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Study Guide in Mathematics in the Modern World FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.
0 10-July-2020
GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module consists of two lessons: Mathematics as the Study of Patterns and Fibonacci Sequence
and Golden Ratio. Each lesson was designed as a self-teaching guide. Definitions of terms and
examples had been incorporated. Answering the problems in “your turn” will check your progress.
You may compare your answers to the solutions provided at the later part of this module for you to
be able to measure your achievement and as well as the effectiveness of the module. Individual and
group activities were prepared to apply what you had learned. Exercises were prepared as your
assignment to measure your understanding about the topics.
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module, you should be able to:

 Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world
 Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life
 Argue about nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed, represented, and used
 Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
LEARNING CONTENTS (Mathematics as the Study of Patterns)
Introduction
Look around you, do you notice anything that repeats or occur in a similar form?
In your life, are there any things that you tend to do over and over again? In this lesson we will
investigate patterns and regularities in nature and even in life and how mathematics come into play.
At times, consciously or unconsciously you are using mathematics in some routine transactions like
buying food, paying bills and even computing how much time do you need to come to class on time.
And you can do all of these routine effective and efficiently using your knowledge in mathematics.
You as a student taking this course, what is Mathematics for you?
Discussion
Lesson 1. Mathematics as the Study of Patterns
1.1 What is Mathematics?

Mathematics is defined as the study of numbers and arithmetic operations. Others describe
mathematics as a set of tools or a collection of skills that can be applied to questions of “how many”
or “how much”. Still, others view it as a science which involves logical reasoning, drawing
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

Study Guide in Mathematics in the Modern World FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev. 0 10-July-2020
conclusions from assumed premises, and strategic reasoning based on accepted rules, laws, or
probabilities, Mathematics is also considered as an art which deals with form, size, and quantity.
In examining the development of mathematics from historical perspective, it can be seen that
much has been directed towards describing patterns of relationship that are of interest of various
individuals. Patterns arouse curiosity because they can be directly related to common human
experience. The focused of this section is, mathematics as a study of patterns.
A Study of Patterns
Pattern is an arrangement which helps observers anticipate what they might see or what happens
next . Or just simply are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. We see patterns around us –
layout of the floor, design of our clothes, butterflies’ wings, and even to the way we say things.
Recognizing patterns is natural to us as a rational creature because our brain is hardwired to
recognize them.
Studying patterns help you in identifying relationships and finding logical connections to
form generalizations to make predictions.
Below are examples of various patterns:
Logic Patterns. Logic patterns are usually the first to be observed. Classifying things , for
example comes before numeration. Being able to tell which things are blocks and which are not
precedes learning to count blocks.
One kind of logic pattern deals with the characteristics of various objects while another deals
with order. These patterns are seen on aptitude tests in which takers are shown a sequence of pictures
and asked to select which figure comes next among several choices.
. Example 1 What comes Next ?
Solution:
PA1 The base figure rotates at an angle of 45 ° in the counterclockwise direction. Hence choice C is
the perfect match.

Your turn 1 . What comes next ?
Number Patterns. Another class of patterns is the patterns of numbers. The two most common are
the arithmetic and geometric patterns. While arithmetic sequence is formed by adding or subtracting
a constant number to consecutive terms , geometric sequence needs to be multiplied or divide with
same value each time we want to get the next term in the sequence . Examples : 3,7,11,15,…is an
arithmetic sequence because it is formed by adding 4 to each term in the sequence which is called
the common difference(d) . On the other hand , 3,6,12,24,…is geometric sequence because it is
formed by multiplying each term by 2 to get the succeeding terms which is called the common
ratio(r).
Example 2 Give the next three terms in the pattern. Identify which is arithmetic and
geometric sequence.
1. 1 , 3, 5, 7, 9, ___, ____, ____
2. 10, 30, 90, ____,_____,____
Solution :
a. Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each term being two more than the
previous term : 3=1+ 2; 5=3+2 ; 7=5+ 2; 9=7+2.Therefore the answer is n arithmetic sequence and
the next three terms should be 11, 13, 15.
b. The sequence is a geometric sequence because it is formed by multiplying each term by 3 to the
succeeding terms, so the next three terms are : 270, 810, 2430.
Your turn 2 Give the next three terms in the pattern. Identify which is arithmetic and
geometric sequence.
a. 4 , 2,1,0.5 ,¿

3 5 1 3
b. , , , ,,,
4 8 2 8 ¿¿ ¿
Let us investigate more number patterns. Take a look at these examples retrieved from a video on
youtube.
1 ×8+1=9 1 ×1=1
12 ×8+2=98 11×11=121
123 ×8+3=987 111× 111=12321
1234 × 8+4=9876 1111 ×1111=1234321
12345 ×8+5=98765 11111 ×11111=123454321
123456 ×8+ 6=987654 111111× 111111=12345654321
1234567 ×8+7=9876543 1111111 ×1111111=1234567654321
12345678 ×8+ 8=98765432 11111111× 11111111=123456787654321
123456789 ×8+ 9=? 111111111 ×111111111=?
Have you seen the pattern? If yes, without doing calculation what do you think are the answers on
the last row?
Maybe you will agree that mathematics is the science of patterns and it’s all around us.
Recognizing number patterns is an important problem –skill. That is one reason why those who use
patterns to analyze and solve problems often find success.
Geometric Patterns. Geometric pattern is a motif or design that depicts abstract shapes like lines,
polygons, and circles, and typically repeats like a wallpaper. Visual patterns are observed in nature
and in art. In art, patterns present objects in a consistent, regular manner.
Example 3 Which of the figures below can be used to continue the series?
Solution:
Since it adds up two squares horizontally and vertically on each term, the correct answer is Figure 1.
Your turn 3 Draw a figure to continue the series below.

Word Patterns. Patterns can also be found in language like morphological rules in pluralizing
nouns or conjugating verbs for tense, as well as the metrical rules of poetry. Each of these examples
supports mathematical and natural language understanding. The focus here is patterns in form and in
syntax , which lead directly to the study of language in general and digital communication in
particular.
Example 4 Fill in the blank.
knife:knives life:lives wife:______
Solution :
The pattern is taking the plural form of the words involved, so wife is wives.
Your turn 4 Fill in the blank.
meet :met lead: led feed: ____
1.2 Patterns in Nature
Patterns in nature are the regular arrangement of objects in any form found everywhere-
plants, animals, humans, earth formations, and many others. These include symmetries, spirals,
waves, arrays, cracks, stripes, etc. Some of these patterns which recur in different context can be
modelled mathematically. So, let us start looking for more patterns in nature.
Symmetric Patterns
A figure has symmetry if there is a non-trivial transformation that maps the figure onto itself
or you can draw an imaginary line across the object and the resulting parts are mirror images of each
other.
For example, a square has a vertical line symmetry. That is , the reflection about this line
maps the square onto itself.

Notice that left and right portion of the square are exactly the same. The type of symmetry, known as
line, or bilateral symmetry, which is evident in most animals, including humans . Example is the
figure of the butterfly and Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man.
Leonardo da Vinci’s
Vitruvian Man is showing
the proportions and symmetry of

human body
In fact there are other types of symmetry depending on the number of sides or faces that are
symmetrical. Take a look at the images below.
Spiderwort with a three-fold symmetry Starfish has a five-fold symmetry
If a figure or object can be rotated less than 360 ° about a point so that the image and the pre-image
are indistinguishable , then the figure has rotational symmetry. The smallest angle that a figure can

be rotated while still preserving the original formation is called angle of rotation. Angle of rotation
can be computed using the following formula:
360 °
Angle of rotation=
n
where nis the number of rotational symmetry or order of rotation of a particular object. For the
spiderwort, the angle of rotation is 120 ° while the angle of rotation of the starfish is 72 °.
Consider the image of a snowflake.
It can be observed that the patterns of snowflake repeat six times. So, what is the angle of rotation
of the snowflake?
Let us try to see more patterns in nature by watching this video.
Watch this
Video
Why do honey bees love hexagons - by Zack Patterson and Andy Peterson
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=why+do+honey+bees+love+hexagons,
What you’ve watch is another interesting pattern in nature , the honeycomb. According to Merriam-
Webster dictionary,”a honeycomb is a mass of hexagonal wax cells built by honeybees in their nest
to contain their brood and stores honey. “, But why build hexagonal cells? Why not squares or any
other polygons?

The video had explained it well. They love it because more area will be covered using hexagon
compared to other polygons. Hexagonal formations are more optimal in making use of avail space.
These referred to as packing problem. Packing problems involve finding the optimum method of
filling up a given space such as cubic or spherical container. The bees have instinctively found that
the best solution, evident in the hexagonal construction of their hives.
Let us illustrate this mathematically. Suppose you have circles of radius 1 cm, each of which
will then have an area of π cm 2 . We are then going to fill a plane with these circles using square
packing and hexagonal packing.
Anna
For square packing, each square will have an area of 4 cm2. Note from the figure that for each
square, it can fit only one circle (4 quarters). The percentage of the square’s area covered by circles
will be
areaof the circles π cm2
×100 %= × 100 %=78.54 %
area of the square 4 cm 2
Anna
Now, for the hexagonal packing, we can think of each hexagonal as composed of six equilateral
triangles with side equal to 2 cm.
s2 ⋅ √ 3
The area of each equilateral triangle can be computed using the formula A= , so
4
(side)2 ⋅ √3 (2 cm)2 ⋅ √3 4 cm 2 ⋅ √ 3
A= = = =√ 3 cm2
4 4 4
This gives the area of the hexagon as 6√ 3 cm2 (multiplying the area of the equilateral triangle to 6
as the number of sides of the hexagon). Looking at figure , there are 3 circles that could fit inside one
hexagon (the whole circle in the middle, and 6 one thirds of a circle), which gives the total areas of
3 π cm2 . The percentage of the hexagon’s are covered by circles will be

area of the circles 3 π cm2

×100 %= ×100 %=90.69 %
area of the hexagon 6 √ 3 cm2
Comparing the two percentages, we can clearly see that using hexagons will cover a larger area than
when using squares.
1.3. World Population

Rapid population growth has been a temporary phenomenon in many countries. As of 2017,
it is estimated that the world population is about 7.6 billion. World leaders, sociologists,
anthropologist are interested in studying population, including its growth.
The United Nations World Population Prospects 2019 report paints a demographic picture of a very different
world by the end of the 21st century
Mathematics can be used to model population growth. The formula for exponential growth is
A=P ert
where A = the size of the population after it grows.
P = initial number of people
r = is the rate of growth
t = time
e=¿ Euler’s constant with an approximate value of 2.718
Example 5 The exponential growth model of A=30 e0.02 t describes the population of a
city in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.
a. What was the population of the city in 1995 ?

b. What will be the population in 2017?

Solution
a. Since our exponential growth model describes the population t years after 1995, we consider
1995 as t=0 and then solve for A, our population size.
A=30 e0.02 t
A=30 e(0.02)(0) Replace t with t=0.
A=30 e0 e 0=1
A=30(1)
A=30
Therefore, the city population in 1995 was 30,000.
b. We need to find A for the year 2017. To find t , we subtract 2017 and 1995 to get t=22, which we
then plug in to our exponential growth model.
A=30 e0.02 t
A=30 e0.02 (22) Replace t with t=22.
A=30 e0.0 .44
A=30(1.55271) e 0.0 .44 ≈ 1.55271
A=46.5813
Therefore, the city population would be about 46,581 in 2017
Your turn 5 The exponential growth model A=50 e0.07 t describes the population of a city
in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1997.
a. What is the population after 20 years?

b. What is the population in 2037?
LEARNING POINTS
Mathematics as the Study of Patterns
next . Or just simply are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. Example of various patterns
are : logic patterns, number patterns, geometric patterns, word pattern. Patterns in nature are the
regular arrangement of objects in any form found everywhere-plants, animals, humans, earth
formations, and many others
Exponential Growth Model Population can be modeled by the exponential growth formula
A=P ert
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
1. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix. Encircle

the letter corresponding to the missing pattern.
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.
2. Calculate 2+ 4+6+ …+2 n for n=1,2 ,..6 .
3. Calculate 1+3+5+ …+(2 n −1) for n=1,2 ,.. , 6.
4. Calculate 1+3+7+ …+(2 n −1) for n=1,2 ,.. , 6.
5. What is the missing number in each of these sequences?

a) _______, 17 , 15, 13, …
b) 8, 11, ______, 17 , …
c) 5, ______, 27, 38, ….
d) 84, _____, 76, 72,…
e) 98, 109, ______, 131, …
6. Determine the pattern and find out the numbers which will complete the sequence.
a. 58, 68, 57, 67, 56 , __________
b. 3, 4, 6, 10, 18, ___________
c. 10, 54, 98, 1312, 1716 _________
7. Draw Fig.5 following the given pattern.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

a. If the length of the side of each triangle is 1 unit, what is the perimeter of each figure in the
pattern?Complete the table below.
Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Perimeter 3
b. If this pattern continues; what is the perimter of Fig. 9.

c. What is the perimeter of the ntℎ figure .
8. Fill the table below to complete the power of 3.
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
3 9
a. Enumerate all the numbers in the power of 3 which are in the ones digit, and then find the next 7
terms in the sequence without getting the power of 3.
Figur 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315

e
Ones
3 9
digit
b. Have you seen the pattern? Find the number in the ones digit for the following power of 3.
316 =¿ ; 317 =¿ ; 318 =¿ ; 319 =¿ ; 320 =¿ ;
Explain the pattern.
9. The population of a certain locality is 20,000 and is increasing continuously at a rate of r =0.037 ,
according to the law of natural growth, A=P ert . Find the approximate population after 25 years.
10. The population of a certain town is 80,000 and has been increasing continuously for the past 20
years at the rate r =0.025 . What was the population 20 years ago?
LEARNING CONTENTS ( Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio)
Lesson 2: Fibonacci Sequence and Golden

Ratio
The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio
The Fibonacci numbers are the numbers is the following

integer sequence : 1 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 5,8 , 13 ,21 , 55 , 89 ,144 ,… .
Fibonacci was the name given to an Italian Mathematician Leonardo Pisano which means
Leonardo of Pisa , because he was born in Pisa , Italy around 1175 .
Fibonacci is the shortened word for the Latin term “filius Bonacci”, which stands for “son of
Bonaccio. “His father name was Guglielmo Bonaccio .
He first observed the pattern while investigating how fast rabbits could breed under ideal
circumstances. The problem goes like this .
“At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits
have produced no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of
rabbits. The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of
rabbits will there be at the start of each succeeding month?”
The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call the Fibonacci
sequence. The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of rabbits on the first day of each of the
first six months. The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that produce another pair of rabbits each
month. The numbers in the blue region—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8—are the first six terms of the Fibonacci
sequence.
By definition, the first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 1 and 1, and each subsequent
number is the sum of the previous two.
The position of each number in the sequence is indicated by a subscript , so that

F 1=1 , F 2=1 , F 3=2 and so forth , with F ndenoting the nth Fibonacci number.
The Fibonacci sequence exhibits the following property.

