulbs are added to the circuit.
Data
When two bulbs were in parallel, each bulb was as bright as the first bulb.
When three bulbs were in parallel, each bulb was as bright as the first bulb.
Data Table
Item Current (A)

One light bulb in series 0.30
Two light bulbs in series 0.54
Three light bulbs in series 0.75
Questions
1. What did you notice about the brightness of each bulb in parallel as the second and third
As more bulbs are added in a series circuit, the brightness of each bulb stayed the same.
2. How did the current for three light bulbs and two light bulbs in parallel compare to the
As more bulbs are added in a parallel circuit, the current through the circuit increases.
The current in a parallel circuit increases as you add more light bulbs to the circuit.
Answers will vary.

Activity 25 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 25: Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor

Circuit
Objectives
• use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across a capacitor in a resistor-capacitor circuit as the
capacitor charges and discharges through a resistor.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the voltage versus time.
• determine the time for the capacitor to charge to 63.2% of the maximum voltage, and discharge to
36.8% of the maximum.
• calculate the theoretical capacitive time constant based on the resistance value of the resistor and the
capacitance of the capacitor.
• compare the theoretical time constant to the experimental time constant.
Notes
Remind students to be especially careful when they handle the capacitor. They should fully
discharge the capacitor by using a patch cord as a ‘bridge’ to each end of the capacitor.
Background
Many electric circuits contain both resistors and capacitors. The
diagram shows an example of an RC circuit. Part (a) of the
drawing shows the circuit at a time t after the switch has been
closed and the battery has begun to charge up the capacitor plates.
The charge on the plates builds up gradually to its equilibrium
value of qo = CVo, where Vo is the voltage of the battery.
Assuming that the capacitor is uncharged at time t = 0 s when the
switch is closed, the capacitor charges exponentially as shown:
" !t
%
q = qo $ 1 ! e RC '
# &
The exponential e has the value of 2.718, q is the amount of
charge at any time, qo is the maximum charge achieved, t is the
amount of time elapsed, R is the resistance of the circuit and C is
the value of the capacitor. The term RC in the exponent in is the
time constant τ of the circuit: τ = RC. The time constant is the
amount of time required for the capacitor to accumulate 63.2
percent of its equilibrium charge. The charge approaches its
equilibrium value rapidly when the time constant is small and
slowly when the time constant is large.
The diagram shows a circuit at a time t after a switch is closed to
allow a charged capacitor to begin discharging. There is no battery in this circuit, so the charge
+q on the left plate of the capacitor can flow counterclockwise through the resistor and neutralize

Activity 25 Teacher Notes: Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor Circuit PS-2826
the charge -q on the right plate. The graph in part b of the drawing shows that the charge begins
at qo when t = 0 s and decreases gradually toward zero. Smaller values of the time constant RC
means a more rapid discharge. The time constant (RC) is also the amount of time required for a
charged capacitor to lose 63.2 percent of its charge.
Sample Data
The screenshots show voltage versus time for the charge and discharge of the capacitor through
the resistor in the resistor-capacitor circuit.
Charging and discharging Time to 63.2% of maximum
Time to 36.8% of maximum

Lab Report - Activity 25: Time Constant of a Resistor-Capacitor

Circuit
Data
Sketch a graph of voltage versus time. Include units and labels for your axes. (See Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Resistance of resistor 10 Ω
Capacitance of capacitor 0.025 F
Maximum voltage 2.99 V
63.2% of maximum voltage 1.84 V
Time to 63.2% of max. voltage 0.41 s
36.8% of maximum voltage 1.10 V
Time to 36.8% of max. voltage 0.36 s
Average time constant 0.385 s
Theoretical time constant 0.25 s
Percent difference 54%
theoretical ! average
%diff = " 100%
theoretical

Calculations
Based on the maximum voltage, calculate and record the value that is 63.2% of maximum, and
the value that is 36.8% of maximum.
Calculate the average time constant based on the two experimental values.
Calculate the theoretical capacitive time constant, τ, based on R and C, where ! = RC .
Calculate the percent difference between the theoretical and average values of the time constant.
Questions
1. Is the Voltage Probe placed in parallel or in series in this circuit? Explain.
The Voltage Probe is in parallel in this circuit. The probe is ‘across’ the capacitor. It is not
connected in line with any component of the circuit.
2. What component of the circuit is the Voltage Probe measuring?
The probe is measuring the voltage of the capacitor.
3. How does your average experimental value for the time constant compare to the theoretical
value?
The average experimental value is 54% higher than the calculated theoretical value.
4. What are some reasons for the difference, if any, between the average experimental value
and the theoretical value of the time constant?
One reason for a difference is that the stated capacitance of a capacitor is ±20% of the actual
value. Another is that the limited resolution of the GLX Graph screen makes it difficult to
determine the exact time.
5. The time constant is the produce of resistance, measured in ohms, and capacitance,
measured in farads. Use the following definitions of units to show algebraically that the
unit for the time constant is seconds.
volt coulomb coulomb
ohm = , farad = , amp =
amp volt second
volts coulomb coulomb

RC = ohms ! farads = ! =
amp volt amp
coulomb
RC = = second
coulomb
second

Activity 26 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 26: Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and

