ELECTRIC DRIVES

Subject Code: EEE11 Credit: 3: 0: 0

Prerequisites: Nil Contact Hours: 42

Course Coordinator/s: Dr. Kodeeswara Kumaran G/ Dr. Rakesh Kumar

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 Course content
Introduction to Electrical drives Unit – I
Introduction, advantages of electrical drives, parts of electrical drives, choice
of electrical drives, status of dc and ac drives, dynamics of electrical drives,
fundamental torque equation, components of load torque, nature and
classification of load torques, speed-torque conventions and multi-quadrant
operation, equivalent values of drive parameters.
Unit - II
DC Drives
Basic Concepts: Speed torque characteristics, starting, braking and speed control
techniques of shunt/separately excited dc motor (theory only).
Rectifier controlled dc drives: Types of rectifiers- review, fully controlled rectifier fed dc
drives, half controlled rectifier fed dc drives, multi-quadrant operation of 2 rectifier
controlled dc drives.
Chopper controlled dc drives: Types of choppers – review, chopper controlled dc drives –
motoring and braking operation, multi-quadrant operation of chopper controlled dc drives.
 Unit - III
AC Drives
Basic Concepts: Speed-Torque characteristics of induction motors. Concept of induction motor starting.
Types of starter - star delta, auto transformer, reactor, part winding, rotor resistance. Concept of induction
motor braking. Methods of braking - regenerative, plugging, dynamic braking (theory only)
Speed control techniques: Rotor resistance control, Stator voltage control, stator frequency control, V/f
control.

Unit – IV
Special Machine Drives
Synchronous motors: Construction, operation from fixed frequency supply – starting, pulling in, braking.
Synchronous motor variable speed drives. Self-controlled synchronous motor drive employing load
commutated thyristor inverter.
DC brushless motors: Construction, speed-torque characteristics, brushless dc motor controllers – rotor
position measurement, commutation logic, speed controller.
Unit – V 3
Stepper Motor Drives: Principle of operation of stepper motor, single stack variable reluctance motors, speed
torque characteristics, control of stepper motors, unipolar and bipolar drive circuits
Text Book

 G.K Dubey, Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Narosa publishing house Chennai, 2 Edition, 5th reprint.

 Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi, Fundamentals of Electric Drives, Thomson Learning, 2002

Reference Books

 Dave Polka, Motors and Drives: A Practical Technology Guide, The Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society, 200.

 N.K De and P.K. Sen, Electrical Drives, PHI, 2007.

 M.H.Rashid, ‘Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications’, Pearson Education, 3rd Edition.

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 Unit – I
BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRIC DRIVE

Elements of Electric Drive System

Elements of Electric Drive System using power converters

 Unit – I
What is an electric drive?
An industrial drive system basically consists of a mechanical working equipment or load, which has to be kept in
motion to turn out mechanical work; equipment to do this job, called the prime mover, and a transmission to transfer
energy from the prime mover to the mechanical load.

Transmission equipment such as a gearing or belt may be used to match the speeds of the prime mover and the
load. The transmission may also be required sometimes to convert rotatory to linear motion and vice versa. Thus, a
combination of a prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical working load is called a drive

I.C. engines, steam engine, turbines or electric motors may be used as prime movers. However, in industrial drives
electric motors are predominantly employed for this purpose due to their inherent advantages, such as overload
capacity, efficiency, better dynamic and transient behaviour, availability in various sizes and designs compatible to
load requirements, etc.
An electric drive can be defined as a drive, using an electric motor as a prime mover, and ultimately 6
converting
electrical energy to mechanical energy. The electric motors used may require some types of control equipment to
achieve speed control and/or torque control.
 Unit – I
Advantages of electric drives

I. Availability of electric drives over a wide range of power from a few watts to mega watts.

II. Ability to provide a wide range of torques over a wide range of speeds.

III. Adaptability to almost any type of environmental or operating conditions, such as natural, forced ventilation,
totally enclosed, submerged in liquids, exposed to explosive, or radioactive environment, etc.

IV. No hazardous fuel is required. No exhaust gases are emitted to pollute the environment. The noise level is also
low.

V. Electric drives have an overload capacity which can be made use of in selecting a smaller motor for short time
duties. The efficiency is very good.