1+1=2 ¿ F3 = F 2+ F 1
1+2=3∨F 4= F 3+ F 2

2+3=5∨F 5 = F 4 + F 3
3+5=8∨F 6 = F 5 + F 4
The general rule is given by

F 1=F2 , F n=F n −1 + F n −2 for n ≥ 3
To find thentℎ Fibonacci number without using recursion formula, , the following is evaluated using a
calculator .
n n
1+ √5 1 −√ 5
F n=
( 2
− ) ( 2 )
√5
This form is known as the Binet form of the Fibonacci number.
Example 6 Determine the 10th, 25th and 30th term in a Fibonacci sequence.
Solution
F 10 = F 9 + F 8 Using recursive formula F n=F n− 1+ F n − 2
¿ 34 +21
=55
For finding F 25 and F 30 we will now use Binet’s formula since it would take a while using the
recursive formula.
25 25
1+ √5 1 − √5
F 25=
(
2
− ) (
2
=75,025
)
√5
30 30
1+ √5 1 − √5
F 30=
( 2 ) ( −
2 ) =832,040
√5
Your turn 6 Find and evaluate the following.
a. If F 22=17,711 , and F 24=46,368 , what is F 23?

b. Find F 50.
Fibonacci numbers appears everywhere – from the leaf and flower arrangement in plants, to
the animal skin , to the scales of pineapples, and many others. The Fibonacci numbers can be found
in the growth of living things and in human beings. Let us look at the few examples.

Take a look at sunflower. In particular , pay attention to the arrangement of seeds in its head. Do you
notice they form spirals? In certain species, there are 21 spirals in clockwise direction and 34 spirals
in the counterclockwise direction.
Depending on the species, you can count 34 and 55, or 55 and 89, or 89 and 144. It seems that this
arrangement keeps the seeds uniformly packed no matter how large the seed head is.
The numbers 21,34,55,89, and 144 are the eight to twelfth numbers of the Fibonacci sequence.
We can also find Fibonacci numbers in the branches and leave of Sneezwort.
Do you see how the squares fit nearly together? Observe 1 and 1 makes 2, 1and 2 makes 3, 2 and 3
makes 5, and so on. When you make squares with those widths, you get a nice spiral. The sequence :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on.

Notice how the squares fit neatly in the snail shell which implies that Fibonacci numbers are very
much present in any spirals.
The Golden Ratio [ Phi=φ ]

Bigger F n
The value approached by dividing two consecutive Fibonacci numbers, that is is
Smaller F n
called the Golden ratio. It is symbolized by the Greek letter Phi “φ and is approximately equal to
1.6180339887. Below is the geometric explanation of the Golden Ratio.
Let xthe longer part and y be the shorter part
x+ y
We divide a line into two parts so that the longer part ÷the smaller part = the whole length ÷ longer
part will have the Golden ratio.
x x+ y
= =φ ≈ 1.6180339887 … .
y x
Let us investigate the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large
Fn Fn
n n
F n −1 F n −1
2 55
3 =2 10 =¿ 1.617647059
1 34
3 89
4 =¿1.5 11 =¿1.618181818
2 55
5 144
5 =¿1.666666667 12 =¿1.617977528
3 89

8 233
6 =¿1.6 13 =¿1.61805556
5 144
13 377
7 =¿1.625 14 =¿1.618025751
8 233
21 610
8 =¿1.615384615 15 =¿1.618037135
13 377
34 987
9 =¿ 1.619047619 16 =¿1.618032787
21 610
It is interesting to note that the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers approaches the golden ratio ;
Fn
that is =1.6180339887 … .
F n −1
As seen in the preceding discussion, Fibonacci numbers appears in many places. The
golden ratio does too. It shows up in art, architecture, music and nature. For example , the ancient
Greeks thought that rectangles whose side form a golden ratio were pleasing to look.
Many buildings and artworks follow golden ratio such as Parthenon in Greece, but it is not really
known if they are designed that way.
The Parthenon
Leonardo da Vinci has incorporated geometry in many of his paintings, with the golden ratio just
being one of his mathematical tools. Experts agree that he probably thought that the golden ratio
made his paintings more attractive. Below are just some of his artwork.

The Mona
Lisa
The
Vitruvian
Man
The
Golden
Ratio is
seen all
over the
human
body. This
can be
verified by measuring some parts of human body : the length of the arm, height, the distance of
finger tips to the elbow. According to Markowsky(1992), “the ratio of the person’s height to the
height of his or navel is roughly the golden ratio. You may verify it yourself if you are close to the
golden ratio.
Another name of the golden ratio is divine proportion. This must be so because human
beauty is based on divine proportion.
Think about this!

To end this module, watch the video and try to answer the following questions below.
Watch this Video
The Importance of Mathematics in our Daily Life –created using

Powtoon
1. What new ideas about mathematics did you learn?

2. What is it about that have changed your thoughts about it?
3. What is it most useful about mathematics for humankind?
LEARNING POINTS

Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio

The first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 1 and 1, and each subsequent
number is the sum of the previous two. The value approached by dividing two consecutive Fibonacci
Bigger F n
numbers, that is is called the Golden ratio. It is symbolized by the Greek letter Phi “φ
Smaller F n
and is approximately equal to 1.6180339887.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Individual Activity
A fib is a poem where the number of syllables per line follow the Fibonacci sequence. Invented by
Greg Pincus, it caught on so well that the New York Times actually wrote an article about it, which
naturally spawned many more fibs . Here are two examples. Write one fibs of your own. You should
at least reach 7th term of the Fibonnaci number.
think
of these
be kind of
fun-let’s give them a
try. Do we have any takers?
--------
Oh
great.
One more
metrical
syllable-counting
challenge. Haiku and tanka rules
are all I want. Picture me counting on my fingers.
- Maryann Corbett
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
Group Activity
Are you Golden?
This group activity will further your appreciation of Fibonacci sequence and the Golden ratio,
enhance your prediction and measurement skills, and enjoy mathematics. Each group should
compose of five members.
.
Direction: List down several body measurements which you suspect have golden or nearly golden.
Determine how many people in your group are golden or nearly golden.(See Activity Sheet on the
next page)
Materials. Activity sheets with direction, meter stick/tape measure, and calculator.
Activity Sheet

Take note of the data you gathered here. Express each ratio R up to 3 –decimal places.
Name A/B C/D E/F G/H I/J K/L M/N O/P Are you
Golden?
Chief Fraction
Learner:
Decimal
V. Chief Fraction
Learner:
Decimal
Recorder: Fraction
Decimal
Analyzer: Fraction
Decimal
Prompter: Fraction
Decimal
On each team member , encircle the ratios 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800 . `(Greater than of equal to 1.5 but less
than or equal to 1.8 .
Interpretation:
Golden : if s/he has at least five highlighted ratios within 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800
Nearly Golden : if s/he has at most three or four highlighted ratios within 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800
Far from Golden : if s/he has at most two highlighted ratios within 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800
Findings (in paragraph form): Who among your group members is golden or nearly golden?
Which body parts are the most golden?
Conclusion:
Reflection:
LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
Use the concepts of Fibonacci sequence and Golden Ratio which we learned in this module to help
you work on the following items.

1. Determine the value of the following :

a. F 40
b. F 30+ F 35
F
c. 35
5
d. 2 F25 + F20
2. Write the following integers as the sum of at least 2 or 3 distinct Fibonacci numbers.
a. 19
b. 27
c. 68
d. 97
3. The fibonacci number of order 2 is described as each term in the sequence, from the 3rd on, equals
two times the term before it plus the term two places before it (Tannenbaum, 2010).
Following this definition , the first six numbers in the Fibonacci sequence of order two are given .
Give the next five numbers : 1, 2, 5, 12, 29, ___________, ____________, ______________,
_____________, ______________.
In exercises 4 through 5. Verify the following facts about Fibonacci numbers :

4. If we make a list of any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers, twice the third number minus the
fourth number is always equal to the first number in the list . Show two different list of four
consecutive Fibonacci numbers (Tannenbaum ,2010)
i. start with F 4
ii. start with F 10
5. If we make a list of 10 consecutive Fibonacci numbers , the sum of all these numbers divided by
11 is always equal to the seventh number on the list (Tannenbaum,2010)
i. Use the first 10 Fibonacci numbers
ii. Start the second list of 10 Fibonacci numbers with F 11.
6. Find the third , fourth , and fifth terms of the sequence defined by
a 1=2 ,a 2=3 , an=(−1)n an −1 +a n− 2 for
n ≥ 3.
7. If you have a wooden board that is 0.75 meters wide, how long should you cut it such that the
Golden Ratio is observed ?Use 1.618 as the value of the Golden Ratio.
8. Recall that F n represents the Fibonacci number in the ntℎ position in the sequence . What are the
only two values of n such that F n=n ?
9. Lucas numbers are obatined just like Fibonacci numbers-each term is obatined by adding the two
immediate previous terms-except that the first two terms are 2 and 1. Thus, the Lucas sequence starts
as 2, 1,3,4,…
(a) Give the first 15 terms of the Lucas sequence
(b) Find the ratios of each term to the preceding term.
(c) Do the ratios approach any number?
10. The golden ratio(shoulder to waist ) is the most important ratio for achieving the body

proportions like that of a Greek god. Now measure your shoulder circumference s and then your
waist size w . Then divide sbyw . Is the result roughly the golden ratio?If not then what must be your
ideal wait size to get the golden ratio? Write the value of s and wthat you’ve got.
REFERENCES
References :
 Blay et. all, Mathematical Trips in the Modern World Outcomes-Based Approach
 Nocon et. al , Essential Mathematics for the Modern World
 Baltazar et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World
 Aufman,Richard et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World
 Mathematics in the World book from RBSI
 https://www.iqtestexperts.com/pattern-recognitionsample.php
 https://www.iqtestexperts.com/maths-sample.php
 http://www.mathscareers.org.uk/article/how-the-tiger-got-itsstripes/
 https://newatlas.com/un-world-population-2019-growth-report/60172/
Photo credits:
Bilateral symmetric of butterfly . pinterest .com

Vituvian man. nytimes.com
Spiderwort 3 fold-symmetry . pcs.ibs.re.kr
Starfish five-fold symmetry . thoughtco.com
Snowflake six-fold symmetry , kindpng.com
Honeycomb , calculate.org.au
Population picture , https://newatlas.com/un-world-population-2019-growth-report/60172/
Rabbit breeding problem, Aufman,Richard et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World
Sunflower spiral , thatsmath.com
sneezewort Fibonacci , minxtech-wordpress.com
Fibonacci square tiling, mathstackexhange.com
Fibonacci sequence with python turtle, Benedit Neo/medium.com
The Parthenon, pinterest.com
Monalisa painting, https://thefibonaccisequence.weebly.com/mona-lisa.html
The Vitruvian Man , http://kucdinteractive.com/croy/golden-ratio-site/art.html
Activity sheet, Blay et. all, Mathematical Trips in the Modern World Outcomes-Based Approach
ANSWER TO YOUR TURN EXERCISES
1. The base figure rotates at an angle of 90 ° in the clockwise direction. Hence choice A is the best
fit.
2. a. The sequence is a geometric sequence because it is formed by dividing each term by 2 to the
succeeding terms, next three terms are : 0.25, 0.125, 0.0625
1
b. The sequence is arithmetic because it is formed by adding the common difference − to each
8

1 1
term . So the next three terms are : , , 0.
4 8
3.
4. fed
5. a. The value of t=20.
0.07 (20)
A=50 e
A=50 e1.4
A=50 ¿2)
A=202.76
Therefore, the city population would be 202,760 in 20 years
b. We need to find A for the year 2037. To find t , we subtract 2037 and 1997 to get t=40, which
we then plug in to our exponential growth model.
A=50 e0.07 t
A=50 e0.07 (40)
A=50 e2.8
A=50(16.44465)
A=822.23234
Therefore, the city population would be about 822, 232 in 2037
6. a. F 23=28,657
b. F 50=1.26 ×1010

MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module consists of two lessons: Mathematics as the Study of Patterns and Fibonacci Sequence
and Golden Ratio. Each lesson was designed as a self-teaching guide. Definitions of terms and
examples had been incorporated. Answering the problems in “your turn” will check your progress.
You may compare your answers to the solutions provided at the later part of this module for you to
be able to measure your achievement and as well as the effectiveness of the module. Individual and
group activities were prepared to apply what you had learned. Exercises were prepared as your
assignment to measure your understanding about the topics.

 Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world
 Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life
 Argue about nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed, represented, and used
 Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
LEARNING CONTENTS (Mathematics as the Study of Patterns)
Introduction
Look around you, do you notice anything that repeats or occur in a similar form?
In your life, are there any things that you tend to do over and over again? In this lesson we will
investigate patterns and regularities in nature and even in life and how mathematics come into play.
At times, consciously or unconsciously you are using mathematics in some routine transactions like
buying food, paying bills and even computing how much time do you need to come to class on time.
And you can do all of these routine effective and efficiently using your knowledge in mathematics.
You as a student taking this course, what is Mathematics for you?
Discussion
Lesson 1. Mathematics as the Study of Patterns

1.1 What is Mathematics?

Mathematics is defined as the study of numbers and arithmetic operations. Others describe
mathematics as a set of tools or a collection of skills that can be applied to questions of “how many”
or “how much”. Still, others view it as a science which involves logical reasoning, drawing
conclusions from assumed premises, and strategic reasoning based on accepted rules, laws, or
probabilities, Mathematics is also considered as an art which deals with form, size, and quantity.
In examining the development of mathematics from historical perspective, it can be seen that
much has been directed towards describing patterns of relationship that are of interest of various
individuals. Patterns arouse curiosity because they can be directly related to common human
experience. The focused of this section is, mathematics as a study of patterns.
A Study of Patterns
next . Or just simply are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. We see patterns around us –
layout of the floor, design of our clothes, butterflies’ wings, and even to the way we say things.
Recognizing patterns is natural to us as a rational creature because our brain is hardwired to
recognize them.
Studying patterns help you in identifying relationships and finding logical connections to
form generalizations to make predictions.
Below are examples of various patterns:
Logic Patterns. Logic patterns are usually the first to be observed. Classifying things , for
example comes before numeration. Being able to tell which things are blocks and which are not
precedes learning to count blocks.
One kind of logic pattern deals with the characteristics of various objects while another deals
with order. These patterns are seen on aptitude tests in which takers are shown a sequence of pictures
and asked to select which figure comes next among several choices.
. Example 1 What comes Next ?
Solution:
PA1 The base figure rotates at an angle of 45 ° in the counterclockwise direction. Hence choice C is

the perfect match.
Your turn 1 . What comes next ?
Number Patterns. Another class of patterns is the patterns of numbers. The two most common are
the arithmetic and geometric patterns. While arithmetic sequence is formed by adding or subtracting
a constant number to consecutive terms , geometric sequence needs to be multiplied or divide with
same value each time we want to get the next term in the sequence . Examples : 3,7,11,15,…is an
arithmetic sequence because it is formed by adding 4 to each term in the sequence which is called
the common difference(d) . On the other hand , 3,6,12,24,…is geometric sequence because it is
formed by multiplying each term by 2 to get the succeeding terms which is called the common
ratio(r).
Example 2 Give the next three terms in the pattern. Identify which is arithmetic and
geometric sequence.
1. 1 , 3, 5, 7, 9, ___, ____, ____
2. 10, 30, 90, ____,_____,____
Solution :
a. Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each term being two more than the
previous term : 3=1+ 2; 5=3+2 ; 7=5+ 2; 9=7+2.Therefore the answer is n arithmetic sequence and
the next three terms should be 11, 13, 15.
b. The sequence is a geometric sequence because it is formed by multiplying each term by 3 to the
succeeding terms, so the next three terms are : 270, 810, 2430.
Your turn 2 Give the next three terms in the pattern. Identify which is arithmetic and

geometric sequence.
a. 4 , 2,1,0.5 ,¿
3 5 1 3
b. , , , ,¿ ,¿ ,¿
4 8 2 8
Let us investigate more number patterns. Take a look at these examples retrieved from a video on
youtube.
1 ×8+1=9 1 ×1=1
12 ×8+2=98 11×11=121
123 ×8+3=987 111× 111=12321
1234 × 8+4=9876 1111 ×1111=1234321
12345 ×8+5=98765 11111 ×11111=123454321
123456 ×8+ 6=987654 111111× 111111=12345654321
1234567 ×8+7=9876543 1111111 ×1111111=1234567654321
12345678 ×8+ 8=98765432 11111111× 11111111=123456787654321
123456789 ×8+ 9=? 111111111 ×111111111=?
Have you seen the pattern? If yes, without doing calculation what do you think are the answers on
the last row?
Maybe you will agree that mathematics is the science of patterns and it’s all around us.
Recognizing number patterns is an important problem –skill. That is one reason why those who use
patterns to analyze and solve problems often find success.
Geometric Patterns. Geometric pattern is a motif or design that depicts abstract shapes like lines,
polygons, and circles, and typically repeats like a wallpaper. Visual patterns are observed in nature
and in art. In art, patterns present objects in a consistent, regular manner.
Example 3 Which of the figures below can be used to continue the series?
Solution:
Since it adds up two squares horizontally and vertically on each term, the correct answer is Figure 1.
Your turn 3 Draw a figure to

continue the series below.
Word Patterns. Patterns can also be found in language like morphological rules in pluralizing
nouns or conjugating verbs for tense, as well as the metrical rules of poetry. Each of these examples
supports mathematical and natural language understanding. The focus here is patterns in form and in
syntax , which lead directly to the study of language in general and digital communication in
particular.
Example 4 Fill in the blank.
knife:knives life:lives wife:______
Solution :
The pattern is taking the plural form of the words involved, so wife is wives.
Your turn 4 Fill in the blank.
meet :met lead: led feed: ____
1.2 Patterns in Nature
Patterns in nature are the regular arrangement of objects in any form found everywhere-
plants, animals, humans, earth formations, and many others. These include symmetries, spirals,
waves, arrays, cracks, stripes, etc. Some of these patterns which recur in different context can be
modelled mathematically. So, let us start looking for more patterns in nature.
Symmetric Patterns
A figure has symmetry if there is a non-trivial transformation that maps the figure onto itself
or you can draw an imaginary line across the object and the resulting parts are mirror images of each
other.
For example, a square has a vertical line symmetry. That is , the reflection about this line
maps the square onto itself.