Coil
Objectives
• use a Voltage Probe to measure the voltage across a coil of wire when a bar magnet falls through the
center of the coil.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the voltage versus time.
• examine the graphs of voltage versus using the Xplorer GLX to determine the maximum voltage
induced in the coil for both the north-pole and south-pole of the bar magnet.
• compare the maximum voltages induced in a two coils with different numbers of turns of wire.
Notes
• Remind students to be especially careful when they drop the bar magnet. The alnico bar
magnet is brittle and fragile.
• Any conducting wire wound into a coil and any bar magnet will produce similar results.
• After your students have completed one run, ask them to predict what would happen if
they reversed the red and black ends of the Voltage Probe. After they make their
prediction, have them collect data again. The voltage will be induced to the same
magnitude, but the shape of the voltage versus time curve will be inverted across the X-
axis.
Background
When a magnet is passed through a coil there is a changing magnetic
flux through the coil that induces an Electromotive Force (EMF) in the
coil. According to Faraday’s Law of Induction:
#$
! = "N
#t
where ε is the induced EMF, N is the number of turns of wire in the
!"
coil, and is the rate of change of the flux through the coil.
!t
If a plot of the EMF versus time is made and the area under the curve is
found by integration, the area represents the flux since:
!"t = #N"$
The area under the curve for the first peak of the voltage-time plot equals the area under the
second peak. Although the second peak is ‘taller’, it is not as wide because the second pole is
falling through the coil at a faster speed and does not spend as much time in the coil as the first,
slower moving pole does.

Activity 26 Teacher Notes: Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and Coil PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the voltage versus time graphs for several runs.
North pole first, 400 turn coil South pole first, 400 turn coil
North pole first, 800 turn coil South pole first, 800 turn coil
North-south poles together North-north poles together

Lab Report - Activity 26: Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and Coil

Prediction
The voltage produced in a coil with more turns of wire will be greater than the voltage produced
in a coil with fewer turns of wire.
Data
Sketch a graph of voltage versus time for one run. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table
Run Pole Turns Voltage, peak 1 Voltage, peak 2

1 North 400 -0.32 V 0.82 V
2 South 400 0.46 V -0.67 V
3 North 800 -0.70 V 1.71 V
4 South 800 0.94 V -1.53 V

Questions
1. For each run, why are there two peaks of voltage? Why do the two peaks point in opposite
directions (that is, why is one positive when the other is negative)?
There are two peaks of voltage because there are two poles in the bar magnet, and each one can
induce voltage in the coil of wire. The two peaks are in opposite directions because the two
magnetic poles are opposite (have opposite polarity).
2. For each run, how does the magnitude (amount) of the voltage of the second peak compare
to the magnitude of the voltage of the first peak? Explain why you think this happens.
The magnitude of voltage for the second peak is always greater than the magnitude of voltage for
the first peak. This happens because the second pole to fall through the coil is traveling faster
than the first pole.
3. How does the shape of the voltage versus time graph when the north pole of the magnet is
dropped first compare to the overall shape of the graph when the south pole is dropped
first?
Overall, the shape of voltage versus time when the north pole of the magnet is dropped first is a
mirror image across the X-axis of the shape of voltage versus time when the south pole is
dropped first. The fact that the shapes are not ‘perfect’ mirror images is due to a difference in
magnetic field strength of one pole compared to the other.
4. How does the maximum voltage for the coil with more turns compare to the maximum
voltage for the coil with fewer turns?
The maximum voltage for the coil with twice the number of turns is approximately double the
maximum voltage for the coil with fewer turns.
Answers will vary.

Activity 27 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 27: Sound Wave Properties

Objectives
• use the built-in Sound Sensor of the Xplorer GLX to measure the wave pattern of various sound
sources (such as a human whistling, a tuning fork, etc.)
• use the graph display on the Xplorer GLX to determine the period of the measured sound waves.
• calculate the frequency and wavelength of the sound waves.
• compare the measured frequencies from the various sound sources to the frequencies generated by
the internal speaker of the Xplorer GLX.
Notes
Speed of Sound at 20°C & 1 atm
• The frequency of a wave is an important
characteristic since it determines the pitch of the Material Speed (m/s)
sound. A higher frequency produces a higher Air 344
pitch or note. Helium 1005
• Point out the difference between the time-based Hydrogen 1300

characteristics of waves (frequency and period) Water 1440
and the distance-based characteristic of waves Sea Water 1560
(wavelength). Iron and Steel ∼5000
You may want to use the Adjustable Tuning Fork to Glass ∼4500
introduce some of the behaviors of sound waves. Aluminum ∼5100
• Put about one-half inch of water in a pie pan. One Hard Wood ∼4000
student should stand close to the edge of the pan
so they can see what will happen when a vibrating tuning fork is touched to the surface of
the water. Hit the tuning fork and move it slowly toward the water. As the fork touches the
water, the student will be splashed.
• Dangle a ping-pong ball from a piece of thread near a vibrating tuning fork. The ball will
begin to swing and bounce against the tuning fork.
Sample Data
The screenshots shows sample data from a whistle and from the Adjustable Tuning Fork.
Fig. 1: Human whistle Fig. 2: Tuning Fork “A”

