Chemical Bonding and Structure

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Ionic bonding 4.1 ● "Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing
and structure valence electrons."
● "Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining
electrons."
● "The number of electrons lost or gained is
determined by the electron configuration of the
atom."
● "The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction
between oppositely charged ions."
● "Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are
usually solids with lattice structures."
- Ionic compounds​ are formed by ions (charged
atoms) held together in lattice structures by ionic
bonds.
- Ionic bonds are bonds between ions, caused by
the ​electrostatic attraction ​between oppositely
charged ions (between cations and anions)
- Electron configuration​ determines the number
of electrons an element will lose or gain to have a ​stable configuration ​like a noble
gas.
- Groups 1, 2, and 3 tend to form 1+, 2+, and 3+ charged cations, Group 4 do not tend
to lose or gain electrons (requires a large amount of energy, therefore it is not usually
favourable to form ionic bonds), and Group 15, 16, and 17 tend to from 3-, 2-, and 1-
charged anions; all are lost or gained to have stable octet (complete s and p subshells)
- However, the transition elements have electron configurations which allow them to
lose different numbers of elections from ​d-sublevels ​(known as ​multivalent​ metals)
forming more than one stable ion (distinguished by colour)
- Electronegativity​ differences enable to predict​ bond character ​(type of bonding):
greater difference is ionic (more attracted to one, thus electron moves), less is
covalent and between 0.4-0.7 is polar covalent (electron shared unequally)
- Ionic compounds have ​high melting and boiling points​ because it requires a great
amount of energy to disrupt the strong electrostatic forces between the ions (greatest
melting point when small ion and high charge because that means there is a greater
charge density​)
 - Ionic compounds are ​very brittle ​because like ions can be next to each other, thus
they will repulse and shatter with force.
- Ionic compounds have a l​ow volatility​ (tendency to vaporize) because it takes a lot of
energy to disrupt ionic bonds, therefore tendency to vaporize is low
- Ionic compounds​ ​are ​good electrical conductors when they are molten or
dissolved​, as electrons move freely
to transmit the current, but are ​not
good conductors at solid states
- Ionic compounds are ​very soluble
in water, but not hexane​, because
the partial charges in​ polar
substances​ (like water) are attracted
to the ions and pull them from the
lattice (“like dissolves like”)
- Coordination number​ is number of
ions that surround an ion in lattice (​formula unit ​= smallest ratio of ionic compound)
Electronegativity:

Common Polyatomic Ions:

ammonium ion - NH4+ hypochlorite ion - ClO-
hydroxide ion - OH- chlorite ion - ClO2-
nitrate ion - NO3- perchlorate ion - ClO4-
chromate ion - CrO4 2 -
sulfate ion - SO4 2-
dichromate ion - Cr2O7 2-
phosphate ion - PO4 3- nitrite - NO2-
 carbonate ion - CO3 2- sulfite - SO3 2-
chlorate ion - ClO3- acetate - C2H3O2 -
bicarbonate/hydrogen carbonate ion - HCO3 permanganate ion - MnO4 -
Skills to know: Determining properties, types of ions, types of bonds (electronegativity
differences), naming and formulas of binary ionic compounds
Covalent 4.2 ● "A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic
bonding attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the
positively charged nuclei."
● "Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve
one, two and three shared pairs of electrons
respectively."
● "Bond length decreases and bond strength increases
as the number of shared electrons increases."
● "Bond polarity results from the difference in
electronegativities of the bonded atoms."
- Covalent compounds​ are formed by atoms held together by the ​electrostatic
attraction ​between the positively charged nuclei of both atoms and the negatively
charged pairs of shared electrons between them (2 non-metals)
- A​ bonded pair​ of electrons are shared between two atoms and a​ lone pair​ of
electrons are unbonded and only around a single atom (not shared).
- Bond length refers ​to the distance between two
bonded nuclei and ​bond strength ​is the measure
of energy required to disrupt the bond (described
in terms of ​bond enthalpy​)
- Triple bonds = shorter/stronger than double bonds
= shorter/stronger than single bonds (never more
than a triple covalent bond)
- Increasing atomic radius = ​increasing bond length = decreasing bond strength
(weaker attractive force)
- Increasing number of shared pairs of electrons = decreasing bond length (more
attraction since more pull on nuclei, creating short and strong bonds)
- Electronegativity​ is the measure of the electron-attracting ability of an element when
covalently bonded to another
- Bond polarity ​caused by difference in electronegativity: a polar bond has an
asymmetrical electron distribution (​imbalance of negative charge​), shown using
vectors or dipoles
 - Covalent bonds can be ​polar​ are ​non-polar