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 Unit – I
Advantages of electric drives
VI. The speed control of these motors is straightforward. Using a proper control they can be made to operate on
a desired speed-torque curve to suit the mechanical load. Gearless coupling to the mechanical load,
especially for low-speed rolling mills is possible.

VII. An electric drive is capable of operating in all four quadrants of the speed torque plane, i.e. motoring and
braking in either direction of rotation. Regenerative braking, in which the kinetic energy of the rotating parts
is advantageously returned to the mains is possible only with electric drives.

VIII. The motor can develop a steady torque because of symmetry, on a balanced sinusoidal supply. The
operation is quiet. However, nonsinusoidal supplies to the motors when fed from converters may cause some
torque pulsation due to the time harmonics of the supply voltage/current which may become objectionable
particularly at low speed.

IX. Electric motors are available in a variety of design ratings to make them compatible to any type of load.
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X. The drive can be started and accelerated to the design speed at very short notice. Full load may be applied
almost immediately. There is no need for refuelling or warming up of the motor, and it requires little servicing.
 Unit – I
Disadvantages of electric drives
I. They require a continuous power supply, particularly in vehicle propulsion if there is no power rail available.
The power supply equipment needs to be carried on board, requires a lot of space, and is bulky.

II. Problems of saturation of iron and cooling make the electric motors have a lower power/weight ratio.

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 Unit – I
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
Electric drives are normally classified into three groups, based on their development, namely group, individual and
multimotor electric drives.

 If several groups of mechanisms or machines are organized on one shaft and driven or actuated by one motor, the
system is called a group drive or shaft drive. The various mechanisms connected may have different speeds.
Hence the shaft is equipped with multistepped pulleys and belts for connection to individual loads.

 If a single motor is used to drive or actuate a given mechanism and it does all the jobs connected with this load,
the drive is called an individual drive. For example, all the operations connected with operating a lathe may
be performed by a single machine.

 In a multimotor drive each operation of the mechanism is taken care of by a separate drive motor. The system
contains several individual drives, each of which is used to operate its own mechanism. This type of drive finds
application in complicated machine tools, travelling cranes, rolling mills, etc.
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 Unit – I
CHOICE OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

Choice of an electrical drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors are:
(i) Steady state operation requirements: Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty
cycle, quadrants of operation, speed fluctuations if any, ratings.
(ii) Transient operation requirements: Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance.
(iii) Requirements related to the source. Type of source, and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power
factor, harmonics and their effect on other loads, ability to accept regenerated power.
(iv) Capital and running cost, maintenance needs, life.
(v) Space and weight restrictions if any.
(vi) Environment and location.L
(vii) Reliability.
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 Unit – I
STATUS or TRENDS in DC AND AC DRIVES
I. Few decades ago, induction and synchronous motor drives were mainly used in fixed speed applications. Variable speed
applications were dominated by dc motor drives.
II. Emergence of thyristors in 1957 lead to the development of variable speed induction motor drives in late sixties which
were efficient and could match the performance of dc drives. Consequently, because of the advantages of squirrel-cage
induction motors over dc motors, induction motor drives has replaced dc drives in variable speed applications. However,
following points need to considered:
(i) Although squirrel-cage induction motor was cheaper than dc motor, the converter and control circuit of an induction
motor drive adds to its overall cost. Therefore, total cost of an induction motor drive was significantly higher than that of a
dc drive.
(ii) AC drives nowadays are as reliable as DC.
(iii) Developments in linear and digital ICs, and VLSIs were helpful in improving the performance and reliability of AC
drives. But then these developments also led to similar improvements in dc drives.
III. Improvement in thyristor capabilities, availability of power transistors in early seventies and that of GTOs and IGBTs in
late seventies and late eighties respectively; reduction in cost of thyristors, power transistors and GTOs; developments of
VLSIs and microprocessors; and improvement in control techniques of converters have resulted into reduction in cost, simple
controllers, and improvement in performance and reliability for ac drives. 12