Activity 27 Teacher Notes: Sound Wave Properties PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 27: Sound Wave Properties

Data
Sketch one graph of a sound wave versus time. (See Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Period Frequency Wavelength
(ms) (Hz) (m)
Person 1 Whistle 0.8 1250 0.27
Person 2 Whistle
Tuning Fork #1 4.6 217 1.58
Tuning Fork #2
Tuning Fork #3
Tuning Fork #4
Instrument #1
Instrument #2
Calculations
Calculate the frequency based on the period. Calculate the wavelength from the wave speed of
sound (344 m/s) and the period or the frequency.
Question
Describe and explain the differences between the wave patterns produced by people and the
wave patterns produced by the tuning fork or by musical instruments.
The wave patterns produced by whistling show more variation in amplitude and overall shape
than the wave patterns produced by a tuning fork. The wave patterns produced by musical
instruments are more complex than whistling or tuning fork wave patterns.
Extension Question
Describe and explain the physical and sound quality differences between the frequencies you
measured and the frequencies generated by the internal speaker of the GLX.
In general, the frequencies generated by the internal speaker will have less ‘body’ than those
produced by a tuning fork or a musical instrument. However, the wave pattern will be more
precise.

Activity 28 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 28: Interference–Beat Frequency

Objectives
• use the built-in Output function (sound generator) of the Xplorer GLX to generate two sound waves
that have slightly different frequencies.
• use the Stopwatch function of the Xplorer GLX to measure the time for 10 full beat cycles.
• calculate the period of the beats and the beat frequency for the two sound waves.
• compare the frequency difference of the two sound waves and the calculated beat frequency and
make a statement about their relationship.
Notes
• The volume of the GLX Output is controlled in the
Output Settings screen. You may want to ask students
to decrease the ‘Volume’ to 5/10 or even 4/10. To
change volume, use the arrow keys to select ‘Volume’
and press or .
Background
Musicians listen for the beat frequency when they tune their
instruments to each other with a reference tone (commonly
440 Hz in orchestras). After than, they tune the parts of their Output Settings screen
instruments to intervals from that reference tone.
Pilots of piston-driven twin-engine airplanes use the beat frequency to adjust the revolutions of
one engine to the other. They do this in order to reduce the vibration.
Sample Data
See the Data Table.

Activity 28 Teacher Notes: Interference–Beat Frequency PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 28: Interference–Beat Frequency

Data
Describe what you heard when you did a sound check:
Answers will vary. The two sound waves produce 1 beat per second, or 10 full beats in ten
seconds.
Data Table
Left Channel Right Channel Frequency Elapsed Time for Beat Period, Beat Frequency,
Frequency, fleft Frequency, fright Difference ∆f 10 Beat Cycles Tbeat fbeat
441.0 Hz 440.0 Hz 1.0 Hz 10 s 1.0 s 1.0 Hz
441.2 Hz 440.0 Hz 1.2 Hz 8.35 s 0.835 s 1.19 Hz
441.4 Hz 440.0 Hz 1.4 Hz 7.11 s 0.711 s 1.40 Hz
441.6 Hz 440.0 Hz 1.6 Hz 6.31 s 0.631 s 1.58 Hz
441.8 Hz 440.0 Hz 1.8 Hz 5.55 s 0.555 s 1.80 Hz
442.0 Hz 440.0 Hz 2.0 Hz 5.02 s 0.502 s 1.99 Hz
Calculations
Calculate and record the frequency difference (∆f = fleft – fright) and the beat period, Tbeat.
1
Calculate the beat frequency, fbeat, based on the following: fbeat = .
Tbeat
Questions
1. According to your data, what is the relationship between the difference in frequencies of
the two sound waves (∆f) and the beat frequency (fbeat)?
According to the data, the difference in frequency of the two sound waves is equal to the beat
frequency.
Answers will vary.

Activity 29 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 29: Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force

Objectives
• use a Force Sensor to measure the weight of an object in air and when it is submerged in water..
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the force.
• calculate the weight of the water displaced by the submerged object.
• calculate the buoyant force on the object.
• compare the weight of the displaced water to the buoyant force and state a relationship between the
weight of the displaced water and the buoyant force.
Notes
• To engage the students, ask them to relate any experiences they have with submerged
objects feeling lighter underwater than out of the water. Explain that objects submerged in
a fluid experience an upward force called the buoyant force.
• The buoyant force is a direct result of the increase in fluid pressure with depth. Challenge
the students to connect the principle of increasing fluid pressure with the concept of the
buoyant force.
• Students are asked to take measurements after the overflow can stops dripping. Since it can
take many minutes for the can to truly stop dripping, in the interest of time you might want
to establish a rule of thumb for allowing measurements to be taken early. “Wait until the
drips are five seconds apart” is a reasonable compromise between accuracy and time
concerns.
Background
Archimedes’ Principle as applied to floating bodies can be extended to other fluids. For example,
the buoyant force on a balloon is the weight of the air that the balloon displaces. If the balloon
weighs more than the weight of the air it pushes aside, the balloon will ‘sink’ in the air.
An object submerged in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force due to the fact that pressure
increases with depth. If the pressure at the surface of the fluid is p0, then the pressure at a depth h
below the surface is given by p = p0 + ρgh, where ρ is the density of the fluid and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. You can see from this relationship that the pressure p increases as the
depth h increases. The buoyant force on an upright submerged cylinder can be calculated fairly
straightforwardly from this relationship of depth to pressure. The top of the cylinder experiences
a downward force due to fluid pressure; the bottom experiences a larger upward force due to a
larger fluid pressure at its greater depth. The forces due to fluid pressure along the sides of
cylinder increase with depth, but every force is countered by an equal and opposite force at the
opposite side of the cylinder. Therefore the net force on the submerged cylinder is upward.
See the following Web site for information about the ‘legend’ of Archimedes and the king’s
crown: http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/CrownIntro.htm

