Assignment

Topic: sampling design

Introduction
The way in which we select a sample of individuals to be research
participants is critical. How we select
Submitted To
Submitted BY
Bose Tom
Athul R
Associative professor
S2 MBA Batch B
(Management Studies)
Mangalam College of Engineering Mangalam college of
Engineering
Submitted On:19-06-2021

participants (random sampling) will

determine the population to which
we may generalize our research findings. The procedure that we use for
assigning participants to different treatment conditions (random
assignment) will determine whether bias exists in our treatment groups
(Are the groups equal on all known and unknown factors?). We address
random sampling in this chapter; we will address random assignment
later in the book. If we do a poor job at the sampling stage of the
research process, the integrity of the entire project is at risk. If we are
interested in the effect of TV violence on children, which children are we
going to observe? Where do they come from? How many? How will they
be selected? These are important questions. Each of the sampling
techniques described in this chapter has advantages and disadvantages

Sampling design
A sample design is made up of two elements. Random sampling from a finite
population refers to that method of sample selection which gives each
possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each
item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the
sample. This applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is
selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again (Sampling with
replacement is used less frequently in which procedure the element selected
for the sample is returned to the population before the next element is
selected. In such a situation the same element could appear twice in the same
sample before the second element is chosen). In brief, the implications of
random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:
 It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting
into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another.
 It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of
being chosen.
Keeping this in view we can define a simple random sample (or simply a
random sample) from a finite population as a sample which is chosen in such a
way that each of the NCn possible samples has the same probability, 1/NCn,
of being selected. To make it more clear we take a certain finite population
consisting of six elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f  ) i.e., N = 6. Suppose that we want
to take a sample of size n = 3 from it. Then there are 6C3 = 20 possible distinct
samples of the required size, and they consist of the
elements abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, 
bef, cde, cdf, cef, and def. If we choose one of these samples in such a way
that each has the probability 1/20 of being chosen, we will then call this a
random sample.

Types of sampling design

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the
representation basis and the element selection technique. On the
representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be
non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of
random selection, whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’
sampling. On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted
or restricted. When each sample element is drawn individually from the
population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted
sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term
‘restricted sampling’. The following chart exhibits the sample designs as
explained above.

Thus, sample designs are basically of two types viz., non-probability sampling
and probability sampling. We take up these two designs separately.

CHART SHOWING BASIC SAMPLING DESIGNS

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling

procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that
each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non-
probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. In this type of
sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-
probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose the
particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the
small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or
representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people
living in a state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively
selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of
the entire state. Thus, the judgement of the organisers of the study plays an
important part in this sampling design.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’
or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe
has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery
method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone
that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results
obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of
probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of
results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the
superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design.
Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if
on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the
same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why
random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a
representative sample.In such a design, personal element has a great chance
of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a
sample which shall yield results favourable to his point of view and if that
happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger
of bias entering into this type of sampling technique. But in the investigators
are impartial, work without bias and have the necessary experience so as to
take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis of deliberately
selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there
is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being
included. Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the
element of bias, great or small, is always there. As such this sampling design in
rarely adopted in large inquires of importance. However, in small inquiries and
researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative
advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling. Quota
sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota
sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the
different strata, with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other
words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the
interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is
relatively inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not possess
the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are essentially
judgement samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to
statistical treatment in a formal way.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling
In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of
the population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way
of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a
number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals
to include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals,
labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to
pick your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number
table were 094, select the individual labelled “94”, and so on.
As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the
sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific
advantage is that it is the most straightforward method of probability
sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you may not
select enough individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that
characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a complete
sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms
of contact are required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are
scattered over a wide geographical area.
 
2. Systematic sampling
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The
intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample
size n  from a population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for
the sample.  For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a
population of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling
frame.
Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling,
and it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if
there are underlying patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling
frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the
underlying pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were
being sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities, but the Student
Record Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the
sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing an even
interval (e.g. every 20th student) would result in a sample of all males or all
females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily
corrected, this may not always be the case.
 
3. Stratified sampling
In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who
all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect
the measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we
want to ensure representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study
of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure equal
representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by
taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also
be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For
example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if
there are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital
A has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would
be appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each
hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40
from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of the
health outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple random
sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that
the sample was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.
Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the
results by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the
appropriate characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which are not
always available), and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to
stratify by.
 
4. Clustered sampling
In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling
unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known
as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters
are usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or towns
could be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of
the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster
sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly
selected for inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis.
The General Household survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a
good example of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the selected
households (clusters) are included in the survey. 1
Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling,
especially where a study takes place over a wide geographical region. For
instance, it is easier to contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices than a
few individuals in many different GP practices. Disadvantages include an
increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not representative of the
population, resulting in an increased sampling error.
 

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because
participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part.
Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias,
because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who
choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of
other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all
non-probability sampling methods.
 
2. Quota sampling
This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are
given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For
example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20
adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could
interview them about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen
would proportionally represent the characteristics of the underlying
population.
Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and
potentially representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of
other characteristics that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-
random nature of sampling). 2
 
3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling
Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the
judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate.
Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their
needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics. This
approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions
and in qualitative research.
Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to
perform whilst resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in
qualitative research). However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to
errors of judgement by the researcher and the findings, whilst being
potentially broad, will not necessarily be representative.
 
4. Snowball sampling
This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-
reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known
to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example,
when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug
users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.
Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to
identify. However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already
investigated, there is a significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large
number of people with similar characteristics or views to the initial individual
identified).