IV. The design of a dc motor is being improved to provide a sufficiently good commutating capability, while that of the
inverters is being improved to provide voltage with the least harmonic content. PWM techniques have been developed,
and the thyristors are being replaced by transistors.
 Unit – I
STATUS OF DC AND AC DRIVES
V. Induction motor drives find applications in low to high power applications and synchronous motor drives are
employed in very high power (megawatts) and medium power drives.
VI. Vector controlled induction motors, and margin angle controlled synchronous motors are employed in high
performance drives having precise speed and torque control. These also have a very good static and dynamic
response.
VII. Solid state drives employ closed loop control both for speed and torque control. Modern control methods use
state space techniques. Methods of stabilizing the drives and improving their transient performance are being
developed.
VIII.Digital control using microprocessors is slowly replacing the analog control of the drives, which had limitations
due to component drift and temperature.
IX. Microprocessor control has several features and advantages. Modem control techniques to the implementation
of sophisticated drives (which are very difficult to realise with hard wired systems) are possible, as are
diagnosis, monitoring, warning etc.
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X. The permanent magnet synchronous motor and brushless dc motor drives are being considered for replacing
dc servo motors for fractional hp range.
XI. Brushless DC drives is as reliable as AC motors and rapidly replacing conventional DC mootors
 Unit – I
Fundamental Torque Equations

I. The mechanical system is coupled to the motor by means of a transmitting device. The motor has to develop a
torque as required by the mechanical work to be carried out to drive the load, and the mechanical losses
occurring in the system.
II. A mechanical system is specified by a speed-torque curve. The motor while driving this mechanical load must
provide enough torque to drive the load against losses like friction and to accelerate the load toque to the
desired speed. Hence the load torque required by the load at the shaft has the following components.

Fig. 3: Equivalent motor-load system 14

 Unit – I
Fundamental Torque Equations
Various notations used are:
𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the
motor shaft, kg − m2 .
𝜔m = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.
Fig. 3: Equivalent motor-load system
𝑇 = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N − m.
𝑇𝑙 = Instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque, referred to motor shaft, N − m.
Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.
Motor-load system of Fig. 3 can be described by the following fundamental torque equation:
𝑑 𝑑𝜔m 𝑑𝐽
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑙 = 𝐽𝜔m = 𝐽 + 𝜔m (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equation (1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives, industrial robots. For drives
with constant inertia, (𝑑𝐽/𝑑𝑡) = 0. Therefore 15

𝑑𝜔m
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑙 + 𝐽 (2)
𝑑𝑡
 Unit – I
Fundamental Torque Equations
 Equation (2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by a load torque 𝑇𝑙 and a dynamic
torque 𝐽 𝑑𝜔m /𝑑𝑡 . Torque component 𝐽 𝑑𝜔m /𝑑𝑡 is called the dynamic torque because it is present only
during the transient operations.

 Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether 𝑇 is greater or

less than 𝑇𝑙 .
Fig. 3: Equivalent motor-load system
 During acceleration, motor should supply not only the load torque but an additional torque component
𝐽 𝑑𝜔m /𝑑𝑡 in order to overcome the drive inertia.
 In drives with large inertia, such as electric trains, motor torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount
in order to get adequate acceleration.
 In drives requiring fast transient response, motor torque should be maintained at the highest value and motor-
load system should be designed with a lowest possible inertia. 16

 During deceleration, dynamic torque 𝐽 𝑑𝜔m /𝑑𝑡 has a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor developed
torque 𝑇 and maintains drive motion by extracting energy from stored kinetic energy.
 Unit – I
Four Quadrant Operation

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Fig. 4(a): Four quadrant operation Fig. 4(b): Speed torque diagram of hoist
 Unit – I
Four Quadrant Operation

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Fig. 5: Four Quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load