Activity 29 Teacher Notes: Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force PS-2826
Extensions
Challenge students to do more research on Archimedes’ Principle. Then, challenge them to label
the horizontal bars of the following “Plimsoll mark” or “load line” which appears on the side of
ships. The levels of the Plimsoll mark indicate the depth to which a ship can be safely loaded for
various water types and temperatures.
Give each group some modeling clay. Ask them to take buoyancy and displacement
measurements first with the clay rolled into a ball, then with the clay molded into an object that
floats.
Sample Data
See the Data Table.
l

Lab Report - Activity 29: Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force

Prediction
The buoyant force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the
object.
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of empty beaker 0.014 kg
Run Dry Weight (N) Wet Weight (N) Buoyant Force Mass of Water Weight of Percent
(N) (kg) Water (N) Difference
1 1.935 N 1.231 N 0.704 N 0.0724 kg 0.709 N 0.7%
2
3
Calculations
Calculate the mass of water by subtracting the mass of the empty beaker from the mass of the
displaced water.
Calculate the weight of the water by multiplying the water by 9.8 N/kg.
Calculate the percent difference between the
buoyant force and the weight of displaced Wt. of water - Buoyant Force
%diff = !100
water. Buoyant Force
Questions
1. For each object, why is there a difference between the dry weight and the wet weight?
There is a difference between the dry and wet weights of the object because of the buoyant force
on the object when it is submerged.
2. For each run, how does the weight of the displaced water compare to the buoyant force?
Explain why you think this happens.
For each run, the weight of the displaced water is very, very close to the buoyant force. One way
to explain this is to imagine the object surrounded by the water. When the object is removed, the
volume that the object occupied will fill with fluid. This volume of fluid must be supported by the
pressure of the surrounding liquid since a fluid can not support itself. When no object is present,
the net upward force on this volume of fluid must equal to its weight, i.e. the weight of the fluid
displaced.

3. Archimedes’ Principle of Floating Objects is as follows:

The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
How do your results compare to this statement?
The results confirm this statement.

Answers will vary.

Activity 30 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 30: Transfer of Energy

Objectives
• use Temperature Probes to measure the change in temperature of equal quantities of warm water
that have about the same initial temperature as the water cools for equal amounts of time in two
different colored cans (unpainted and painted black).
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the temperatures from both probes.
• determine the initial and final temperature of the water in each can.
• calculate the change in temperature.
• compare the change in temperature for the water in the two cans and determine which can cooled
fastest.
Note
• Encourage your students to be very careful when handling the hot water. Remind them to
wear gloves and to use tongs to handle the containers of hot water.
Background
The rate at which the two cans radiate thermal energy depends on several properties including
the area of the cans, the thickness of the walls, the difference in temperature of the water and the
outside air, and the emissivity of the surface. Assuming that all other factors are equal, the can
with the greater emissivity radiates thermal energy faster.
Surfaces that tend to be good ‘radiators’ also tend to be good ‘absorbers’. Surfaces that are poor
‘radiators’ tend to be good ‘reflectors’. The silver-coated reflective interior of a Thermos® bottle
is designed to reduce the loss of thermal energy by radiation.
Extensions
Optional: Cooling With A Fan
Repeat the experiment but put a fan next to the cans so the air blows equally on each of the cans.
Turn on the fan and begin recording data.
Optional: Heating With A Lamp
Fill the cans with room temperature water. Put the Temperature Sensors in each can as before.
Place a heat lamp near the cans so that the cans are equally illuminated. Turn on the lamp and
begin recording data.

Activity 30 Teacher Notes: Transfer of Energy PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshots show the temperature versus time graphs for the water in the unpainted can and
the black painted can.
Unpainted can, initial temperature Unpainted can, final temperature
Black can, initial temperature Black can, final temperature

Lab Report - Activity 29: Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant Force

Prediction
In which metal can would the water cool down the most in fifteen minutes: aluminum unpainted,
or aluminum painted black?
The water in the black painted can would cool down the most in fifteen minutes of cooling time.
Data
Sketch you graph of temperatures versus time. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Unpainted Black

Initial Temperature 75.6º C 74.1º C
Final Temperature 60.1º C 57.4º C
Change in Temperature 15.5º C 16.7º C
Calculations
Calculate the change in temperature of the water in both cans.
Questions
1. Which can cooled down faster?
The water in the black painted can cooled down the most in the fifteen minutes.