- Coordinate covalent bonds​ occur when both shared electrons in a bond originate
from one atom (donor with pair of lone electrons shares with recipient, which has
space for two more electrons)

Skills to know: Naming and formulas of binary molecular (covalent) compounds

(HOBrFINCl too), identifying polarity
Covalent 4.3 ● "Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence
structures electrons in a covalently bonded species."
● "The “octet rule” refers to the tendency of atoms to
gain a valence shell with a total of 8 electrons."
● "Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable
compounds with incomplete octets of electrons."
● "Resonance structures occur when there is more than
one possible position for a double bond in a
molecule."
● "Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion
of electron pairs according to VSEPR theory."
● "Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network
covalent structures."
- Octet rule does not exist - just a tendency to achieve an electron configuration with 8
valence electrons (like noble gases), however some have more or less
- Lewis structures​ show the valence electrons of an atom/molecule
- To determine the​ central atom(s) ​of a lewis structure: usually has the highest
bonding capacity​ (if it’s a tie, the central atom is lower on the periodic table)
or from the formula (first element)
- Lewis calculations​ are used to calculate the numbers of covalent bonds in
molecules or polyatomic ions
- Add the ​peripheral atoms​ by connecting them to the central atom with a
single bond, then add bonds to satisfy the bonding capacity of each
atom/bonds from Lewis calculation
- Add ​lone pairs​ of electrons where necessary
- If it is a polyatomic ion, add ​square brackets and the charge ​to the structure
- Lewis Calculations:
- Needs:​ 8 or 2​ (number of electrons needed to be stable)
- Haves: ​number of valence electrons​ each atom has
- Shared electrons: ​Needs - Haves
- For polyatomic ions, add or subtract electrons ​to account for charge
- Covalent bonds: ​Shared electrons divided by 2
- Incomplete octets​ occur in both beryllium (Be), which is stable with a ​quartet ​and
boron (B), which is stable with a ​sextet​, but only with halogens
- due to their electron configuration: because they can! (small, low shielding
effect of nucleus pulling on valence electrons because not many core
electrons, unique structure)

- Resonance structures​ occur when there are multiple options for the placement of
double or triple bonds in a molecule (they occur because they can!)
- Resonance hybrids​ are the actual way the bond forms (makes it more stable, each
have an equal amount of energy)
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory​ determines the shapes of
molecules due to the repulsion of electron pairs
- Molecular geometry​ is the specific position of atoms in a molecule (including
bond length and ​bond angles​)
- Lone pairs occupy more space then bonded pairs
- Electron pairs are positioned the ​maximum distance apart to minimize
repulsion
- Electron domains ​are single regions of negative charge (lone pair, single,
double or triple bonded pairs = one electron domain)
 - 2 electron domains (VSEPR count)
- Linear = 180°, 2 bonded atoms
- 3 electron domains
- Trigonal Planar (“flat triangle”) = 120°, 3 bonded atoms
- Angular Planar (“bent”) = 117°, 2 bonded atoms
- 4 electron domains
- Tetrahedral (“chicken foot”) = 109.5°, 4 bonded atoms
- Trigonal Pyramidal (“chicken foot without ankle”) = 107.5°,
3 bonded atoms
- Angular Planar (“bent”) = 104.5°, 2 bonded atoms
Not SL but need to know:
- 5 electron domains (LPs first around equatorial)
- Trigonal bipyramidal = 90° and 120°, 6 bonded atoms
- Seesaw = <90° and <120°, 5 bonded atoms
- T-shaped = 90°, 4 bonded atoms
- Linear = 180°, 3 bonded atoms
- 6 electron domains (LPs first around axial)
- Octahedral = 90°, 7 bonded atoms
- Square pyramidal = 6 bonded atoms
- Square planar = ~90°, 5 bonded atoms
- T-shaped = 90°, 4 bonded atoms
- Linear = 180°, 3 bonded atoms
- Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network covalent structures
-
Skills to know: Lewis dot diagrams/structures, Lewis calculations, Drawing resonance
structures/hybrids, VSEPR theory applications for molecular geometry
Intermolecular 4.4 ● "Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion)
forces forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding."
● "The relative strengths of these interactions are
London (dispersion) forces < dipole-dipole forces <
hydrogen bonds."
- Intermolecular forces​ are the forces of attraction between one molecule and another;
they are weak compared to ​intramolecular forces​ such as ionic, covalent, and
metallic bonds
- Van der Waal forces from highest to lowest strength are​ london dispersion forces
(LDFs), ​dipole-dipole​ forces (dip-dips), and ​hydrogen bonding​ (h-bonding)