Notice that left and right portion of the square are exactly the same. The type of symmetry, known as
line, or bilateral symmetry, which is evident in most animals, including humans . Example is the
figure of the butterfly and Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man.
Leonardo da Vinci’s
Vitruvian Man is showing
the proportions and symmetry of

human body
In fact there are other types of symmetry depending on the number of sides or faces that are
symmetrical. Take a look at the images below.
Spiderwort with a three-fold symmetry Starfish has a five-fold symmetry

If a figure or object can be rotated less than 360 ° about a point so that the image and the pre-image
are indistinguishable , then the figure has rotational symmetry. The smallest angle that a figure can
be rotated while still preserving the original formation is called angle of rotation. Angle of rotation
can be computed using the following formula:
360 °
Angle of rotation=
n
where nis the number of rotational symmetry or order of rotation of a particular object. For the
spiderwort, the angle of rotation is 120 ° while the angle of rotation of the starfish is 72 °.
Consider the image of a snowflake.
It can be observed that the patterns of snowflake repeat six times. So, what is the angle of rotation
of the snowflake?
Let us try to see more patterns in nature by watching this video.
Watch this
Video
Why do honey bees love hexagons - by Zack Patterson and Andy Peterson
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=why+do+honey+bees+love+hexagons,
What you’ve watch is another interesting pattern in nature , the honeycomb. According to Merriam-
Webster dictionary,”a honeycomb is a mass of hexagonal wax cells built by honeybees in their nest
to contain their brood and stores honey. “, But why build hexagonal cells? Why not squares or any
other polygons?

The video had explained it well. They love it because more area will be covered using hexagon
compared to other polygons. Hexagonal formations are more optimal in making use of avail space.
These referred to as packing problem. Packing problems involve finding the optimum method of
filling up a given space such as cubic or spherical container. The bees have instinctively found that
the best solution, evident in the hexagonal construction of their hives.
Let us illustrate this mathematically. Suppose you have circles of radius 1 cm, each of which
will then have an area of π cm 2 . We are then going to fill a plane with these circles using square
packing and hexagonal packing.
Anna
For square packing, each square will have an area of 4 cm2. Note from the figure that for each
square, it can fit only one circle (4 quarters). The percentage of the square’s area covered by circles
will be
areaof the circles π cm2
×100 %= × 100 %=78.54 %
area of the square 4 cm 2
Anna
Now, for the hexagonal packing, we can think of each hexagonal as composed of six equilateral
triangles with side equal to 2 cm.
s2 ⋅ √ 3
The area of each equilateral triangle can be computed using the formula A= , so
4
(side)2 ⋅ √3 (2 cm)2 ⋅ √3 4 cm 2 ⋅ √ 3
A= = = =√ 3 cm2
4 4 4


2
This gives the area of the hexagon as 6√ 3 cm (multiplying the area of the equilateral triangle to 6
as the number of sides of the hexagon). Looking at figure , there are 3 circles that could fit inside one
hexagon (the whole circle in the middle, and 6 one thirds of a circle), which gives the total areas of
3 π cm2 . The percentage of the hexagon’s are covered by circles will be
area of the circles 3 π cm2

×100 %= ×100 %=90.69 %
area of the hexagon 6 √ 3 cm2
Comparing the two percentages, we can clearly see that using hexagons will cover a larger area than
when using squares.
1.3. World Population

Rapid population growth has been a temporary phenomenon in many countries. As of 2017,
it is estimated that the world population is about 7.6 billion. World leaders, sociologists,
anthropologist are interested in studying population, including its growth.
The United Nations World Population Prospects 2019 report paints a demographic picture of a very different
world by the end of the 21st century
Mathematics can be used to model population growth. The formula for exponential growth is
A=P ert
where A = the size of the population after it grows.
P = initial number of people
r = is the rate of growth
t = time
e=¿ Euler’s constant with an approximate value of 2.718
Example 5 The exponential growth model of A=30 e0.02 t describes the population of a
city in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.

a. What was the population of the city in 1995 ?

b. What will be the population in 2017?
Solution
a. Since our exponential growth model describes the population t years after 1995, we consider
1995 as t=0 and then solve for A, our population size.
A=30 e0.02 t
A=30 e(0.02)(0) Replace t with t=0.
A=30 e0 e 0=1
A=30(1)
A=30
Therefore, the city population in 1995 was 30,000.
b. We need to find A for the year 2017. To find t , we subtract 2017 and 1995 to get t=22, which we
then plug in to our exponential growth model.
A=30 e0.02 t
A=30 e0.02 (22) Replace t with t=22.
A=30 e0.0 .44
A=30(1.55271) e 0.0 .44 ≈ 1.55271
A=46.5813
Therefore, the city population would be about 46,581 in 2017
Your turn 5 The exponential growth model A=50 e0.07 t describes the population of a city
in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1997.
a. What is the population after 20 years?

b. What is the population in 2037?
LEARNING POINTS
Mathematics as the Study of Patterns
next . Or just simply are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. Example of various patterns
are : logic patterns, number patterns, geometric patterns, word pattern. Patterns in nature are the
regular arrangement of objects in any form found everywhere-plants, animals, humans, earth
formations, and many others
Exponential Growth Model Population can be modeled by the exponential growth formula
A=P ert

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
1. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix. Encircle
the letter corresponding to the missing pattern.
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.
2. Calculate 2+ 4+6+ …+2 n for n=1,2 ,..6 .
3. Calculate 1+3+5+ …+(2 n −1) for n=1,2 ,.. , 6.
4. Calculate 1+3+7+ …+(2 n −1) for n=1,2 ,.. , 6.
5. What is the missing number in each of these sequences?

f) _______, 17 , 15, 13, …
g) 8, 11, ______, 17 , …
h) 5, ______, 27, 38, ….
i) 84, _____, 76, 72,…
j) 98, 109, ______, 131, …
6. Determine the pattern and find out the numbers which will complete the sequence.
a. 58, 68, 57, 67, 56 , __________

b. 3, 4, 6, 10, 18, ___________

c. 10, 54, 98, 1312, 1716 _________
7. Draw Fig.5 following the given pattern.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

a. If the length of the side of each triangle is 1 unit, what is the perimeter of each figure in the
pattern?Complete the table below.
Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Perimeter 3
b. If this pattern continues; what is the perimter of Fig. 9.

c. What is the perimeter of the ntℎ figure .
8. Fill the table below to complete the power of 3.
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
3 9
a. Enumerate all the numbers in the power of 3 which are in the ones digit, and then find the next 7
terms in the sequence without getting the power of 3.
Figur 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315

e
Ones
3 9
digit
b. Have you seen the pattern? Find the number in the ones digit for the following power of 3.
316 =¿ ; 317 =¿ ; 318 =¿ ; 319 =¿ ; 320 =¿ ;
Explain the pattern.
9. The population of a certain locality is 20,000 and is increasing continuously at a rate of r =0.037 ,
according to the law of natural growth, A=P ert . Find the approximate population after 25 years.
10. The population of a certain town is 80,000 and has been increasing continuously for the past 20
years at the rate r =0.025 . What was the population 20 years ago?
LEARNING CONTENTS ( Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio)
Lesson 2: Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio

The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio

The Fibonacci numbers are the numbers is the following
integer sequence : 1 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 5,8 , 13 ,21 , 55 , 89 ,144 ,… .
Fibonacci was the name given to an Italian

Mathematician Leonardo Pisano which means Leonardo of
Pisa , because he was born in Pisa , Italy around 1175 .
Fibonacci is the shortened word for the Latin term “filius
Bonacci”, which stands for “son of Bonaccio. “His father name
was Guglielmo Bonaccio .
He first observed the pattern while investigating how fast rabbits

could breed under ideal circumstances. The problem goes like this .
“At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits
have produced no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of
rabbits. The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of
rabbits will there be at the start of each succeeding month?”
The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call the Fibonacci
sequence. The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of rabbits on the first day of each of the
first six months. The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that produce another pair of rabbits each
month. The numbers in the blue region—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8—are the first six terms of the Fibonacci
sequence.
By definition, the first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 1 and 1, and each subsequent
number is the sum of the previous two.
The position of each number in the sequence is indicated by a subscript , so that

F 1=1 , F 2=1 , F 3=2 and so forth , with F ndenoting the nth Fibonacci number.

The Fibonacci sequence exhibits the following property.

1+1=2 ¿ F3 = F 2+ F 1
1+2=3∨F 4= F 3+ F 2
2+3=5∨F 5 = F 4 + F 3
3+5=8∨F 6 = F 5 + F 4
The general rule is given by

F 1=F2 , F n=F n −1 + F n −2 for n ≥ 3
To find thentℎ Fibonacci number without using recursion formula, , the following is evaluated using a
calculator .
n n
1+ √5 1 −√ 5
F n=
( 2
− ) ( 2 )
√5
This form is known as the Binet form of the Fibonacci number.
Example 6 Determine the 10th, 25th and 30th term in a Fibonacci sequence.
Solution
F 10 = F 9 + F 8 Using recursive formula F n=F n− 1+ F n − 2
¿ 34 +21
=55
For finding F 25 and F 30 we will now use Binet’s formula since it would take a while using the
recursive formula.
25 25
1+ √5 1 − √5
F 25=
(
2
− ) (
2
=75,025
)
√5
30 30
1+ √5 1 − √5
F 30=
( 2 ) ( −
2 ) =832,040
√5
Your turn 6 Find and evaluate the following.
a. If F 22=17,711 , and F 24=46,368 , what is F 23?

b. Find F 50.

Fibonacci numbers appears everywhere – from the leaf and flower arrangement in plants, to
the animal skin , to the scales of pineapples, and many others. The Fibonacci numbers can be found
in the growth of living things and in human beings. Let us look at the few examples.
Take a look at sunflower. In particular , pay attention to the arrangement of seeds in its head. Do you
notice they form spirals? In certain species, there are 21 spirals in clockwise direction and 34 spirals
in the counterclockwise direction.
Depending on the species, you can count 34 and 55, or 55 and 89, or 89 and 144. It seems that this
arrangement keeps the seeds uniformly packed no matter how large the seed head is.
The numbers 21,34,55,89, and 144 are the eight to twelfth numbers of the Fibonacci sequence.
We can also find Fibonacci numbers in the branches and leave of Sneezwort.
Do

you see how the squares fit nearly together? Observe 1 and 1 makes 2, 1and 2 makes 3, 2 and 3
makes 5, and so on. When you make squares with those widths, you get a nice spiral. The sequence :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on.
Notice how the squares fit neatly in the snail shell which implies that Fibonacci numbers are very
much present in any spirals.
The Golden Ratio [ Phi=φ ]

Bigger F n
The value approached by dividing two consecutive Fibonacci numbers, that is is
Smaller F n
called the Golden ratio. It is symbolized by the Greek letter Phi “φ and is approximately equal to
1.6180339887. Below is the geometric explanation of the Golden Ratio.
Let xthe longer part and y be the shorter part
x+ y
We divide a line into two parts so that the longer part ÷the smaller part = the whole length ÷ longer
part will have the Golden ratio.
x x+ y
= =φ ≈ 1.6180339887 … .
y x
Let us investigate the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large
Fn Fn
n n
F n −1 F n −1

2 55
3 =2 10 =¿ 1.617647059
1 34
3 89
4 =¿1.5 11 =¿1.618181818
2 55
5 144
5 =¿1.666666667 12 =¿1.617977528
3 89
8 233
6 =¿1.6 13 =¿1.61805556
5 144
13 377
7 =¿1.625 14 =¿1.618025751
8 233
21 610
8 =¿1.615384615 15 =¿1.618037135
13 377
34 987
9 =¿ 1.619047619 16 =¿1.618032787
21 610
It is interesting to note that the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers approaches
Fn
the golden ratio ; that is =1.6180339887 … .
F n −1
As seen in the preceding discussion, Fibonacci numbers appears in many places. The
golden ratio does too. It shows up in art, architecture, music and nature. For example , the ancient
Greeks thought that rectangles whose side form a golden ratio were pleasing to look.
Many buildings and artworks follow golden ratio such as Parthenon in Greece, but it is not really
known if they are designed that way.
The Parthenon
Leonardo da Vinci has incorporated geometry in many of his paintings, with the golden ratio just
being one of his mathematical tools. Experts agree that he probably thought that the golden ratio
made his paintings more attractive. Below are just some of his artwork.

The Mona
Lisa
The
Vitruvian
Man
The
Golden
Ratio is
seen all
over the
human
body. This
can be
verified by measuring some parts of human body : the length of the arm, height, the distance of
finger tips to the elbow. According to Markowsky(1992), “the ratio of the person’s height to the
height of his or navel is roughly the golden ratio. You may verify it yourself if you are close to the
golden ratio.
Another name of the golden ratio is divine proportion. This must be so because human
beauty is based on divine proportion.
Think about this!

To end this module, watch the video and try to answer the following questions below.
Watch this Video
The Importance of Mathematics in our Daily Life –created using

Powtoon
1. What new ideas about mathematics did you learn?