2. When the cans are cooling, which processes transfer thermal energy? Which process do
you think is dominant?
When the cans are cooling, all three processes–conduction, convection, and radiation–are
transferring thermal energy. Radiation is the dominant process.
3. When a can is cooling, does it cool faster at the beginning of the experiment or toward the
end of the experiment? Why?
The can is cooling down faster at the beginning of the experiment. Newton’s Law of Cooling
describes the fact that things tend to cool faster when the difference in temperature between the
object and its environment is greatest.
4. Does the thermal insulation pad under each can hinder transfer of energy by conduction, or
help transfer of energy by conduction? Explain.
The thermal insulation pad under each can hinders the transfer of energy by conduction. The
material of the pad is a poor conductor of thermal energy.
5. Does the narrow opening at the top of the can hinder transfer of energy by convection, or
help transfer of energy by convection? Explain.
The narrow opening at the top of the can hinders transfer of energy by convection because there
is less movement of air in and out of the small opening than there would be if the opening were
larger.

Activity 31 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 31: Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal

Objectives
• use the Temperature Probe to measure the change in temperature of water as it transfers energy to a
metal object (initial temperature 0 ºC).
• use the graph display to determine the initial temperature of the water and the equilibrium
temperature of the water and metal object.
• calculate the specific heat of the metal object.
• compare the measured specific heat to values for metals and determine the metal of the object.
Notes
• An alternate method for this activity is to immerse the metal object in boiling water for ten
minutes and then transfer it to the calorimeter cup containing water at room temperature.
However, this method involves very hot surfaces or perhaps an open flame. It requires a
container (such as a Pyrex® beaker) that can withstand the high temperature. In addition,
the Fast-Response Temperature Probe has a range from -10 ºC to 70 ºC, so a different
sensor would be needed (such as the PS-2125 PASPORT Temperature Sensor).
• Some sources of error involve the calorimeter cup. Because it is open, some thermal
energy transfers to the air. In addition, some thermal energy transfers from the water to the
cup, but the mass and specific heat and temperature change of the cup are not included in
the calculations.
• Other sources of error are the measurement of mass and the measurement of temperature.
For example, the SE-8723 Ohaus Triple-Beam Balance is accurate to 0.1 g. The Fast-
Response Temperature Probe is accurate to 1 ºC.
Sample Data
The screenshot shows sample data of temperature versus
time for the aluminum metal object from the Basic
Calorimetry Set.
Fig. 1: Sample graph

Activity 31 Teacher Notes: Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal PS-2826

Lab Report - Activity 31: Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal

Data
Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of object 0.196 kg
Mass of cup 0.013 kg
Mass of cup plus water 0.215 kg
Mass of water 0.202 kg
Initial Temperature of Metal 0 ºC
Initial Temperature of Water 26.6 ºC
Final Temperature of Water 22.4 ºC
Calculations
Calculate the specific heat of the unknown metal. The specific heat of water, cwater is 4186
J/kgºC. Remember that the final temperature of the water–the equilibrium temperature–is also
the final temperature of the metal object. Assume that the initial temperature of the metal object
is 0 ºC (the temperature of the ice-water bath).
Solve for the specific heat of the object, cobject.
(
mobject cobject Tfinal " Tinitial )
object
(
= mwater cwater Tinitial " Tfinal )
water
cobject =
mwater cwater (T initial
" Tfinal )
water
(
mobject Tfinal " Tinitial )object
Item Value
Specific Heat of Metal 809 J/kgºC
The table shows some specific heats of common metals:
Metal Specific Heat (J/kgºC) Metal Specific Heat (J/kgºC)

aluminum 901 iron 449
brass 380 lead 128
copper 386 silver 234
gold 129 steel 450

Questions
Describe, in words, what happened to the temperature on the graph.
The temperature dropped when the metal object was first placed in the water. Eventually the
temperature stopped changing when the object reached thermal equilibrium with the water.
1. What kind of metal is the object?
The object is made of aluminum metal.
2. Compare the value you obtained with your data (measured) to the value in the list
(accepted). What is the percent difference between your measured value and the accepted
value?
901! 809
The percent difference for the example is 10.2% ( " 100% = 10.2 %).
901
3. What are some possible sources of error?
Possible sources of error were the uncertainties in measuring the temperature, thermal energy
lost or gained through the open top of the calorimeter, thermal energy absorbed by the
calorimeter cup, and inaccuracy in measuring the mass of the object and the water.