- London dispersion forces are the ​temporary attractive force between adjacent
molecules because of instantaneous and temporary dipoles
- Exist between all covalent molecules​ due to the presence of small temporary
dipoles caused by the momentary shifting of electrons aways from parts of the
molecule - Caused when electrons are attracted to the nucleus of another atom
(simultaneously creating repulsion from the electrons of that atom) =
instantaneous/temporary dipole; ​weakest of IMFs
- Magnitude of charge ​depends on both the ​size (number of moving
electrons) ​and ​shape (how tightly packed)​ of molecules
- Greater attraction with larger molecules (more electrons!)
- Greater attraction between linear than branched​ (since more tightly
packed, means that it is more likely one dipole will induce another)
- A ​temporary dipole ​occurs in a molecule because of spontaneous and
temporary uneven electron distribution
- An ​induced dipole​ forms when a temporary dipole induces a temporary
dipole in an adjacent molecule

- Dipole-dipole forces are the​ forces of attraction between permanent dipoles

(oppositely charged ends of polar molecules)
- Only exist between
polar molecules
 - Stronger than LDFs
- Ion-dipole interactions (I-dips)​ occur when ions interact with polar molecules
- When ionic compounds dissolve in water

- Dipole-induced dipole forces (LDF-dips) ​occur

between polar and non-polar molecules
- Polar molecule (permanent dipole) induces a
temporary dipole in a non-polar molecule
- Less common

- Hydrogen bonding is the ​attraction between highly polarized molecules with N-H,
O-H, or F-H
- Not actually bonds
- “NOF” brothers
- Type of dipole-dipole force, however
much stronger​ as there is a ​large
electronegativity differences ​between H
and the NOF atoms
- Very strong attraction between the
slightly positive hydrogen atom​ of the
molecule and the ​lone pair of electrons
of the NOF​ of neighbouring molecule
(hydrogen is basically an unshielded
proton)
- hydrogen is very small, and with the NOF brothers, the lone electron is closer
to the nucleus of the NOF (as they have less shielding effect due to less core
electrons), and therefore has increased attraction
- Causes a higher melting/boiling point (more energy to disrupt interactions)

- Solubility​ = maximum amount of solute you can dissolve in a specific amount of

solvent at a particular temperature and pressure
 - A ​homogeneous mixture​ is a uniform mixture (substance with 2 or more
types of particles) with only 1 phase
- Solute​ = substance dissolved in solvent (chemical formula - ie. NH3)
- Solvent​ = medium in which solute dissolved (subscript - (aq) for
water)
- A ​saturated solution​ has the maximum amount of solute (before
precipitation)
- When ​dissolving​, solute particles separate and disperse into solvent particles
- Dissociation equations​ are used to represent dissolving (make sure to
balance)