2. What is it about that have changed your thoughts about it?
3. What is it most useful about mathematics for humankind?
LEARNING POINTS

Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio

The first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 1 and 1, and each subsequent
number is the sum of the previous two. The value approached by dividing two consecutive Fibonacci
Bigger F n
numbers, that is is called the Golden ratio. It is symbolized by the Greek letter Phi “φ
Smaller F n
and is approximately equal to 1.6180339887.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Individual Activity
A fib is a poem where the number of syllables per line follow the Fibonacci sequence. Invented by
Greg Pincus, it caught on so well that the New York Times actually wrote an article about it, which
naturally spawned many more fibs . Here are two examples. Write one fibs of your own. You should
at least reach 7th term of the Fibonnaci number.
think
of these
be kind of
fun-let’s give them a
try. Do we have any takers?
--------
Oh
great.
One more
metrical
syllable-counting
challenge. Haiku and tanka rules
are all I want. Picture me counting on my fingers.
- Maryann Corbett
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
Group Activity
Are you Golden?
This group activity will further your appreciation of Fibonacci sequence and the Golden ratio,
enhance your prediction and measurement skills, and enjoy mathematics. Each group should
compose of five members.
.
Direction: List down several body measurements which you suspect have golden or nearly golden.
Determine how many people in your group are golden or nearly golden.(See Activity Sheet on the
next page)
Materials. Activity sheets with direction, meter stick/tape measure, and calculator.
Activity Sheet

Take note of the data you gathered here. Express each ratio R up to 3 –decimal places.
Name A/B C/D E/F G/H I/J K/L M/N O/P Are you
Golden?
Chief Fraction
Learner:
Decimal
V. Chief Fraction
Learner:
Decimal
Recorder: Fraction
Decimal
Analyzer: Fraction
Decimal
Prompter: Fraction
Decimal
On each team member , encircle the ratios 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800 . `(Greater than of equal to 1.5 but less
than or equal to 1.8 .
Interpretation:
Golden : if s/he has at least five highlighted ratios within 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800
Nearly Golden : if s/he has at most three or four highlighted ratios within 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800
Far from Golden : if s/he has at most two highlighted ratios within 1.500 ≤ R ≤ 1.800
Findings (in paragraph form): Who among your group members is golden or nearly golden?
Which body parts are the most golden?
Conclusion:
Reflection:
LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
Use the concepts of Fibonacci sequence and Golden Ratio which we learned in this module to help
you work on the following items.

1. Determine the value of the following :

a. F 40
b. F 30+ F 35
F
c. 35
5
d. 2 F25 + F20
2. Write the following integers as the sum of at least 2 or 3 distinct Fibonacci numbers.
a. 19
b. 27
c. 68
d. 97
3. The fibonacci number of order 2 is described as each term in the sequence, from the 3rd on, equals
two times the term before it plus the term two places before it (Tannenbaum, 2010).
Following this definition , the first six numbers in the Fibonacci sequence of order two are given .
Give the next five numbers : 1, 2, 5, 12, 29, ___________, ____________, ______________,
_____________, ______________.
In exercises 4 through 5. Verify the following facts about Fibonacci numbers :

4. If we make a list of any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers, twice the third number minus the
fourth number is always equal to the first number in the list . Show two different list of four
consecutive Fibonacci numbers (Tannenbaum ,2010)
i. start with F 4
ii. start with F 10
5. If we make a list of 10 consecutive Fibonacci numbers , the sum of all these numbers divided by
11 is always equal to the seventh number on the list (Tannenbaum,2010)
i. Use the first 10 Fibonacci numbers
ii. Start the second list of 10 Fibonacci numbers with F 11.
6. Find the third , fourth , and fifth terms of the sequence defined by
a 1=2 ,a 2=3 , an=(−1)n an −1 +a n− 2 for
n ≥ 3.
7. If you have a wooden board that is 0.75 meters wide, how long should you cut it such that the
Golden Ratio is observed ?Use 1.618 as the value of the Golden Ratio.
8. Recall that F n represents the Fibonacci number in the ntℎ position in the sequence . What are the
only two values of n such that F n=n ?
9. Lucas numbers are obatined just like Fibonacci numbers-each term is obatined by adding the two
immediate previous terms-except that the first two terms are 2 and 1. Thus, the Lucas sequence starts
as 2, 1,3,4,…
(a) Give the first 15 terms of the Lucas sequence
(b) Find the ratios of each term to the preceding term.
(c) Do the ratios approach any number?
10. The golden ratio(shoulder to waist ) is the most important ratio for achieving the body

proportions like that of a Greek god. Now measure your shoulder circumference s and then your
waist size w . Then divide sbyw . Is the result roughly the golden ratio?If not then what must be your
ideal wait size to get the golden ratio? Write the value of s and wthat you’ve got.
REFERENCES
References :
 https://www.iqtestexperts.com/pattern-recognitionsample.php
 https://www.iqtestexperts.com/maths-sample.php
 http://www.mathscareers.org.uk/article/how-the-tiger-got-itsstripes/
 https://newatlas.com/un-world-population-2019-growth-report/60172/
Photo credits:
Bilateral symmetric of butterfly . pinterest .com

Vituvian man. nytimes.com
Spiderwort 3 fold-symmetry . pcs.ibs.re.kr
Starfish five-fold symmetry . thoughtco.com
Snowflake six-fold symmetry , kindpng.com
Honeycomb , calculate.org.au
Population picture , https://newatlas.com/un-world-population-2019-growth-report/60172/
Rabbit breeding problem, Aufman,Richard et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World
Sunflower spiral , thatsmath.com
sneezewort Fibonacci , minxtech-wordpress.com
Fibonacci square tiling, mathstackexhange.com
Fibonacci sequence with python turtle, Benedit Neo/medium.com
The Parthenon, pinterest.com
Monalisa painting, https://thefibonaccisequence.weebly.com/mona-lisa.html
The Vitruvian Man , http://kucdinteractive.com/croy/golden-ratio-site/art.html
Activity sheet, Blay et. all, Mathematical Trips in the Modern World Outcomes-Based Approach
ANSWER TO YOUR TURN EXERCISES
1. The base figure rotates at an angle of 90 ° in the clockwise direction. Hence choice A is the best
fit.
2. a. The sequence is a geometric sequence because it is formed by dividing each term by 2 to the
succeeding terms, next three terms are : 0.25, 0.125, 0.0625
1
b. The sequence is arithmetic because it is formed by adding the common difference − to each
8

1 1
term . So the next three terms are : , , 0.
4 8
3.
4. fed
5. a. The value of t=20.
0.07 (20)
A=50 e
A=50 e1.4
A=50 ¿2)
A=202.76
Therefore, the city population would be 202,760 in 20 years
b. We need to find A for the year 2037. To find t , we subtract 2037 and 1997 to get t=40, which
we then plug in to our exponential growth model.
A=50 e0.07 t
A=50 e0.07 (40)
A=50 e2.8
A=50(16.44465)
A=822.23234
Therefore, the city population would be about 822, 232 in 2037
6. a. F 23=28,657
b. F 50=1.26 ×1010

MODULE 2

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module consist of four lessons : Mathematics and English as Languages
, The Language and Grammar of Mathematics, The Language of Sets, The Language
of Logic . Each lesson was designed as a self-teaching guide. Definitions of terms and
examples had been incorporated. Answering the problems in “your turn” will check your
progress. You may compare your answers to the solutions provided at the later part of this
module in that way you will be able to measure your achievement and as well as the
effectiveness of the module. Exercises were prepared as your assignment to measure your
understanding about the topics.



Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics


Explain the nature of mathematics as a language


Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly


Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language


LEARNING CONTENTS ( MATHEMATICS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES)


Lesson 1. Mathematics and English as Languages
Mathematics and English are both languages that if you excel to both, you have a
bigger chance of being ahead in a world full of competition. The figure below will give you
an overview on their similarities and differences.




What have you notice so far?

Even though the words “noun”, “verb”, or pronoun” are not used in mathematics, the
similarities with the English language can be observed :

Nouns could be constants such as numbers or expression with numbers:


12 , 2(4−13), −5812 , 24−13, −58


A verb could be equal sign

= , = ,
 or inequality symbols like
>>
 or
≤≤
 .


Pronouns could be a variables like

x or y x or y
 :

5x−85x−8
,
2xy2xy
,
−4x−4x


Sentences could be formed by putting together these parts :

3x+7=243x+7=24
,
2x+3y=72x+3y=7


Lesson 2: The Language and Grammar of Mathematics
Mathematics has a language features unparalleled in other languages, like
presentation for example “
,y,or x ,y,or x
“ for any real number or any numerical expression. In addition, the language of Mathematics is
packed with terms and symbols, which normally used in everyday conversation.

Mathematics has grammar too, but it is the mathematical logic that determines
whether the statements are true or not true, valid or not valid. Therefore, we need to view
Mathematics as a language and must learn it in a way a language is learned.

Think about this!

Watch this video and answer the guide questions?

Math isn't hard, it's a language | Randy Palisoc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6yixyiJcos

1. What practice in learning Mathematics was emphasized by the speaker?
2. What part of the talk made you go back to the time when you were beginning to
learn Mathematics?
3. Do you agree that Mathematics is a human language , and should have been taught
the way English languages is being taught? Explain.

Mathematical Expression and Sentence

A sentence must contain a complete thought. In the English language an ordinary
sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.. Similarly, a mathematical sentence must
state a complete thought. While an expression is a name given to a mathematical object of
interest. Below are examples of mathematical expressions :

a.
An ordered pair
b.
a.
A matrix
b.
[ 1−243] 14−23
c.
d.
a.
A function
b.
f(x)f(x)
c.
d.
a.
The set {1, 3, 5}
b.
a.

b.
Below are example of mathematical sentences or statement.

Combined Mathematical
English Translations
Sentences
The sum of six and two all over four is two.
6+24=26+24=2 The ratio of six plus two, and four is equal to two.

Two is the quotient when the sum of six and two is divided by
four.
2(12−4)=16212−4=16
Twice the difference of twelve and four is sixteen.
The product of 2 and twelve less four is sixteen

We also have some examples of algebraic sentences.
Algebraic Sentences English Translation
2x=142x=14
Twice a number is equal to fourteen.

Two times a number is fourteen.
Thrice the difference of twice a number and one is four.

3(2x−1)=432x−1=4

Three, multiplied to the difference of twice a number less one
,is four
2(x=1)3=52(x=1)3=5 The ratio of twice the sum of a number and one , and three is equal to
five.

. Translate the following expression and sentences in English into
Mathematical expressions and statement or vice versa. Use the letter
n
to represent the unknown.
a. A number increased by 10 .
b. 2n + 1.
c. The difference between the ages of mom and son is 27.
d.
3n−1=233n−1=23

Solution
a.
n+10n+10
or
10+n10+n

b. The sum of twice a number and 1.
c.
m−n=27m−n=27

d. The difference of thrice a number and 1 is twenty-three.

Translate the following expression and sentences in English into
Mathematical expressions and statement or vice versa. Use the letter
x
to represent the unknown.
a. Four times the square of a number

b.
(x, y)∈A

c.
x2+1≠0

d. A sum of three consecutive numbers is eighteen.

A sentence must contain a complete thought. In the English language an ordinary sentence
must contain a subject and a predicate.. Similarly, a mathematical sentence must state a
complete thought. While an expression is a name given to a mathematical object of interest.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

A. Translate each phrase or sentence into a mathematical expression or equation.
1.
Twelve more than a number. _______________________
2.
1.
Eight minus a number. _______________________
2.
1.
An unknown quantity less fourteen. _______________________
2.
1.
Six times a number is fifty-four. _______________________
2.
1.
Two ninths of a number is eleven. _______________________
2.
1.
Three more than seven times a number is nine more than five times the number.
_________________
2.
1.
Twice a number less eight is equal to one more than three times the number.
_______________________
2.
1.
Six is subtracted from the sum of
2.
x
3. and two times
y
4. . __________________________
5.
1.

Five times
2.
x
3. reduced by the square of
y.
4. _________________________________
5.
1.
Subtract the product of
2.
x
3. and
y
4. from fifty-eight._____________________
5.

B. Give your own expression and sentences that conform with the stated type and truth
value .
Take note : None means no verb or connective being used.
Open means , need verification / conditions
Ee−expression in english

EM
– expression in mathematics
Se−sentence in english

SM
- sentence in mathematics

Truth Value of
Sentences/Expression Type Verb/Connectives Sentence:
True/False/Open
Ex. SM + and > False
3+3>6

1. SE True

2. SE False

3. EE None

4. SM True

5. SM False

6. EM None

7. SM None

8. EM Open


9 . SE Open

10. SM True

LEARNING CONTENTS ( THE LANGUAGES OF SETS)

Lesson 3. The Language of Sets

The concept of sets was formalized by George Cantor, a German mathematician (1845-
1918). He defined set as a collection of definite distinguished objects called elements.

3.1 Set Notations

It is important to note that in Mathematics , there are certain conventions in the ways sets are
represented, written, and interpreted .The following examples will illustrate these
conventions.

The set is composed of five vowels of the English alphabet may be named and can be
denoted as
A={a,e,i,o,u}.
Sets like
A
which has a definite number of elements in roster method where the elements are listed . Commas
are used between each element and a pair of braces are used to enclose the list elements.

The set whose elements are all integers may be named and can be written as
N={x|x∈Z}
. This is read as “Set
N
is the set of all values of
x
such that
x
is an integer”. Sets like Set N which has indefinite number of elements are written in
set-builder method . This notation is used whenever it is convenient or impossible to list all
the elements of a set; it merely describes the characterizing property of its elements in terms
of symbols.

We also have to take note of the frequently used set of numbers :


Use The Roster Method to Represent a Set

a.
The set of natural numbers less than 5.
b.
a.
The solution set of
b.
x+5=−1
c.
d.
a.
The set of negative integers greater than
b.
−4
c.
d.

Use The Set-builder Method to Represent a Set


a. Set
M
is the set whose elements are numbers greater than negative five but less than four .
b. Set
P
is the set whose elements are numbers greater than or equal to zero.
c. Set
N
is the set of even numbers greater than or equal to four but less than or equal to twenty.

More Concepts to Learn about Sets


Finite Set is a set whose elements are countable. Examples are :

o
o
A={red, orange,yellow,green,blue}
o .
o
o
Set
o
B
o is the set of integers greater than zero but less than five.
o


Unit Set is a finite set that has only one element. Examples are:

o
o
C={0}
o
o
o
Set D is the set consisting of the number that is neither prime nor composite.
o


Infinite Set is a set where the number of elements is unlimited or not countable. Examples :

o
o
E={…,−6,−4,−2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …
o }
o

o
Set
o
F
o is the set of positive integers
o


Empty or null set is a set that has no elements. Examples are :

o
o
G={ }
o or
G=∅
o
o
o
Set H is the set of months that start with the letter Z.
o


Cardinality or cardinal number of a set is the number of elements in it . For example , the cardinal
number of set A (describe above) is denoted by

n(A)=5
 . Take note that in finding for the cardinality of a set elements that are listed more than
once are counted only once. For example the set
T={3, 3, 4, 7,8}
 has a cardinality of 4 and is denoted as
n(T)=4




Equivalent Sets are sets that have the same number of elements. In other words, they have the same
a cardinality. For example , set

C
 and
D
 are equivalent sets denoted by
C~D
 since they have the one element each ; that is
n(C)=n(D)
 . However , Set
A
 and Set
B

 are not equivalent because Set

A
 has five elements and Set
B
 has only four elements.



Equal sets are sets that have exactly the same elements. Examples are :

o
If
o
V={a, e, i, o,u}
o and
W={i,e,o, a, u}
o , then Sets
V
o and
W
o are equal denoted by
V=W
o .
o
o
If
o
N={x|x∈Z}
o and
L={…,−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
o , then
N=L
o .
o


The symbol

∈
 is used to indicate that an element belongs to a set ;while is used to indicate that an element
does not belong to a set .Example are :

o
Given
o
V={a, e, i, o,u}
o , we say that
a
o is an element of

V
o ” or in symbols,
a ∈
o
V
o .
o
o
Given
o
N={x|x∈Z}
o , we say that “
0.5
o is not an elementof Set
N
o or in symbols ,
o
0.5∉

N.


The symbol

⊂
 is used to indicate that set is a proper subset of another set. By proper subset , in given two
sets
A
 and
B
 , every element of Set
A
 is also an element of Set
B
 , but not all elements of Set
B
 are elements of Set
B
 are in Set
A
 . Such a relation between sets is denoted by
A⊂B
 and is read as “
A
 is a proper subset of
B
 .” . It is important to note that the set on the right of
⊂
 is the one with more elements .