Activity 32 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 32: Latent Heat of Vaporization

Objectives
• use the Temperature Probe to measure the change in temperature of water as it receives thermal
energy from a small quantity of steam (initial temperature 100 ºC).
• use the graph display to determine the initial temperature of the water and the equilibrium (final)
temperature of the water and condensed steam.
• calculate the latent heat of vaporization of water based on the mass of steam that condensed and the
amount of thermal energy transferred to the water.
• compare the measured latent heat of vaporization to the accepted value.
Notes
• The accepted value for the latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.258 x 106 J/kg (2,258
kJ/kg), or 2.258 x 103 J/g (2,258 J/g).
• Some sources of error involve the calorimeter cup. Because it is open, some thermal
energy transfers to the air. In addition, some thermal energy transfers from the water to the
cup, but the mass and specific heat and temperature change of the cup are not included in
the calculations.
• Another source of error is the Temperature Probe. Its thermal mass is very small, but its
specific heat and temperature change are not included in the calculations.
Background
The latent heat of vaporization can also be correctly referred to as the enthalpy of vaporization.
The units are kJ/mol. For example, the enthalpy of vaporization of water at 100º is 40.65 kJ/mol.
Taking the molar mass of water as 18.0 g/mol, we get a latent heat of vaporization for water of
(40.65 kJ/mol)/(18.0 g/mol) = 2.258 kJ/g = 2258 kJ/kg.
Calculation
Solving for the latent heat of vaporization, Hv, gives the following:
( !Q phase change
steam
= !Qwater
( )( ) (
Hv =
( )( ) (
mwater 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " Tinital " msteam 4186J / kg°C Tfinal "100°C )( )
msteam

Activity 32 Teacher Notes: Latent Heat of Vaporization PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshot shows sample data of temperature versus time.

Lab Report - Activity 32: Latent Heat of Vaporization

Data
Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of calorimeter 0.01258 kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water 0.27008 kg
Mass of water, mwater 0.25750 kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water plus condensed steam 0.27996 kg
Mass of steam, msteam 0.00988 kg
Initial Temperature of Water, Tinitial 15.14 ºC
Final Temperature of Water, Tfinal 35.57 ºC
Calculations
Calculate the mass of the water, mwater. Calculate the mass of the steam, msteam.
Use the mass of the water, mass of the steam, specific heat of water (cwater is 4186 J/kgºC), initial
temperature of the water, and final temperature of the water to calculate the latent heat of
vaporization.

( !Q phase change
steam
= !Qwater
( )( ) (
First, solve the final equation for Hv, the latent heat of vaporization. Next, substitute your values
for mass of water, mwater, mass of steam, msteam, initial temperature, Tinitial, and final
temperature, Tfinal. Finally, calculate the results. The units for the latent heat of vaporization are
joules per kilogram, or J/kg.
Get the accepted value for the latent heat of vaporization for water from your instructor, and
calculate the percent difference between your value and the accepted value.
Item Value
Latent Heat of Vaporization, measured 2314 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of Vaporization, accepted 2258 kJ/kg
Percent difference 2.4 %
measured ! accepted
%diff = "100%
measured
Questions
1. How does your measured value for the latent heat of vaporization compare to the accepted
value?
Answers will vary. In this example, the measured value for the latent heat of vaporization is 2314
kJ/kg or within 2.4 % of the accepted value.

Some thermal energy goes from the water to the air. Some energy leaves as steam bubbles up
through the water. The Temperature Probe and the cup have some thermal mass but were not
included in the calculations.
3. Why would a burn produced by 1 gram of steam at 100 ºC do more damage to your skin
than a burn caused by I gram of hot water at 100 ºC?
A gram of steam at 100 ºC has 2258 J of thermal energy that would be released if the gram of
steam condensed into water at 100 ºC. A gram of water at 100 ºC would release only 4.186 J of
thermal energy if it cooled by one degree, or 418.6 J of thermal energy if it cooled from 100 ºC
to 0 ºC.

Activity 33 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 33: Latent Heat of Fusion

Objectives
• use the Temperature Probe to measure the change in temperature of water as it transfers thermal
energy to ice (initial temperature 0 ºC) in order to melt the ice.
• use the graph display to determine the initial temperature of the water and the equilibrium (final)
temperature of the water and melted ice.
• calculate the latent heat of fusion of water based on the mass of ice that melted and the amount of
thermal energy transferred to the ice to melt it and then raise its temperature to the equilibrium
temperature.
• compare the measured latent heat of fusion for water to the accepted value.
Notes
• The accepted value for the latent heat of fusion of water is 3.34 x 105 J/kg (334 kJ/kg), or
3.34 x 102 J/g (334 J/g).
• Ice from a freezer may be colder than 0 ºC initially. If the temperature of the ice is below
0 ºC, some thermal energy is needed to raise the temperature from below zero up to zero.
This energy comes from the warm water, but does not melt any ice. Therefore, remove the
ice cubes from the freezer about fifteen or twenty minutes before they are needed. The ice
cubes should be wet (at melting temperature).
• One source of error is the thermal energy transferred to the air from the calorimeter.
• Another source of error is the mass and specific heat of the calorimeter and the
Temperature Probe. They absorb some thermal energy from the water, but their specific
heats and temperature changes are not included in the calculations.
Background
The latent heat of fusion can also be correctly referred to as the enthalpy of fusion. The units are
kJ/mol. For example, the enthalpy of vaporization of water at 0 ºC is 6.01 kJ/mol. Taking the
molar mass of water as 18.0 g/mol, we get a latent heat of fusion for water of (6.01 kJ/mol)/(18.0
g/mol) = 0.334 kJ/g = 334 kJ/kg.
Calculation
Solving for the latent heat of fusion, Hf, gives the following:
( !Q phase change
= !Qwater
( )( ) (
mice Hf + mice 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " 0°C = mwater 4186J / kg°C Tinital " Tfinal )( )
Hf =
mwater (4186J / kg°C ) (T initial ) ( )(
" Tfinal " mice 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " 0°C )
mice

Activity 33 Teacher Notes: Latent Heat of Fusion PS-2826
Sample Data
The screenshot shows sample data of temperature versus time.