Review of various sampling

methods
Sampling techniques are the component of research which play great role in
validity of the research result. Without good sampling good research
conduction is impossible. It has two major types namely probability and non
probability sampling. The probability sampling consists of simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and multi stage sampling
while in non probability sampling quota sampling, cluster sampling, purpose
sampling, judgment sampling, snow ball sampling, expert sampling and
convenience samplings are included Seeing to its importance the present
study was arranged since, 8th April, 2020. The major objective was that to
critically review the sampling techniques in the research process in the world.
Total 14 articles were studied and analyzed the situation what methodology is
better for conducting research. Hundred percent respondents told that the
probability sampling is better than the non probability sampling for
conducting research but this methodology is more expensive and time
consuming which further delay the result of the study while the non
probability sampling is not more expensive and time consuming in the world
but its result is doubtful and does not mostly valid for implementation of
generalization for population from which the sample has been selected. The
result further explore that both methodologies have different advantages on
their places but it is necessary for researchers to use proper methodology for
their research and analyze the situation for the solution of problems. Research
is a systematic and objective attempt for the solution of the problems which
play great role for the development of a country and without good research
the development of the country is impossible. Now a day the weighted
economies of the world are China, America, India and Japan. They all conduct
research for the development of their economy enhancement. The developed
countries keep large funds for their research and they mostly use the
probability sampling for their research because they have more funds, so their
sampling representation is better than the poor countries of the world. They
solve their problems of the economy very well and they arrange good projects
for enhancing their economy. So the study shows that quality sampling play
great role in the development of the countries. On the basis of problems the
study recommends that to arrange more funds for their research; Mostly use
probability sampling for their research because only quality research enhance
the economy; Quality sampling is required for generalization of the problem.
Proper sampling only gives valid result for the problem of population. The
author also recommends that to use good and best sampling in the
educational institutions for conducting their student research; Good funds by
HEC is required for conducting quality research in the educational institution
of the world; Research ethics in the institution is also a good tool for
conducting quality research; Fake and plagiarized sample should be avoided in
the institution for conducting research; Fake research never develop the
world. Good expert team should be appointed by University for sampling their
student research. Without good research the development of a world is
impossible while for quality research proper sampling is the need of the
world.

Sample size determination

Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations
or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important
feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about
a population from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in a study is
usually determined based on the cost, time, or convenience of collecting the
data, and the need for it to offer sufficient statistical power. In complicated
studies there may be several different sample sizes: for example, in
a stratified survey there would be different sizes for each stratum. In a census,
data is sought for an entire population, hence the intended sample size is
equal to the population. In experimental design, where a study may be
divided into different treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes
for each group.
Sample sizes may be chosen in several ways:
  using experience – small samples, though sometimes unavoidable,
can result in wide confidence intervals and risk of errors
in statistical hypothesis testing.
 using a target variance for an estimate to be derived from the
sample eventually obtained, i.e. if a high precision is required
(narrow confidence interval) this translates to a low target variance
of the estimator.
 using a target for the power of a statistical test to be applied once
the sample is collected.
 using a confidence level, i.e. the larger the required confidence
level, the larger the sample size (given a constant precision
requirement).

Sampling error
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not
select a sample that represents the entire population of data. As a result, the
results found in the sample do not represent the results that would be
obtained from the entire population.

Sampling is an analysis performed by selecting a number of observations from

a larger population. The method of selection can produce both sampling
errors and non-sampling errors.

 A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not

representative of the whole population. 
 Sampling is an analysis performed by selecting a number of
observations from a larger population.
 Even randomized samples will have some degree of sampling error
because a sample is only an approximation of the population from
which it is drawn.
  The prevalence of sampling errors can be reduced by increasing the
sample size.
 Random sampling is an additional way to minimize the occurrence of
sampling errors.

In general, sampling errors can be placed into four categories: population-

specific error, selection error, sample frame error, or non-response error.
Types of Sampling Errors
There are different categories of sampling errors.

Population-Specific Error
A population-specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't understand who
to survey.

Selection Error
Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those
participants who are interested in the survey respond to the questions.
Researchers can attempt to overcome selection error by finding ways to
encourage participation.

Sample Frame Error

A sample frame error occurs when a sample is selected from the
wrong population data.

Non-response Error
A non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from the
surveys because researchers were unable to contact potential respondents (or
potential respondents refused to respond).
 Conclusion
As mentioned in the introductory section, the presented approach
attempts to assist statistical developers with some practical guidance
prior to the implementation of data collection operations and when very
little is known about the population under study. The described
preliminary assessment of data collection requirements is based on
geometrical rather than probabilistic criteria and it would therefore be
viewed as a conventional mathematical exercise rather than an
unconventional statistical one. The author is of the opinion that such a
priori  guidance would offer an optional methodological supplement well
compatible with conventional statistical techniques and tools that are
commonly applied in subsequent phases of data analysis and parameter
estimation.

The presented method is in line with a number of theoretical and

empirical facts. For instance, researchers and statistical developers have
long known and made use of the principle that sampling efficiency has a
breakpoint at a critical sample size equal to the square root of the
population size. With respect to reduced sampling efficiency when
dealing with concave populations, empirical knowledge indicates that
sampling for fishing effort is a less robust and more risky approach than
sampling for catches and landings. However, the author has been unable
to trace a practical guide summarizing such observations and providing a
practical means for assessing the benefits and risks in an a
priori  selection of sample size.

It is also recognized that a weak element in the preparation of this paper

was the lack of appropriate primary literature on aspects related to
sampling efficiency. It is quite conceivable that several propositions and
conclusions included in this note are already available in textbooks and
technical papers. For instance, the fact that sampling efficiency has a
breakpoint at a sample size equal to the square root of the population
size, is known to be a mathematically proved property but, regrettably,
the author was unable to trace it through the literature available to him.

Reference
 https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/research-methodology-
tutorial-355/different-types-of-sample-designs-11471.html
 https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/statistics/merits-and-demerits-
of-sampling-method-of-data-collection/2343
 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3572336
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_size_determination
 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/samplingerror.asp