On the other hand , the symbol
⊄
is used to indicate that a set is not a subset of another set ; meaning not all elements of the first set
are also element of the second set.


The symbol

⊆
 is used to indicate that equal sets are subset of one another . Suppose we are given two sets ,
V={a, e, i, o,u}
 and
W={i,e,o, a, u}
 . Since Sets
V
 and
W
 are equal sets, we say that
V
 is a subset of
W
 , and conversely,
W
 is a subset of
V
 . In set notation , we state

V⊆W
and
W⊆V
.



Power set
 is the set composed of all the subsets of a given set. For example , the power set of set
A={2, 4, 6 }
 denoted as
P(A),
 is
{∅, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {2,6}, {4,6}, {2,4,6}
 }.

Do note that an empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself.



Sets that have common elements are called joint sets ; while those that do not have common
elements are called disjoint sets.


Fill in the table below with corresponding notation of statement and evaluate if what it
states is true or false.

K={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
L={2 4, 5}
M={0,4,7,10,15}
N={2,4,5,3,1}

Notation Statement True/False
L⊂K

L⊄M

N⊆K

∅⊂N

Do you notice any relation between the number of elements in a set and number of elements
in its power set ; that is the number of subsets (proper subsets plus its equal set)?What seems
to be the pattern? Can you come up with a formula?Go and investigate! Put your observations
in the table .

Number of Elements in a Set Number of Subsets
0

1

2

3 8

4
5

6
n

3.2 Set Operations

In this section we will discuss the set operations such as : Union, Intersection, Difference,
Complementation, and Cartesian Product.


The union of two sets

X a
 nd
Y
 is the set composed of elements that belong to either Set
X a
 nd or Set
Y
 or both sets , and is denoted by
X ∪Y
 which read as
X
 union
Y
 .


If Set A is the set composed of months starting with letter J.
Set B is the set composed of months with exactly five letters.
Set C is the set composed of months starting with letter M.

then
A=
{January,June, July}
B=
{March, April}
C=
{March, May}

Find
A∪B
,
A∪C
,

B∪C
.

Solution
A∪B={
January,March, April,June, July
}

A∪C={
January,March, May,June, July
}

B∪C=
{ March, April, May}

In “March”, the common element of Sets B and C is written only once in
B∪C
.

Perform the indicated operation. Use the same sets given in example 3.

a.
C∪B

b.
A∪B∪C


The intersection of two sets

X a
 nd
Y
 is the set composed of elements that belong to either Set
X a
 nd or Set
Y
 or both sets , and is denoted by
X ∩Y
 which read as
X
 intersection
Y
 .



If
D
is the set of single-syllable months.
E is the set of months with
y
as the letters.
F is the set of months with four letters or less.
then
D=
{March, May, June }
E={
January, February , July}
F={
May, June, July}

Find
D∩E
,
E∩F
,
D∩F

Solution
D∩E=∅

E∩F=
{July}
D
∩F=
{May, June}
Set D and E are disjoint sets so their intersection is empty set.

Perform the indicated operation. Use the same sets given in example 5.

a.
F∩D

b.
D∩E∩F


c.
(D∩E)∪(E∩F)


The difference of two sets

X a
 nd
Y
 is the set of elements in set
X
 , but its common elements with Set of
Y
 is taken out and is denoted by
X−Y
 which is read as ”
X
 minus
Y
 . “
X−Y
 can be understood also as the set composed of the elements of
X
 with the elements of its intersection with
Y
 removed or in symbols,
X−Y=X−(X∩Y).



Given
A=
{January , June , July}
D=
{March, May, June}
F=
{May , June, July}

Find
A−D , D−A , A−F , F−A

Solution
A−D=

{January, July}
D−A=
{March , May}
A−F=
{January}
F−A=
{May}

Note :
A−D≠D−A
and
A−F≠F−A
.

Perform the following using the same sets given in Example 5.

a.
D−F

b.
F−D

c.
(A∪D)−F

d.
(F∩D)−A

e.
(A∪F)−(A∩D)A∪F−A∩D


The complement of a Set

XX
 relative to a universal set
UU
 is the set of elements in
UU
 that are not in
XX
 and is denoted by
X′X′
 (read as”

XX
 prime”). The universal set is the totality of all elements that are included under a defined
condition.
X′X′
 can be understood as the set that is composed of all elements of
UU
 with its common elements with
XX
 taken out , or in symbols ,
X′X′
 =
U−XU−X
 .


If
U={−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}U={−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

A={0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5}A={0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

B={−4, −2, 0, 2, 4}B={−4, −2, 0, 2, 4}

Find
A′A′
and
B′B′

Solution
A′={−5, −4, −3, −2, −1}A′={−5, −4, −3, −2, −1}

B′={−5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5}B′={−5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5}

Perform the indicated set operations.

a.
(A∪B)′(A∪B)′

b.
(A∩B)′(A∩B)′

c.

(A∪B)−A′A∪B−A′

d.
B′∩(A−B)B′∩(A−B)


The

Cartesian productCartesian product
 of two sets
XX
 and
YY
 is the set of all possible pairs of elements and is denoted by
X×YX×Y
 (read as “the Cartesian product of
XX
 and
YY
 ”). Each pair of elements is called an ordered pair
(x,y), x,y,
 where the first element
x x
 is an element of the first set
X X
 ; that is ,
x∈X x∈X
 ; the second element
y y
 is an element of the second set
YY
 ; that is
y∈Yy∈Y
 .


If
M={0,1}M={0,1}
and
N={1, 2}N={1, 2}

Find
M×N×
,

N×M , × ,
and
M×M×

Solution

M×N=M×N=
{(
0, 1),(0,2), (1,1)0, 1),0,2, (1,1)
, (1,2}

N×M={(1,0),(1,1),(2,0),(2,1)}N×M={1,0,1,1,2,0,2,1}

M×M={(0,0),(0,1),(1,0),(1,1)}M×M={0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1}

Interchanging the Sets M and N, that is
M×NM×N
to
N×MN×M
, will result to equivalent set but not equal set s of ordered pairs.

Perform the indicated set operations using the given sets in Example 7

a.
(M×N)∪(N×M)M×N∪N×M

b.
(M×N)∩(N×M)M×N∩N×M

c.
(M×N)−(N×M)M×N−N×M

d.
(N∩M)×(M∪N)N∩M×M∪N

3.3 Venn Diagram
The Venn Diagram, named after John Venn (English logician, 1834-1923), is a geometric
representation of sets, set relation, and operations. It is usually utilizes overlapping or non-
overlapping circles drawn rectangle.


Venn Diagram and Sets Operations



MODULE 2

Figure 1

Determine Regions that Represent Sets

Use the Figure 2 to answer each of the following.
a. Which regions represent
A∩CA∩C
?
b. Which regions represent
A∪ CA∪ C
?
c. Which regions represent
A ∩ B′A ∩ B′
?


Figure 2

Solution :
a.
A ∩ C A ∩ C
is represented by all the regions common to
circles A and C. Thus
A ∩ CA ∩ C
is represented by regions i and iv.

b.
A∪CA∪C
is represented by all the regions obtained by joining the regions in circle A (i, ii, iv, v) and the
regions in circle C (i, iii, iv, vii).
Thus
A ∪CA ∪C
is represented by regions i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vii.

c.
A ∩ B′A ∩ B′
is represented by all the regions common to circle A and
the regions that are not in circle B. Thus.
A ∩ B′ A ∩ B′
is represented by regions iv and v.



See Figure 3 below to find the following.
a.
A∪B∪
c.
B−A−

b.
B∩C∩
d.
C′′

Figure 3
Solution:

a.
A∪B={1.3.5.7}A∪B={1.3.5.7}

b.
B∩C={3.7}B∩C={3.7}

c.
B−A={3}B−A={3}

d.
C′={1,5,9}C′={1,5,9}

Counting problems occur in many areas of applied mathematics. To solve these
counting problems, we often make use of a Venn diagram. In the next example, we can use
Venn Diagram to help us solve some word problems.

A movie company is making plans for future movies it wishes to produce. The company has
done a random survey of 1000 people. The results of the survey are shown below.

695 people like action adventures.
340 people like comedies.
180 people like both action adventures and comedies.

Of the people surveyed, how many people
a. like action adventures but not comedies?
b. like comedies but not action adventures?
c. do not like either of these types of movies?

Solution
A Venn diagram can be used to illustrate the results of the survey. We use two overlapping
circles (see Figure 4). One circle represents the set of people who like action adventures and
the other represents the set of people who like comedies. The region i where the circles
intersect represents the set of people who like both types of movies.
We start with the information that 180 people like both types of movies and write
180 in region i . See Figure 5.



a. Regions i and ii have a total of 695 people. So far we have accounted for 180 of these
people in region i. Thus the number of people in region ii, which is the set of people who like
action adventures but do not like comedies, is
695 − 180 =515695 − 180 =515
.

b. Regions i and iii have a total of 340 people. Thus the number of people in region iii, which
is the set of people who like comedies but do not like action adventures, is
340 −180 =160340 −180 =160
.

c. The number of people who do not like action adventure movies or comedies is represented
by region iv. The number of people in region iv must be the total number of people, which is
1000, less the number of people accounted for in regions i, ii, and iii, which is 855. Thus the
number of people who do not like either type of movie is
1000 − 855 = 145.1000 − 855 = 145.

An activities director for a cruise ship has surveyed 240 passengers. Of the 240 passengers,

135 like swimming. 80 like swimming and dancing.
150 like dancing. 40 like swimming and games.
65 like games. 25 like dancing and games.

15 like all three activities.

How many passengers
a. like exactly two of the three types of activities?
b. like only swimming?
c. like none of these activities?


Sets like

A={a,e,i,o,u}A=a,e,i,o,u
 which has a definite number of elements in roster method where the elements are listed


Sets like Set

N={x|x∈Z}N={x|x∈Z}
 . This is read as “Set
NN
 is the set of all values of
xx
 such that
x x
 is an integer”which has indefinite number of elements are written in set-
builder method . This notation is used whenever it is convenient or impossible to list all the
elements of a set; it merely describes the characterizing property of its elements in terms of
symbols.


Set operations such as : Union, Intersection, Difference, Complementation, and Cartesian
Product.


In exercises 1 to 5, use the roster method to write each of the given sets .
1. The set of whole numbers less than 4.
2. The set of counting numbers larger than 11 and less than or equal to 19.
3. The set of negative integers between -5 and 7.
4. The set of months of the year with a name that ends with the letter y
5. The set of integers x that satisfy
2x − 1 =−112x − 1 =−11

In exercises 6 to 10 , use the rule method to describe the following sets.

6.
A= {3,7,5,9,11,13}A= {3,7,5,9,11,13}

7.
D= {−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3}D= {−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3}

8. The set
ZΖ
of negative integers greater than
−6−6

9. The set
PP
is the set of whose elements are numbers greater that 7 but less than 100
10.
S={1, 4, 9, 16, 25}S={1, 4, 9, 16, 25}

In exercises 11 to 15, fill in the table below with the corresponding notation or statement
and evaluate if what it states is true or false . Refer to these four sets for your answer.
A={2, 3, 10, 12, 20}A={2, 3, 10, 12, 20}
C={10, 20,30,40,50,…}C={10, 20,30,40,50,…}

B={2,4,6,8}B={2,4,6,8}
D={…−4,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}D={…−4,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}

Notation Statement True/ False
11. BB
B⊂DB⊂D is a proper subset of
DD
.
12.
B⊄CB⊄C

13. CC
is not a subset of
DD
.
14.
A⊂DA⊂D

15. 10∈A15. 10∈A 10 is an element of
A.A.

In exercises 16 to 24, Consider the following sets .
A
= {a, b,c}= {, ,}
C
= {b,c,d}= {,,}
B

= {b,c,d,e}= {,,,}
U
=
{a,b,c,d, e}{,,,, }
– Universal Set
Find the following sets and identify the cardinality of the sets.
16. A
∪ ∪
B
17. B
∪∪
C
18.. A
∪(∪(
B
∩ ∩
C)
19. A x B
20. A x C
21.
B−AB−A

22 .
C′C′

23.
A∪∅A∪∅

24.
(A∩B)′(A∩B)′

25.
B′ ∪C′ B′ ∪C′

In exercises 26 to 27, if
E==
{even counting numbers } and
O==
{odd counting numbers}, then which of the following are true or false .
26. (2, 3)
∈∈

E×OE×O

27. 22
∈∈

E×EE×E


In exercises 28 to 29 . Draw a Venn diagram with each of the given elements placed in the
correct region.
28.
U={2,4,6,8,10,12,14}U={2,4,6,8,10,12,14}

A={2,10,12}A={2,10,12}

B={4,8}B={4,8}

C={−1, 8, 9}C={−1, 8, 9}

29.
U ={U ={
Hal, Marie, Rob, Armando, Joel, Juan, Melody}
A =A =
{Marie, Armando, Melody}
B ={B ={
Rob, Juan, Hal}
R=R=
{Hal, Marie, Rob, Joel, Juan, Melody}

30. Use Venn Diagram to answer the following problem

Mrs. Cruz asked her 30 students who among their mother, father, or sibling will
attend the quarterly conference. Sixteen students said their mother will attend, another 16 said
their father will attend, and 11 said their siblings will attend. Five said their mother and
sibling will attend, and of these, 3 said their father will also attend. Five said only their
sibling will attend and 8 said only their father will attend. How many students said only their
mother will attend? Support your answer by illustrating the Venn Diagram which represents
the given data.

Lesson 4: The Language of Logic
The term logic refers to the science that studies the principle of correct reasoning.
Logic requires the act of reasoning to form thoughts and opinions, as well as classification
and judgements. The foundation of logical argument is
its proposition or statement The proposition is either accurate (true) or not accurate (false)
but not both true and false . The argument is then built on premises. The premises are the
propositions used to build the argument.

Determine if each sentence is a proposition or statement.

a.
Read the sentences.
b.
a.

The word dog has four letters .

b.
a.
How are you?
b.
a.
b.
92+2 +
c. is a prime number.
d.
a.
b.
x+1 =5 + =
c.
d.

Solution
a. Lingayen is the capital of Pangasinan, so this sentence is true and it is a proposition.
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus it is
not a proposition.
c. You may not know whether
992+ 2992+ 2
is a prime number; however, you do know that
it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime
number. The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it
is a statement.
d.
x+1 =5x+1 =5
is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x
==
4, and
it is false for any other values of
xx
. For any given value of
xx
, it is true or false but not
both.

Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. Open the door.
b. 7055 is a large number.
c. In the year 2020, the president of the United States will be a woman.
d.
x > 3x > 3
.


Simple Statements and Compound Statements
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement
is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if . . .
then, and if
and only if creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will attend the meeting or I will
go to school.” is a compound statement. It is composed of the two simple statements, “I will
attend the meeting.” and “I will go to school.” The word or is a connective for the two simple
statements.

George Boole (the one who published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848) used
symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols
∧, ∨, ∼, ⟶∧, ∨, ∼, ⟶
and
⟷⟷
to represent connectives. See Table 1.

Table 1: Logic Connectives and Symbols
Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of statement
not ~p~p
pp not negation

pp
and p∧qp∧q
and conjunction
qq

pp
or p∨qp∨q
or Disjunction
qq

If
pp
p→qp→q
, then If … then conditional

qq

p p
if and only if p↔qp↔q
if and only if biconditional
qq

Truth Value and Truth Tables
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements
and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible
truth values of its simple statements.