Lab Report - Activity 33: Latent Heat of Fusion

Data
Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Mass of calorimeter 0.01258 kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water 0.29782 kg
Mass of water, mwater 0.28524 kg
Mass of calorimeter plus water plus melted ice 0.39090 kg
Mass of ice, mice 0.09308 kg
Initial Temperature of Water, Tinitial 40.6 ºC
Final Temperature of Water, Tfinal 10.8 ºC
Calculations
Calculate the mass of the water, mwater, where the mass of the water is the mass of the
calorimeter plus water minus the mass of the calorimeter.
Calculate the mass of the ice, mice, where the mass of the ice is the mass of the calorimeter plus
water plus melted ice (the final mass) minus the mass of the calorimeter plus water
Use the mass of the water, mass of the ice, specific heat of water (cwater is 4186 J/kgºC), initial
temperature of the water, and final temperature of the water to calculate the latent heat of fusion.

( !Q phase change
= !Qwater
( )( ) (
mice Hf + mice 4186J / kg°C Tfinal " 0°C = mwater 4186J / kg°C Tinitial " Tfinal )( )
First, solve the final equation for Hf, the latent heat of fusion. Next, substitute your values for
mass of water, mwater, mass of ice, mice, initial temperature, Tinitial, and final temperature, Tfinal.
Finally, calculate the results. The units for the latent heat of fusion are joules per kilogram, or
J/kg.
Get the accepted value for the latent heat of fusion for water from your instructor, and calculate
the percent difference between your value and the accepted value.
Item Value
Latent Heat of Fusion, measured 507 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of Fusion, accepted 334 kJ/kg
Percent difference 34 %
measured ! accepted
%diff = "100%
measured
Questions
1. How does your measured value for the latent heat of fusion compare to the accepted value?
Answers will vary. In this example, the measured value for the latent heat of vaporization is 507
kJ/kg or within 34% of the accepted value.

Some thermal energy goes from the water to the air. The calorimeter cup and the Temperature
Probe absorb some energy, but their masses and specific heats were not included in the
calculations.

Activity 34 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 34: Light Intensity versus Distance

Objectives
• use the Light Sensor to measure the intensity of a light source as the sensor is moved away from the
source.
• use the Xplorer GLX to enter and record the distance of the sensor from the light source.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the light intensity versus the distance.
• use the graph display to examine the light intensity versus the inverse square of the distance between
the light source and the sensor.
• determine how well the data of light intensity versus the inverse square of distance fit a straight line.
Notes
• Avoid reflective surfaces under, behind, or beside the light source.
• If students want to improve the fit of their data to a straight line, challenge them to try a
different exponent in the calculation of 1/distance2. For example, they might try values
between 1.5 and 2.0. In the Home Screen, press F3 to open the Calculator. In the
Calculator screen, edit the exponent of the calculation. Press to return to the Home
Screen.
Background
The formula for the area of a sphere is A = 4! r 2 . The formula for light intensity is the power of
P P
the light source divided by the area, or I = = .
A 4! r 2
Sample Data
The screenshots show sample data of light intensity versus distance and light intensity versus the
inverse square of distance.
Fig. 1: Light intensity v. distance Fig. 2: Linear Fit

Activity 34 Teacher Notes: Light Intensity versus Distance PS-2826
Lab Report - Activity 34: Light Intensity versus Distance

as 1/r2 ?
Yes, the intensity of the light will vary as the inverse square of the distance (radius).
Data
Sketch a graph of light intensity versus distance. Include units and labels for your axes. (See
Sample Data.)
Data Table
Item Value
Coefficient of linear regression, r 0.978
Questions
1. What is the shape of your graph of light intensity versus distance?
The shape of the graph of light intensity versus distance is non-linear. It looks like an inverse
relationship or perhaps an inverse square relationship.
2. How well does your data for light intensity versus 1/distance2 fit a straight line? Hint: The
closer the value of ‘r’ is to 1.00, the better the fit.
The coefficient of linear regression is 0.978, which is 0.022 from a match to a linear or straight
line fit.
3. What are some reasons why the results might not support the inverse square relationship of
light intensity to distance?
The point source is not an actual point. Ambient light was also recorded during data recording.
The light sensor may not have been on a straight line relative to the opening of the light source.
Answers will vary.