- For ​ionic substances​, many water molecules can disrupt the intramolecular forces;
strong because of numbers
- If new attractive forces strong enough to overcome original attractions (or
almost equal) between ions, the ions will be surrounded by water at the surface
- To dissolve a solute in a solvent, must disrupt ​solute-solute forces ​and
solvent-solvent forces​; new forces are the ​solute-solvent forces
- Predict solubility: ​determine original interparticle forces, consider new forces
in potential solution, compare strength (greater or equal new forces = dissolve)
- Polar compounds are less soluble if polar bond is only a small part of structure
- Non-polar unable to establish strong enough attractive forces with
water

- Electrical conductivity​ = whether contains ions able to move/carry charge

- Solid ionic compounds = not conductive (electrons = not mobile)
- Molten ionic compounds = can conduct (weak conductors of electricity)
- Ionic compounds in aqueous solutions = great conductors of electricity
- Molecular compounds (except acids/bases) = not conductive
- Acids = collide with water to produce hydronium ions are remaining anions
(H3O+) - COOH is an acid!
- Bases = collide with water to abstract a hydrogen, creating a cation and
hydroxide ion (OH-)
Skills to know: Predicting solubility and electrical conductivity, determining IMFs
Metallic 4.5 ● "A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction
bonding between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized
electrons."
● "The strength of a metallic bond depends on the
charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion."
● "Alloys usually contain more than one metal and
have enhanced properties."
- A ​metallic bond​ is the ​electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and
delocalized electrons
- Like “marbles in toothpaste”
- Composed of lattice of ​cations​ (nucleus and core electrons) and free moving
delocalized ​valence electrons and underlying d-subshell electrons
- Delocalized​ means that the electrons don’t belong to one metal nucleus, thus
spread themselves throughout the metal structure

- The ​strength​ of a metallic bond depends on the​ number of delocalized electrons

(includes number of valence electrons and underlying d-subshell electrons for the
d-metal block) (“thickness of toothpaste”), the ​size of the cation​ (radius) (“size of the
marble”), and the ​charge of the cation​ (1 vs 2 vs 3 positive, etc)
- Increased delocalized electrons + decreased size of cation = Increased strength
- Increased charge of cation = Increased strength of metallic bond
- Strength decreases down group as cations increase in size (more energy levels)
- Transition metals have strong metallic bonds because they have more
electrons than can become delocalized from the 3d and 4d sublevels

- Properties of metals:
- Good conductors of heat and electricity​; delocalized electrons highly mobile
 - Malleable​ and ​ductile​;​ close-packed layer of positive ions can easily slide
over each other/rearrange without deforming because delocalized electron
movement is random throughout cation lattice​, thus metallic bonds stay intact
even while cation arrangement changes
- Lustrous​; delocalized electrons reflect light
- High melting point​; large amount of energy to disrupt strong metallic bonds
- Melting points decrease down a group due to ​shielding effect​: lowered
attraction of delocalized electrons and cations when greater radius
- Stronger metallic bond (greater charge density) = Greater melting point
- Alloys​ contain more than one metal + have​ enhanced properties
- They are solid solutions, as two metals are mixed in the molten state (solid at
SATP, thus need to be melted) and when they solidify, ions of the different
metals are scattered though the lattice and bound by delocalized electrons
- Properties: ​more chemically stable, stronger, and resistant to corrosion
- Possible due to ​non-directional bonding​, since the ​delocalized
electrons are not attached to a particular parent atom so that lattice can
accommodate ions of different sizes​ (different packing of cations in
lattice = distinct properties from component elements)
Common alloys: Types of Steel:

Steel​ - iron, carbon, and other elements,
high tensile strength but corrodes
Stainless Steel​ - iron + nickel or chromium,
high tensile strength and corrosion resistant
Brass​ - copper and zinc, used for plumbing
Bronze​ - copper + tin, used for coins/tools
Sterling Silver​- silver and copper, used for
jewellery
Low Carbon​ - soft and easily shaped, used
for car bodies
High Carbon​ - strong and cheap, used for
structures/ships/machines
Low Alloy​ - resistant to stretching, used for
bike chains and bridges
High Alloy​ - strong and wear resistant
Stainless Steel​ - won’t rust, used for cutlery