Negation Operator (not
~~
)
The negation of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the statement “Today is not
Friday.” In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol
~ ~
is used to denote the negation of a statement.
If a statement p is true, its negation
~~
p is false, and if a statement p is false, its negation
~~
p is true. See the table below . The negation of the negation of a statement is the original statement.
Thus
~~
(
~~
p) can be replaced by p in any statement.

Truth table for
~p~p

p (~p)(~)

T F
F T

Write the Negation of a Statement

a. Rodrigo Duterte is our president.
b. MMW is an easy subject.
c. The number 10 is a prime number
d. The fire engine is not red .

Solution
a. Rodrigo Duterte is not our president.
b. MMW is not an easy subject / MMW is a hard easy subject
c. The number 10 is not a prime number / The number 10 is a composite number
d. The fire engine is red .

Write the negation of each statement.

a. Mayon Volcano is in Naga.

b. Ninoy is a hero.
c. The dog does not need to be fed.
d. Maria is not a teenager.

Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

Consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.

Solution
a.
p ∧qp ∧q
b.
∼q ∧ r∼q ∧ r
c.
∼s ∨ r∼s ∨ r
d.
q ⟶ sq ⟶ s

Use p, q, r, and s as defined in Example 14 to write
the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.
b. I am going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
c. I am going to the movie if and only if it is raining.
d. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie.

Translate symbolic statements into English sentences.

Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a.
q ∧pq ∧p
b.
∼r ∧s∼r ∧s
c.
s ⟷ ∼ps ⟷ ∼p

Solution
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
c. The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in Atlanta.

Consider the following statements.

e: All men are created equal.
t: I am trading places.
a: I get Abe’s place.
g: I get George’s place.
Use the above information to translate the dialogue in the speech bubbles at the left.

Conjunction Operator (and
∧ ∧
)
This is a statement which is the result of combining two other statements with the
connective word and .
The conjunction of two statements is true only if both statements are true.

Truth table for
(p∧q)(∧)

p q p∧q∧

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Disjunction Operator (and

∨∨

)
This is a statement which is the result of combining two other statements with the
connective word or.
The disjunction of two statements is
false false
only if both statements are false.

Truth table for
(p∨q)(∨)

p q p∨q∨

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Determine the Truth Value of a Statement
a.
7 ≥ 5.7 ≥ 5.

b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.

Solution
a.
7 ≥ 57 ≥ 5
means 7 > 5 or 7
==
5. Because 7 > 5 is true, the statement 7
==
5 is a true statement.
b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
c. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number.
b.
4 ≤ 9.4 ≤ 9.


c.
−7 ≥− 3.−7 ≥− 3.

Conditional Operator (if …then
→→

)
Conditional statement can be written in if p, then q form or if p, q form. For instance,
all of the following are conditional statements.

If you passed the test, then I will give you a reward.


If you get sick, then you will be absent.

In any conditional statement represented by “if
pp
, then
qq
” or by “If p, q,” the p statement is called antecedent / hypothesis and the q statement is
called consequent/ conclusion.
The conditional statement is true in all cases, except when the antecedent is true and the
consequent is false. In other words, a true statement is hypothesis cannot imply a false conclusion.

Truth table for
(p→q)(p→q)

p q p→qp→q

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Determine the truth value of each of the following.

a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then
5 > 7.5 > 7.

c. If
5 > 35 > 3
, then
2+ 7= 4.2+ 7= 4.


Solution
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false statement.

Determine the truth value of each of the following.

a. If
4 ≥34 ≥3
, then
2+ 5= 6.2+ 5= 6.

b. If
5>95>9
, then
4 >94 >9
.
c. If Tuesday follows Monday, then April follows March.

Biconditional Operator (if and only if
⟷⟷

)
Biconditional / equivalent statement is the result of combining two propositions in the
form…if and only if…
The equivalence is true if both propositions are true or both false.

Truth table for
(p⟷q)(p⟷q)

p q p⟷qp⟷q

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

State whether each biconditional is true or false.

a.

x+ 4= 7x+ 4= 7
if and only if
x= 3x= 3
.
b.
x2=36x2=36
if and only if [Equation]

Solution
a. Both equations are true when [Equation], and both are false when [Equation]. Both
equations have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If [Equation], the fi rst equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus this is a false
statement.

.

State whether each biconditional is true or false.

a. [Equation] if and only if [Equation]
b. [Equation] if and only if [Equation]

Truth Table
In this section, we consider methods of constructing truth tables for a statement that
involves a combination of conjunctions, disjunctions, and/or negations. If the given statement
involves only two simple statements, then start with a table with four rows (see the
table below ), called the standard truth table form, and proceed as shown in Example 19.
p q Given
Statement
T T
T F
F T
F F

.

Truth Tables


a. Construct a table for [Equation]
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of [Equation], given that p is true and q is false.

Solution
a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a [Equation] column.
p q [Equation]

T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

Now use the truth values from the [Equation]and q columns to produce the truth values
for [Equation] [Equation], as shown in the rightmost column of the following table.

p q [Equation] [Equation] [Equation]

T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

Negate the truth values in the [Equation] [Equation] column to produce the following.
p q [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation])

T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

As our last step, we form the disjunction of [Equation] [Equation])with q and place the results
in the rightmost column of the table. See the following table. The shaded column is the truth
table for [Equation] [Equation]

p q [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation]) [Equation] [Equation]

T T F T F T row 1
T F F F T T row 2
F T T T F T row 3
F F T T F F row 4

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is true, and q is false, the statement
[Equation] [Equation] in the rightmost column is true.


a. Construct a truth table for [Equation]

b. Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth value
of [Equation]given that p is true and q is false.

Compound statements that involve exactly three simple statements require a standard
truth table form with [Equation] rows.

Truth Tables

b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of [Equation]given that p is
true, q is true, and r is false.

Solution
a. Using the procedures developed in Example 19, we can produce the following table.
The shaded column is the truth table for [Equation]. The numbers in the squares below the columns denote the
order in which the columns were constructed.

p q [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] )

T T T T F T T row 1
T T F T T T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F T T F row 4
F T T F F T F row 5
F T F F T T F row 6
F F T F F F F row 7
F F F F T T F row 8

b. Inrow 2 of the above truth table, we see that [Equation] is true when p is true, q is true,
and r is false.

b. Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth value
of [Equation]given that p is false, q is true, and r is false.



The term logic refers to the science that studies the principle of correct reasoning. Logic requires
the act of reasoning to form thoughts and opinions, as well as classification and judgements. The
foundation of logical argument is its proposition or statement The proposition is either accurate
(true) or not accurate (false) but not both true and false . The argument is then built on premises.
The premises are the propositions used to build the argument.



A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement

is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if . . .
then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.
George Boole (the one who published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848)
used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols
∧, ∨, ∼, ⟶∧, ∨, ∼, ⟶
and
⟷⟷
to represent connectives.


The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).

The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements
and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible
truth values of its simple statements.

In exercises 1 to 6. Determine which of the following sentences are propositions and indicate
their truth values.
1. Legazpi is the capital of Albay.
2. [Equation]
3. [Equation] for every pair of real numbers [Equation] and [Equation]
4. [Equation]
5. [Equation] if [Equation]
6. Answer this question.

In exercises 7 to 9 .Write each sentence in symbolic form. Use [Equation] and [Equation] as
defined below.
p: Dwyane Wade is a football player.
q: Dwyane Wade is a basketball player.
r: Dwyane Wade is a rock star.
s: Dwyane Wade plays for the Miami Heat.

7. Dwyane Wade is a rock star, and he is not a basketball player or a football player.

8. Dwyane Wade is a basketball player, if and only if he is not a football player and he is not
a rock star.
9. It is not true that, Dwyane Wade is a football player or a rock star.

In exercises 10 to 13. Let p, q, and r be the propositions :
[Equation]: You are sick.
q: You miss the final examination.
r: You pass this subject.

Express each of the following propositions as an English sentence.
10. [Equation]
11. [Equation]
12. [Equation]
13. [Equation]

In exercises 14 to 18. Determine the truth value of the compound statement given that p is a
false statement, q is a true
statement, and r is a true statement.

14. [Equation]
15. [Equation]
16. [Equation]
17. [Equation]
18. [Equation]

In exercises 19 to 20 . Construct a truth table for each compound statement.

19. [Equation]
20. [ [Equation] (p [Equation]
LEARNING ACTIVITY

REFERENCES

References :

Blay et. all, Mathematical Trips in the Modern World Outcomes-Based Approach


Nocon et. al , Essential Mathematics for the Modern World


Baltazar et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World


Aufman,Richard et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World



Mathematics in the World book from RBSI


Domantay,Gloria, et. al. College Algebra


Photo credits:
Venn diagram worksheet, mathaids.com
2 Circle Venn Diagrams , https://news.efofex.com/2016/02/17/2-circle-venn-diagrams-a-
teacher-resource-project-upload/comment-page-1

Answers to Your turn(lesson 1)
1. a.[Equation]
b.The elements of set
AA
are
xx
and
y y

c. The sum of the square of a number and 1 is not zero
d. [Equation]


1. a. [Equation]
b. [Equation]
c. [Equation]
2. a. [Equation]
b. [Equation]
c. [Equation]

3.

Notation Statement True/False
L⊂KL⊂K Set L is a proper subset of Set K . True

L⊄ML⊄M Set L is not a proper subset of set M. True

N⊆KN⊆K Set N is a subset of set K. True


∅⊂N∅⊂N Empty set is a subset of set N. True

4.
Number of Elements in a Set Number of Subsets
00 1

11 2

22 4

33 8

4 16
5 32
6 64
nn [Equation]

5. a. [Equation] {March , April , May}
b. [Equation]{ January,March, April,June, July}[Equation]{March, May}
[Equation] { January,March, April,May, June, July}
6. a. [Equation]{May, June}
b. [Equation] [Equation]May, June, July}
= [Equation]
c. [Equation]
[Equation]
7. a. [Equation] {March}
b. [Equation]{July}
c. [Equation]{January,March,May, June, July}[Equation]{May , June, July}
[Equation] { January,March}
d. [Equation]{May, June}[Equation] { January , June , July}
[Equation]{May}
e. [Equation]{ January , May, June , July}[Equation]{June}
[Equation]{January,May,July}
8. a. [Equation]
b. [Equation]
c. [Equation]
[Equation] or
AA

d. [Equation]
[Equation]
9. a. [Equation]
[Equation]
b. [Equation]
[Equation]
c. [Equation]
[Equation]

d. [Equation]

10. The intersection of the three sets includes the 15 people who like all three activities.

a. Because 140 students like volleyball and 85 like both sports, there
must be [Equation] students who like only volleyball.
b. Because 120 students like basketball and 85 like both sports, there
must be [Equation] students who like only basketball.
c. The Venn diagram shows that the number of students who like only volleyball plus the
number who like only basketball plus the number who like both sports is
55 + 35 + 85=175. Thus of the 200 students
surveyed, only [Equation] do not like either of the sports.


1. a. The sentence “Open the door” is a command. It is not a statement.
b. The word large is not a precise term. It is not possible to determine whether the
sentence “7055 is a large number” is true or false, and thus the sentence is not a statement.
c. You may not know whether the given sentence is true or false, but you know that the
sentence is either true or false and that it is not both true and false. Thus the sentence is a
statement.
d. The sentence [Equation] is a statement because for any given value of [Equation],
the inequality [Equation] is true or false, but not both.

2. a. Mayon Volcano is not in Naga.
b. Ninoy is not a hero.
c. The dog needs to be fed.
d. Maria is a teenager.

3. a. [Equation] c. [Equation]

b. [Equation] d. [Equation]

4. [Equation] : All men are created equal and I am not trading places.
[Equation]: I get Abe’s place or I am not trading places.
[Equation] : If all men are created equal, then I am trading places.
[Equation] : I am trading places if and only if I get George’s place.

5. a. True. A conjunction of two statements is true provided that both statements are true.
b. True. A disjunction of two statements is true provided that at least one statement is
true.
c. False. If both statements of a disjunction are false, then the disjunction is false.

6 . a. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, the statement is a false
statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, the statement is a true statement.
c. Because the consequent is true, the statement is a true statement.

7. a. Let [Equation]. Then the first inequality of the biconditional is false, and the second
inequality of the biconditional is true. Thus the given biconditional statement is false.
b. Both inequalities of the biconditional are true for [Equation], and both inequalities are false
for [Equation]. Because both inequalities have the same truth value for any real number x, the
given biconditional is true.
8. a.
p q [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation]

T T F F F T T row 1
T F F T T F T row 2
F T T F F T T row 3
F F T T F T T row 4

b. p is true and q is false in row 2 of the above truth table. The truth value of [Equation]in
row 2 is T (true).

9. a.
p q [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation] [Equation]

T T T F F T F row 1
T T F F F T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F F T F row 4
F T T T T T T row 5
F T F T F T T row 6
F F T T T F T row 7
F F F T F T F row 8

b. p is false, q is true, and r is false in row 6 of the above truth table. The truth value of
(∼p∧r)∨(q∧∼r)(∼p∧r)∨(q∧∼r)
in row 6 is T (true).

MODULE 3
REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module consist of three lessons: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, Polya’s Problem Solving
Strategy, Recreational Problems using Mathematics. Each lesson was designed as a self-teaching
guide. Definitions of terms and examples had been incorporated. Answering the problems in “your

turn” will check your progress. You may compare your answers to the solutions provided at the later
part of this module in that way you will be able to measure your achievement and as well as the
effectiveness of the module. Exercises were prepared as your assignment to deepen your
understanding about the topics.

 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics
and mathematical concepts.
 Solve problems involving problems and recreational problems following Polya’s four steps.
 Organize one’s methods and approaches to proving and solving problems.
LEARNING CONTENTS (INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING)
Introduction
Mathematics has always been seen as a tool for problem solving. Math by nature is based on
logical and valid reasoning so that it used for decision – making. A good decision maker is one who
can find resolution using his/ her reasoning ability and mathematical strategy. In this chapter, you
will learn to organize your own methods and approaches to solve mathematical problems.
Discussion
Lesson 1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that uses specific examples to reach a general conclusion is called
inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called conjecture which
may or may not correct. For instance, the following are examples of inductive reasoning:
- Jenny leaves for school at 7:00 am. Jenny is always on time.
Therefore, Jenny assumes then that if she leaves for school at 7:00 am., she will
always be on time.
The conclusion, however, may not be accurate because Jenny would have still
be late even she leaves early due to she might encounter some unexpected
circumstances causing her to be late.
- The chair in the living room is red . The chair in the dining room is red . The chair
in the bedroom is red. Therefore, all chairs in the house are red.
The conclusion, however, may not be correct. There might some other chair/s
in that house that is/are not red.
Even when you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to some
pattern you have observed, you are also using inductive reasoning.
Example 1 Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that
the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding
difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger
than 15, which is 21.
.
Your turn 1 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ? b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?
Example 2 Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out of the following

procedure.
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 8,
3. Add 6 to the product
4. Divide the sum by 2
5. And subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 ×5=40
Add 6: 40+ 6=46
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2=23
Subtract 3: 23 −3=20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original number
produces a fi nal result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting with 100
produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times the original
number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the
original number.
Your turn 2 Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9,
add 15 to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 5. Complete the above
procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning

to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of
the original number.
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564– 1642) used inductive
reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period
of the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he
measured the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.” The following table shows some results obtained
for pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been
designated as 1 unit.
Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,

in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
Example 3 Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the
following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Solution
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus we conjecture
that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with
a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum
with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
Your turn 3 A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake. The height of
a tsunami as it approaches land depends on the velocity of the tsunami. Use the
table at the left and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is doubled?

b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?
Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not always be true. In other words, a conjecture
formed by using inductive reasoning may be incorrect. To illustrate this , consider the results below,

11×(1) ( 101 )=1111

11 × ( 2 ) ( 101 )=2222
11 × ( 3 )( 101 )=3333
11×(4 ) ( 101 )=4444
11 × ( 5 )( 101 )=5555
11 × ( 6 )( 101 )=?
Simple arithmetic shows that the answer is 6666; hence it is conjectured that the product of 11 and a
multiple of 101 is number where all digits are equal. But is 11× n ( 101 )=nnn true for all n, (n , a
natural number)?
Suppose n=10 . Then 11 ×10 ( 101 )=11,110 which obviously does not satisfy the
previous conclusion. This method of disproving a statement is to give a counterexample .
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case
for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.
Example 4 Find a counterexample. Verify that each of the following statements is a

false statement by finding counterexample. For all number x:
a. |x| > 0
b. x 2> x
c. √ x 2 ¿ x
Solution
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counterexample to
verify that the statement is false.
a. Let x=0. Then|0|=0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all numbers x, |x| > 0 ” is a false statement.
b. For x=1 we have 12=1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all numbers x, x 2> x ” is a false statement.
c. Consider x=− 3. Then √ (− 3)2 =√ 9=3 . Since 3 is not equal to −3, we have found a
counterexample. Thus “for all numbers √ x 2 ¿ x” is a false statement.
Your turn 4
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.
For all numbers x:
x
a. =1
x
x+3
b. = x+1
3

c. √ x 2+16=x +4
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is
distinguished
from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
principles and procedures . For instance, the following are examples of deductive reasoning:
- All squares are rectangle. All rectangles have four angles.