 Unit – I
Equivalent Values of Drive Systems
 Unit – I
Numericals
 Unit – I
Numericals
 Unit – I
Components of load torques:
1. Friction Torque (TF):
 The friction torque (TF) is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the
motor shaft. Its value at standstill is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed.
Friction at zero speed is called stiction or static friction.
 In order for drive to start, the motor torque should at least exceed stiction. Friction torque
can be resolved into three components.
 Component 𝑻𝒗 which varies linearly with speed is called viscous friction and is given by:
𝑇v = 𝐵𝜔m
where 𝐵 is the viscous friction coefficient.
 Second component 𝑻𝒄 , which is independent of speed, is known as Coulomb friction.
 Third component 𝑻𝐬 accounts for additional torque present at standstill. Since 𝑇𝑠 is
present only at standstill it is not taken into account in the dynamic analysis.
2. Windage torque (𝑻𝐰 ): When a motor runs, the wind generates a torque opposing the motion . This is
known as the winding torque and is proportional to speed squared, is given by
2
𝑇w = 𝐶𝜔m C is constant
 Unit – I
Components of load torques:
3.Torque required to do useful mechanical work ( TL): Nature of the torque depends of type of
load. It may be constant and independent of speed, Some function of speed, may be time invariant or
time variant. The nature of the torque may change with the change in the loads mode of operation.
In conclusion, for finite speeds,
𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝑳 + 𝑩𝝎𝒎 + 𝑻𝒄 + 𝑪𝝎𝟐𝒎
2
In many applications 𝑇c + 𝐶𝜔m is very small compared to 𝐵𝜔m and negligible compared to 𝑇L . In order to simplify
2 is approximately accounted by updating the value of viscous friction coefficient, 𝐵. With
the analysis, term 𝑇c + 𝐶𝜔m
this approximation, from Eq. (2.2) 𝒅𝝎𝒎
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒍 + 𝑱
𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝜔m
𝑇=𝐽 + 𝑇L + 𝐵𝜔m
𝑑𝑡

If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an additional component of load torque, known
as coupling torque, will be present. Coupling torque 𝑇e is given by

𝑇c = 𝐾e 𝜃e
 Unit – I
Components of load torques:

where 𝜃𝑐 is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and 𝐾𝑒 the rotational stiffness of the shaft (Nm/rad ).

 In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and coupling torque 𝑇c can be neglected.
 Unit – I
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES
Classification of load torques:

1. Active Load Torques: Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are
called active load torques. Load torques usually retain sign when the drive rotation is changed.

2. Passive Torque: Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion
are called passive load torques.
Torque due to friction cutting – Passive torque.

Most of the industrial loads can be classified into the following 4 general categories:
1. Constant torque type load.
2. Torque proportional to speed (generator type load)
3. Torque proportional to square of the speed (fan type load)
4. Torque inversely proportional to speed (constant power type load)
 Unit – I
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES
1. Torque is constant and independent of the speed: A low speed hoist. At low speeds, windage torque is negligible. Therefore,
net torque is mainly due to gravity which is constant and independent of speed. There are drives where coulomb friction
dominates over other torque components. Consequciliy, paper mill drive is independent of speed. Working motor have each
mechanical nature of work like shaping , cutting, grinding or sharing, require constant torque irrespective of speed.

2. Load torque is proportional to speed squared (load torque is a function of speed): Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal
pumps, ship-propellors, coilers, high speed hoists, traction etc. In fans, compressors and aeroplanes, the windage dominates,
consequently, load torque is proportional to speed squared. Windage is the opposition offered by air to the motion, motion
opposed by any other fluid, e.g. by water in centrifugal pumps and ship-propellors, giving the same characteristics.

load torque is proportional to

Torque is constant load torque is proportional to
speed
speed squared
 Unit – I
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES
3. High speed hoist: In a high speed hoist, viscous friction and windage also have appreciable magnitude, in addition to gravity,
thus giving the speed-torque curve of Fig. shown.

4. Traction load: Nature of speed-torque characteristic of a traction load when moving on a levelled ground is shown in Fig.
Because of its heavy mass, the stiction is large. Near zero speed, net torque is mainly due to stiction. The stiction however
disappears at a finite speed and then windage and viscous friction dominate. Because of large stiction and need for
accelerating a heavy mass, the motor torque required for starting a train is much larger than what is required to run it at full
speed.
 Unit – I
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES
5. Torque in a coiler drive is also a function of speed. It is approximately hyperbolic in nature as shown in Fig. The developed
power is nearly constant at all speeds. Torque is inversely proportional to speed .
· E.g.: Lathes, boring m/cs, milling m/cs, steel mill coiler and electric traction load.

coiler drive