Activity 35 PS-2826
Teacher Notes – Activity 35: Polarized Light

Objectives
• use the Light Sensor to measure the intensity of light from a light source as the light travels through
one and then two polarizers.
• use the Xplorer GLX to record and display the light intensity.
• use the Xplorer GLX to determine how the light intensity changes when it passes through one
polarizer and how the light intensity changes as it passes through two polarizers when the angle
between the polarizers changes.
• state what happens to the light intensity when it travels through one polarizer and what happens to
the light intensity when the angle between the two polarizers is changed.
Notes
• The majority of radiation from a halogen or incandescent light source (such as the Basic
Optics Light Source) is infrared. The polarizing material is Polaroid, a dichroic polymer
that is effective at polarizing visible light but ineffective at polarizing infrared. Since the
Light Sensor is sensitive to wavelengths from 320 to 1100 nm, it will detect both the
polarized visible light and the unpolarized infrared radiation that is transmitted through
both polarizers. As a result, the transmitted intensity will not approach zero.
• One solution is to use a helium-neon laser or a diode laser with a diffusing lens. The
wavelength dependence of the polarizers becomes insignificant.
Background
A polarizer only allows light that is vibrating in a particular plane to pass through it. This plane
forms the “axis” of polarization.
Unpolarized light vibrates in all
planes perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. If unpolarized light is
incident upon an “ideal” polarizer,
only half will be transmitted through
the polarizer. Since in reality no
polarizer is “ideal”, less than half the
light will be transmitted.
The transmitted light is polarized in
one plane. If this polarized light is
incident upon a second polarizer, the
axis of which is oriented such that it
is perpendicular to the plane of polarization of the incident light, no light will be transmitted
through the second polarizer (see the top figure).
However, if the second polarizer is oriented at an angle so that it is not perpendicular to the first
polarizer, there will be some component of the electric field of the polarized light that lies in the

Activity 35 Teacher Notes: Polarized Light PS-2826
same direction as the axis of the second polarizer, thus some light will be transmitted through the
second polarizer (see the bottom figure).
Sample Data
The screenshots show sample data of light intensity after passing through one polarizer, and light
intensity passing through two polarizers at different angles (0º, 45º, and 90º).
Light intensity, no polarizer One polarizer
Two polarizers at 0º Two polarizers at 45º

Lab Report - Activity 35: Polarized Light

Prediction
Light passing through an ideal polarizer would be 50% as intense as unpolarized light.
Light passing through two ideal polarizers at 0º to each other would be 50% as intense as
unpolarized light.
Light passing through two ideal polarizers that are at 90º to each other would be reduced to 0%
intensity.
Data Table
Arrangement Light Intensity

No polarizer 304.41 lux
One polarizer 217.90 lux
Two polarizers at 0º 185.85 lux
Questions
1. How did the light intensity through one polarizer compare to the light intensity through no
polarizer?
The light intensity through one polarizer was 217.9 lux compared to the light intensity through
no polarizer of 304.41 lux, or 71%.
two polarizers at 0º?
The light intensity with two polarizers at 45º was 166.63 lux compared to the light intensity with
two polarizers at 0º of 185.85 lux, or 89%.

two polarizers at 0º
The light intensity with two polarizers at 90º was 153.81 lux compared to the light intensity with
two polzarizers at 0º of 185.85 lux, or 82%.
4. For two ideal polarizers, the light intensity when the polarizers are at 90º should be zero.
Why was the light intensity for the two polarizers at 90º not zero?
The polarizers are not ideal.

Answers will vary.

PASCO Physics - GLX Intecs

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PASCO Physics - GLX Intecs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYSICS

with the Xplorer GLX

Physics with the Xplorer GLX Lab Manual

Physics with the Xplorer GLX

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO i

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO ii

31 Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal (Fast-Response Temperature Probe) ........ 223

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO iii

26 Electromagnetic Induction–Magnet and Coil (Voltage Probe) ............................ 193

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO iv

• “Physics Student” folder

Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO v

3. When the GLX is turned on, the Data Files icon is

Figure: ‘Data Files’ icon in the

• The upper part of the Data Files screen shows “RAM”

Figure: Data Files screen

4. Use the up arrow key ( ) to highlight the upper part

automatically selected. Use the right arrow key ( ) to

Figure: Select ‘Copy All Files’ from

Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO vi

• A ‘Files Copied’ icon ( ) appears next to the

Figure: ‘Files Copied’ icon

6. Use the left arrow key ( ) to select RAM in the upper

Figure: Unplug the USB Flash

Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO vii

Working with GLX Files II

4. In the File Manager window, click ‘RAM’

Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO viii

5. On the right side of the window, click

Activity Title Setup Filename Data Filename

Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO ix

Activity Title Setup Filename Data Filename

Physics with Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO x

Equipment List by Activity

Act Title Equipment and Materials Qty Cat. #

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xi

6 Newton’s First Law–No Net PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xii

12 Simple Harmonic Motion–Mass PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xiii

18 Conserve Energy PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xiv

22 Ohm’s Law PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xv

29 Archimedes’ Principle–Buoyant PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xvi

34 Light Intensity versus Distance PASPORT Xplorer GLX 1 PS-2002

Equipment List by Item

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xvii

ME-9873 Double Rod Clamp (set of 3) 1 5,11,18,29

Other Materials Qty Where Used

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xviii

Comprehensive High School Physics Bundle

Part No. Item Description

Ready to Equip your Labs?

Internet: www.pasco.com E-mail: sales@pasco.com

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xix

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO xx

Qty Equipment and Materials Part Number

Physics with the Xplorer GLX © 2006 PASCO p. 1

1. Stand in front of a wall or stand in front of a lab

3. Press Start ( ) on the GLX to begin recording

5. After 11 seconds, press Stop ( ) to end data