Therefore, logic tells us that all squares have four right angles.
- All dogs have good sense of smell. Blackeye is a dog.

Therefore, using deductive reasoning tells us that Blackeye has a good sense of smell.
Example 5 Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.
Procedure:
1. Pick a number. Note that Example 5 is the
2. Multiply the number by 8, same as Example 2 except
3. add 6 to the product, that in this example
4. divide the sum by 2, deductive reasoning is
5.. and subtract 3. used.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8 n
Add 6 to the product: 8 n+6
8 n+6
Divide the sum by 2: =4 n+3
2
Subtract 3: 4 n+3 −3=4 n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces a number that
is four times the original number.
Your turn 5 Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a
number that is three times the original number.
Procedure:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 6,
3. add 10 to the product,
4. divide the sum by 2,
5.and subtract 5.
Hint: Let n represent the original number.

Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us to
display the given information in a visual manner.
Example 6 Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write (which stands for
“ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian
From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s
row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home, and we know from clue 2 that
Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of
Sarah’s row.

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian
From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for three of the
four occupations in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a √ in that box. Since Sarah
is the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There are
now Xs for three of the four occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a
√ to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the
editor.

Sean X3 X3
Maria √ X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 √ X3

Brian X3 X3
From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. Since there are three Xs in the
Banker column, Sean must be the banker. Place a √ in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.
Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a √
in that box.
Sean X3 √ X3 X4
Maria √ X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 √ X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 √
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist
Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers
Your turn 6 (president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the sophomore class at
Summit College. From the following clues, determine which position each
holds.
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members
of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
LEARNING POINTS
The type of reasoning that uses specific examples to reach a general conclusion is called inductive
reasoning . The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called conjecture which
may or may not correct.
Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general principles and procedures
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
In exercises 1 to 4. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following
lists.
1. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ___
3 5 7 9 11 13
2. , , , , , , ______
5 7 9 11 13 15
3. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ____
4. 2 ,7 ,− 3 ,2 , −8 , −3 , −13 , − 8 ,− 18, __
5. 1 , 8 ,27 ,64 ,125 ,¿
6. 80 , 70 , 61, 53 , 46 , 40 , _____
7. 1 ,5 , 12 , 22, 35 , ______
In exercises 8 to 11. Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning.

6. Emma enjoyed reading the novel Under the Dome by Stephen King, so she will enjoy reading his
next novel.
8. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure A has exactly fi ve
sides.
9. Every English setter likes to hunt. Duke is an English setter, so Duke likes to hunt.
10. Cats don’t eat tomatoes. Tigger is a cat. Therefore, Tigger does not eat tomatoes.
11. Two computer programs, a bubble sort and a shell sort, are used to sort data. In each of 50
experiments, the shell sort program took less time to sort the data than did the bubble sort program.
Thus the shell sort program is the faster of the two sorting programs.
In exercises 12 to 16. Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample for each.
12. ( x + y )2 =x2 + y 2
13. For all x, |x +3|=|x|+3
14. For all x, x + x> x
(x +1)( x −1)
15. For all number x , =x+ 1
(x −1)
16. For all numbers x ,− x< x .
In exercises 17 to 18. Use the data in the table and by inductive reasoning , answer the
following question below.
Max. Tsunami
Earthquake Magnitude
Height(meters)
7.5 5
7.6 9
7.7 13
7.8 17
7.9 21
8.0 25
8.1 29
8.2 33
8.3 37
17. if the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in meters) can the tsunami be?
18. Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake magnitude is less than 7? Explain you answer.
19. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produces the number 5.
Procedure: Pick a number. Add 4 to the number and
multiply the sum by 3. Subtract 7 and then decrease this
difference by the triple of the original number.
20. Solve a logic puzzle .

Each of the four friends Donna, Sarah, Nickkie, and Xhanelle , has a different pet(fish, cat,
dog, and snake). From the following clues, determine the pet of each individual.
1. Sarah is older than her friend who owns the cat and younger than her friend who owns the

dog.
2. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are both of the same age and are the youngest
members of their group.
3. Donna is older than her friend who owns the fish.
LEARNING CONTENTS (POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY)
Lesson 2. Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was George
Polya (1887–1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940.In his book
How to Solve It”, George Polya enumerates the four steps of problem –solving :
1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
Understand the Problem This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have
a clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the
following questions.
■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?
■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
■ What is the goal?
Devise a Plan Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a
problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
■ Make a list of the known information.
■ Make a list of information that is needed.
■ Draw a diagram.
■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
■ Make a table or a chart.
■ Work backwards.
■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
■ Look for a pattern.
■ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
■ Perform an experiment.
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result.
Carry Out the Plan Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
■ Work carefully.
■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.
Review the Solution Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.

■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.

■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply toother
problems.
HISTORICAL
NOTE
Example 1 Apply Polya’s Strategy
Leonardo da Vinci was a famous artist during the renaissance period. He wrote in his notebook that
“from the top to the bottom of the chin is the sixth part of the face, and it is the fifty-fourth part of
the man.” Suppose the distance from the top pf the chin of the person is 1.2 inches. Using Leonardo
da Vinci’s measurements, find the height of the person.
Solution
Understand the Problem. Obviously, one needs to find the height of the person in this problem.
Devise a Plan. Let x represent the unknown height of the person. Write an equation satisfying da
Vinci’s measurements.
Carry Out the Plan.

Let x=ℎeigℎt of tℎe person
Equation
1
x=1.2
54
x=64.8∈¿ 5.4 ft
Thus, the person is 5.4 fttall
Review the solution. The solution is quite simple. . Now check your progress- follow Leonardo da
Vinci’s measurements to find your best friend’s height .
Your turn 1 An agency charged ₱15, 000 for a 3-day and 2-night tour in Macau and
₱20,000 for the same tour with a side trip to Hongkong(HK). Ten persons
joined the trip, which enable them to collect ₱170,000 . How many tourist made a side trip to
Hongkong ?
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different
Example 2 orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution
Understand the Problem . There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight
games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the fi rst two games and won the last two
(LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a Plan. We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a list
that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and
only once.

Carry Out the Plan. Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a strategy
that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to always write a
W unless doing so will produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not
possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy produces the six different
orders shown below.
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)
Review the Solution . We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball
team can win exactly two out of four games.
A true-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a student
Your turn 2 answer the questions if the student answers two of the questions
with “false” and the other three with “true”?
In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game, Stacy fi rst paid $800 for a hotel.
Example 3 She then lost half her money when she landed on Boardwalk. Next, she
collected $200 for passing GO. She then lost half her remaining money when she landed on Illinois
Avenue. Stacy now has $2500. How much did she have just before she purchased the hotel?
Solution
Understand the Problem. We need to determine the number of dollars that Stacy had just prior to
her $800 hotel purchase.
Devise a Plan. We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses before we
found the correct solution. An algebraic method might work, but setting up the necessary equation
could be a challenge. Since we know the end result, let’s try the method of working backwards.
Carry Out the Plan. Stacy must have had $5000 just before she landed on Illinois Avenue; $4800
just before she passed GO; and $9600 prior to landing on Boardwalk. This means she had $10,400
just before she purchased the hotel.
Review the Solution. To check our solution we start with $10,400 and proceed through each of the
transactions. $10,400 less $800 is $9600. Half of $9600 is $4800. $4800 increased by $200 is $5000.
Half of $5000 is $2500.
Your turn 3 Melody picks a number. She doubles the number, squares the result, divides
the square by 3, subtracts 30 from the quotient, and gets 18. What are the
possible numbers that Melody could have picked? What operation does Melody perform that
prevents us from knowing with 100% certainty which number she picked?
LEARNING POINTS
George Polya enumerates the four steps of problem –solving :

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Apply Polya’s Strategy to solve the following problem.

1. The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4,590. None of the teens are the same age.
What are the ages of the teenagers?
2. An investor bought 20 shares of stock for a total cost of $1200 and then sold all the shares for
$1400. A few months later, the investor bought 25 shares of the same stock for a total cost of $1800
and then sold all the shares for $1900. How much money did the investor earn on these investments?
3. If two ladders are placed end to end, their combined height is 31.5 feet. One ladder is 6.5 feet
shorter than the other ladder. What are the heights of the two ladders?
4. In the movie Die Hard: With a Vengeance, Bruce Willis and Samuel L. Jackson are given a 5-
gallon jug and a 3-gallon jug and they must put exactly 4 gallons of water on a scale to keep a bomb
from exploding. Explain how they could accomplish this feat.
5. In a basketball league consisting of 12 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly twice. How many league games will be played?
6. How many children are there in a family wherein each girl has as many brothers as sisters, but
each boy has twice as many sisters as brothers?
LEARNING CONTENTS ( RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS)
Lesson 3. Recreational Problems Using Mathematics

Mathematics can also be used to solve some recreational activities such as :
o Soduko
o Magic Square
o KenKen Puzzle
o Tower of Hanoi
Sudoku Puzzle

Sudoku Puzzle -is a logic-based, combinatorial number-placement puzzle. The objective is to

fill a 9×9 grid with digits so that each column, each row, and each of the nine 3×3 subgrids that
compose the grid contains all of the digits from 1 to 9 .
Solve the following soduko puzzle.
Magic Square
A magic square is a square array of numbers consisting of the distinct positive integers 1, 2,
3,… arranged such that the sum of n numbers in any horizontal , vertical, and main diagonal line is
always the same .
The magic square below has order 3, and the sum of the numbers in each row, column, and
diagonal is 15.
KenKen Puzzles
KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms.
Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle

For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, or 3.
For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ... , n.
Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.

• Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
• The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine (in some order) to
produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the mathematical operation
indicated.
• Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
• A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or column.
Here is a 4 by 4 puzzle and its solution. Properly constructed puzzles have a unique solution.

Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

Single-Square Cages Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number for that square.
Cages with Two Squares Next examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many cages that cover
two squares will only have two digits that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, in a 5 by 5
puzzle, a 20 × cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 4 and 5 or 5 and 4.
Large or Small Target Numbers Search for cages that have an unusually large or small target
number. These cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can be used to fill the
cage.
Tower of Hanoi
Another equally famous problem involving patterns is the Tower of Hanoi, invented by Edouard
Lucas in 1883. The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle consisting of three pegs and a number of disks of
distinct diameters piled as shown in the figure below
The puzzle requires that all the disks be moved from first peg to the third peg such that the largest
disk is on the bottom , the next largest disk is placed on top of the largest disk and so on and that
only one disk be moved at a time . All pegs may be used. Note: You can use a stack of various size
coins to simulate the puzzle, or you can use one of the many websites that provide a simulation of
the puzzle. Ex. https://www.mathisfun.com/games/towerofhanoi.html)
LEARNING POINTS
Sudoku Puzzle -is a logic-based, combinatorial number-placement puzzle. The objective is to fill
a 9×9 grid with digits so that each column, each row, and each of the nine 3×3 subgrids that
compose the grid contains all of the digits from 1 to 9
A magic square is a square array of numbers consisting of the distinct positive integers 1, 2, 3,…
arranged such that the sum of n numbers in any horizontal , vertical, and main diagonal line is
always the same .
KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as
synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
The Tower of Hanoi puzzle requires that all the disks be moved from first peg to the third peg
such that the largest disk is on the bottom , the next largest disk is placed on top of the largest
disk and so on and that only one disk be moved at a time . All pegs may be used .
LEARNING ACTIVITY 23
1. Sudoku is a deductive reasoning, number placement puzzle. The object in a 6 by 6 mini-Sudoku

puzzle is to fill all empty squares so that the counting numbers 1 to 6 appear exactly once in each
row, each column, and each of the 2 by 3 regions, which are delineated by the thick line segments.
Solve the following 6 by 6 mini-Sudoku puzzle.
In exercises 6 to 9. Solve each of the following puzzles.
6. 7.
8. 9.

10. Play the Tower of Hanoi and determine the minimum number of moves required to transfer the
disks from the peg to the third peg for each of the following situations .
a. You start with only one disk.
b. You start with two disks.
c. You start with three disks. (Note: You can use a
stack of various size coins to simulate the puzzle, or
you can use one of the many websites that provide a simulation of the puzzle. Ex.
https://www.mathisfun.com/games/towerofhanoi.html)
d. You start with four disks.
e. You start with fi ve disks.
f. You start with n disks.
REFERENCES
References :
 Domantay,Gloria, et. al. College Algebra
Photo credits:
Venn diagram worksheet, mathaids.com
2 Circle Venn Diagrams , https://news.efofex.com/2016/02/17/2-circle-venn-diagrams-a-teacher-
resource-project-upload/comment-page-1
ANSWERS TO YOUR TURN EXERCISES
Answer to Your Turn (Lesson 1)
1. a. Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next
number in the list is 5 larger than 25, which is 30.

b. The fi rst two numbers differ by 3. The second and third numbers differ by 5. It appears that
the difference between any two numbers is always 2 more than the preceding difference.
Thus we predict that the next number will be 11 more than 26, which is 37.
2× 9+15
2. If the original number is 2, then − 5=6 , which is three times the original number.
3
7 ×9+15
If the original number is 7, then −5=21, which is three times the original number.
3
12× 9+15
If the original number is −12, then − 5=− 36 which is three times the original number.
3
It appears, by inductive reasoning, that the procedure produces a number that is three times the
original number.
3. a. It appears that when the velocity of a tsunami is doubled, its height is quadrupled.
b. A tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second will have a height that is four times that of a
tsunami with a speed of 15 feet per second. Thus, we predict a height of 4 ×25=100 feet for
a tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second.
x
4. a. Let x=0 . Then ≠1 ,because division by 0 is undefi ned.
x
x+3 1+3 4
b. Let x=1 .Then = = , whereas x +1=1+1=2
3 3 3
c. Let x=3 . Then √ x 2+16=√ 32 +16= √ 25=5 ,whereas x +4=3+ 4=7.
5. Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 6: 6n
Add 10 to the product: 6 n+10
6 n+10
Divide the sum by 2: =3 n+5
2
Subtract 5: 3 n+5 −5=3 n
The procedure always produces a number that is three times the original number.
6. From clue 1, we know that Ashley is not the president or the treasurer. In the following chart, write X1
(which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the President and Treasurer columns of Ashley’s row.
Pres. V.P Sec. Treas.
Brianna
Ryan
Tyler
Ashley X1 X1
From clue 2, Brianna is not the secretary. We know from clue 1 that the president is not the
youngest, and we know from clue 2 that Brianna and the secretary are the youngest members of the
group. Thus Brianna is not the president. In the chart, write X2 for these two conditions. Also we
know from clues 1 and 2 that Ashley is not the secretary, because she is older than the treasurer.
Write an X2 in the Secretary column of Ashley’s row.
Brianna X2 X2

Ryan
Tyler
Ashley X1 X2 X1
At this point we see that Ashley must be the vice president and that none of the other members is the
vice president. Thus we can update the chart as shown below.
Brianna X2 X2 X2
Ryan X2
Tyler X2
Ashley X1 √ X2 X1
Now we can see that Brianna must be the treasurer and that neither Ryan nor Tyler is the treasurer.
Update the chart as shown below.
Brianna X2 X2 X2 √
Ryan X2 X2
Tyler X2 X2
Ashley X1 √ X2 X1
From clue 3, we know that Tyler is not the secretary. Thus we can conclude that Tyler is the president and Ryan must be
the secretary. See the chart below.
Brianna X2 X2 X2 √
Ryan X3 X2 √ X2
Tyler √ X2 X3 X2
Ashley X1 √ X2 X1
Tyler is the president, Ashley is the vice president, Ryan is the secretary, and Brianna is the
treasurer.
Answer to Your Turn (Lesson 2)
1. Understand the Problem . There are two types of tourist in the situation given . Some purely stayed in
Macau while others made a side trip to HK. From the total collection, how much was the amount collected
from those who purely stayed in Macau and how much was collected from those who made the side trips to
HK.It is needed to know how many were bound for Macau who made a side trip to HK.
Devise a Plan . Use x and y to represent the two types of tourists . Define these variables . Let x be the
number of tourist bound for Macau alone and y be the number of tourist bound for Macau but who made a
side trip to Hongkong. Hence, we have the following algebraic equations:
₱15,000 x=¿ amount collected from the tourist bound for Macau alone
₱15,000 y=¿ amount collected from the tourist bound for Macau but who made a side trip to HK
Carry Out a Plan . Write the equation and solve using elimination method system of equations.
Equations:
x + y=10 Equation 1
15,000 x+20,000 y =170,000 Equation 1

To find the number of tourists for Macau but who made a side trip to HK, we solve for y .
To do this , we use elimination by substitution.
a. Solve for y in Equation 1

x + y=10
y=10 − x Equation 3
b. Substitute y=10 − x in Equation 2

15,000 x+20,000 ( 10 − x )=170,000
15,000 x+200,000 − 20,000 x=170,000
−5,000 x=170,000 −200,000
−5,000 x=− 30,000
−30,000
x=
−5000
x=6
Substituting x=6 in Equation 3, y=4

Therefore, four tourists made a side trip to HK.
Review the Solution . Since there are total of 10 tourists, six of them only stayed in Macau while
four made a side trip to HK . Now, 15,000(6)+20,000( 4)=170,000 . This satisfy the condition that the
total amount collected for the whole trip is ₱ 170,000 .
2. Understand the Problem There are several ways to answer the questions so that two answers are
“false” and three answers are “true.” One way is TTTFF and another is FFTTT.
Devise a Plan Make an organized list. Try the strategy of listing a T unless doing so will produce too
many Ts or a duplicate of one of the previous orders in your list.
Carry Out the Plan (Start with three Ts in a row.)

TTTFF (1)
TTFTF (2)
TTFFT (3)
TFTTF (4)
TFTFT (5)
TFFTT (6)
FTTTF (7)
FTTFT (8)
FTFTT (9)
FFTTT (10)
Review the Solution Each entry in the list has two Fs and three Ts. Since the list is complete and has
no duplications, we know that there are 10 ways for a student to mark two questions with “false” and
the other three with “true.
3. Understand the Problem. We are asked to find the possible numbers that Melody could have
started with.
Devise a Plan. Work backward from 18 and do the inverse of each operation that Melody performed.

Carry Out the Plan . To get 18, Melody subtracted 30 from a number, so that number was
18+30=48. To get 48, she divided a number by 3, so that number was 48 × 3=144.To get 144, she
squared a number. She could have squared either 12 or −12 ¿ produce 144. If the number she
squared was 12, then she must have doubled 6 to get 12. If the number she squared was -12, then the
number she doubled was −6.
Review the Solution .We can check by starting with 6 or −6 If we do exactly as Melody did, we end
up with 18. The operation that prevents us from knowing with 100% certainty which number she
started with is the squaring operation. We have no way of knowing whether the number she squared
was a positive number or a negative number.
1
Study Guide in Mathematics in the Modern World
FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev. 0 10-July-2020
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
GE7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 4: Data Management
DATA MANAGEMENT

MODULE 4
MODULE OVERVIEW
This module consists of five lessons: Measure of Central Tendency, Measures of Dispersion, Measures of
Relative Position, Normal Distribution, and Regression and Correlation. Each lesson was designed as a self
teaching guide. Definitions of terms and examples had been incorporated. Answering the problems in “your
turn” will check your progress. You may compare your answers to the solutions provided at the later part of
this module in that way you will be able to measure your achievement as well as the effectiveness of the
module. Exercises were prepared as your assignment to measure your understanding about the topics.
 Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data
 Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable given certain
conditions
 Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions
LEARNING CONTENTS (MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY)
Introduction
Numerical data is everywhere and everyday more data is being generated. It is important for us to
have a working knowledge of basic statistical concepts and tools so that we can use this data correctly and
optimally. A lot of data is raw - that is not been processed for use yet.
Discussion
Statistics involves the collection, organization, summarization, presentation, and interpretation of data.
The branch of mathematics that involves the collection of organization, summarization, and presentation of
data is called descriptive statistics. The branch that interprets, and draws conclusions from the data is
called inferential statistics.
Lesson 1: Measures of Central Tendency
A measure of central tendency is a summary measure that attempts to describe a whole set of data
with a single value that represents the middle or center of data set. Most commonly used measures of central
tendency or type of averages are arithmetic mean, median and mode.
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean or just simply mean is the sum of the value of each observation in a data set
divided by the number of observations. The traditional symbol used to indicate a summation is the Greek
letter
set .
The definition is the same for both the sample (portion of the whole population) and population (is a
collection of all possible observations under a particular study), although we use different symbol to refer to
each.
The symbol for the sample mean is
̅ ), and for the population mean is the Greek letter mu (µ).
2
Example 2
Your turn 1
The mean score of a sample
̅ , or any other measure based on a sample data is called statistic. Any
measurable characteristic of a population is called parameter. The mean of a population parameter.
Six friends in a Mathematics in the Modern World class of 20 students received
test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and 90.
a. Find the mean of these test scores.
b. Is the mean computed, a statistic or a parameter? Why?
Solution
a. The six friends are sample of the population of 20 students. Use
̅ instead of
̅
=
∑
=
92 + 84 + 65 + 76 + 88 + 90
6
=
The sample mean of the test scores is 82. 5.
b. Statistic because it is a sample mean.
The daily wages of 10 employees of Home depot are: ₱500, ₱750 , ₱430, ₱630,
₱450, ₱440, ₱700, ₱350, ₱80, ₱630.


a. Find the mean of the daily salaries of the employees.
b. Is the mean computed, a statistic or a parameter? Why?
Median
The median is the middle number of the mean of the two middle numbers in a list of numbers that
have been arrange in numerical order from smallest to largest or largest to smallest. Any list of numbers
arranged in numerical order from smallest to largest or largest to smallest is a ranked list.
Find the median of the data in the following lists.
a. 4, 8,14,9,21,12 b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108
Solution
a. The list 4, 8,14,9,21,12 contains 7 numbers. The median of a list with an odd number of entries is found by
ranking the numbers and finding the middle number.
Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives
1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
The middle number is 9. Thus 9 is the median.
b. The list 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108 contains 6 numbers. The median of the list of data with an even number of
entries is found by ranking the numbers and computing the mean of the two middle numbers. Ranking the
Mean
The mean of
Mean = ∑
Median
The median of a ranked list of
 The middle number if
 The mean of two middle numbers if
Example 1
3
Your turn 3
Example 3
Your turn 2
numbers from smallest to largest gives
23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108
The two middle numbers are 77 and 89. The mean of 77 and 89 is 83. Thus, 83 is the median of the data.
Find the median of the data in the following:
a. A sample of senior citizens in Lingayen, Pangasinan receiving Social Security payments revealed these
monthly benefits : ₱3400 , ₱2000 , ₱4000 , ₱4300 , ₱2500 , ₱3600 , ₱3500, ₱5000.
b. The scores in a quiz of nine students in MMW class are: 2, 4, 10, 7, 8, 0,5, 8, and 2.
Mode
The mode is another measure of type of average.
Some lists of numbers do not have a mode. For instance, 1, 6, 8, 10, 32, 15, 49, each of number
occurs exactly once. No number occurs more often than the other numbers. Thus, there is no mode.
A list of numerical data can have more than one mode. For instance, in the list 4, 2 6, 2, 7, 9, 2, 4, 9,
8, 9, 7, the numbers 2 and 9 occurs three times. Thus, 2 and 9 are both modes of the data .
Find the mode of the data in the following lists.
a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21
b. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23
Solution
a. In the list 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21, the number 15 occurs more often that the other numbers. Thus 15
is the mode.
b. Each of the number in the list 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23 occurs only once. No number occurs more often than
others. Therefore, there is no mode.
Find the mode of the data in the following lists.
a. 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 8
b. 12, 34, 12, 71, 48, 93, 71, 12
The mean, median, and mode are all averages. However, they are generally not equal. The mean of
a set of data is most sensitive of the averages. A change of the numbers changes the mean, and the mean
can be changed drastically by changing an extreme value.
In contrast, the median and the mode of a set of data are usually not changed by changing an
extreme value.
When a data set has one or more extreme values that are very different from the majority of values,
the mean will not necessarily be a good indicator of an average value. In the following example, we compare
the mean, median , and the mode for the salaries of five employees of a small company.
Salaries : ₱370,00 ₱60,000 ₱36, 000 ₱20,000 ₱20,000
Mode


This is a value of the observation that appears most frequently.
4
The mean is
ହ଴଺ ,଴଴଴
ହ
= 101,200
The median is ₱36, 000 and the mode is₱20, 000 . The data contain one extreme value that is much larger
than the others. This extreme value makes the mean considerably larger than the median. So, you would
probably agree that ₱36, 000 better represents the average of the salaries than does either mean or the mode.
Computer Solution
We can use spreadsheet to find the mean, media, and the mode of a certain data set. Consider the
following satisfaction level ratings of 35 people.
9
12
10
8
9
12
12
11
14
12
10
8
10
9
12
8
14
13
7
9
10
12
8
12
14
9
8
13
10
9
9
11
10
11
10
The following screen shot shows the mean, median and the mode for 35 ratings (occupying cells A2 to A36),
as calculated by the spreadsheet’s built –in statistical functions.
The Weighted Mean
The weighted mean of given groups data is the average of the mean of all the groups. It is often
used when some data values are more important than others.
The formula is :
=
The formula is :
=
The formula is :
=
5
Your turn 4

Example 4
Table 1.1 shows Janet’s first semester course grades. Use the weighted mean
formula to find the Janet’s GPA for the spring semester.
Table 1.1 Janet’s Grades, First Semester
Course
Course Grade
Course Units
Physics 1.75 4
Statistics 2.25 3
Psychology 2.75 3
P.E 1.5 2
Solution
Weighted mean = ஊ (௫ ⋅௪ )
ஊ୵
= (ଵ .଻ହ ×ସ )ା (ଶ .ଶହ ×ଷ )ା (ଶ .଻ହ ×ଷ )ା (ଵ .ହ ×ଶ )
ସାଷାଷାଶ
=
Janet’s GPA for first semester is 2.08.
A man bought 10 liters of premium gasoline at P11.50 per liter, 12 liters at P12.01
per liter and 18 liters at P11.78 per liter from three different gasoline stations. Find the
mean price per liter.
A measure of central tendency is a summary measure that attempts to describe a whole set of data
with a single value that represents the middle or center of data set. Most commonly used measures of central
tendency or type of averages are arithmetic mean, median and mode.
In numbers 1 to 2. Find the mean, the median, and the mode(s), if any, for the given data. Round non
integer means to the nearest tenth.
Mean
Median
Mode
1. 101, 88, 74, 60, 12, 94, 74, 85
2. 2.1, 4.6, 8.2, 3.4, 5.6, 8.0, 9.4, 12.2, 56.1, 78.2
3. The final grades of a student in six courses were taken and are shown below. Compute the student’s
weighted mean grade. Round off your answer to the nearest hundredth.
The Weighted Mean
The weighted mean of the ଵ , ଶ , ଷ , … , ௡ with respective assigned weights
ଵ , ଶ , ଷ , … , ௡ is
Weighted mean = ஊ (௫ ⋅௪ )
ஊ୵
where:
LEARNING POINTS
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
6
LEARNING CONTENTS (MEASURES OF DISPERSION)
Courses No. of Units Final Grade
Math 112 3 2.5
English 101 6 2.0
PS 25 3 1.5
Fil 1 3 1.4
Chem 1 5 2.4
PE 1 2 1.1
4. A professor grades students on 4 tests, a term paper, and a final examination. Each test counts as 15% of
the course grade. The term paper counts as 20% of the course grade. The final examination counts as 20% of
the course grade. Alan has test scores of 80, 78, 92, and 84. Alan received an 84 on his term paper. His final
examination score was 88. Use the weighted mean formula to find Alan’s average for the course. Hint: The
sum of all the weights is 100% = 1.
5. After 6 math tests, Zia has a mean score of 88. What score does Zia need on the next test to raise his
average (mean) to 90?
6. After 4 algebra tests, Alisa has a mean score of 82. One more 100-point test is to be given in this class. All
of the test scores are of equal importance. Is it possible for Alisa to raise her average (mean) to 90? Explain.
Lesson 2: Measures of Dispersion
While measures of central tendency are used to estimate "normal" values of a dataset, measures of
dispersion are important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a central value. Two
distinct samples may have the same mean or median, but completely different levels of variability, or vice


versa.
A measure of dispersion or variability tells us how much the observation spread out from the
mean. The higher the variability, the more dispersed are the observations; the lower it is, the more consistent
are the observations.
For instance, consider a soft-drink dispensing machine that should dispense 8 oz of your selection
into a cup. Table 2.1 shows data for two of these machines. The mean data value for each machine is 8 oz.
Table 2.1 Soda Dispensed (ounces)
Machine 1
Machine 2
9.52 8.01
6.41 7.99
10.07 7.95
5.85 8.03
8.15 8.02
ഥ
=
ഥ
=
However, look at the variation in data values for Machine 1. The quantity of soda dispensed is very
inconsistent—in some cases the soda overflows the cup, and in other cases too little soda is dispensed. The
machine obviously needs adjustment. Machine 2, on the other hand, is working just fine. The quantity
dispensed is very consistent, with little variation.
This example shows that average values do not reflect the spread or dispersion of data. To measure
the spread or dispersion of data, we must introduce statistical values known as the range, mean deviation,
standard deviation, and the variance.
The Range
The simplest measure of dispersion is the range. It is the difference between the largest and the
7
Example 1
Your turn 1
smallest values in a data set.
Mean Deviation
A defect of the range is that it is based on only two values, the highest and the lowest; it does not take
into consideration all of the values. The mean deviation does. It measures the mean amount by which the
values in a population, or sample, vary from their mean. In terms of a definition: Mean Deviation is the
arithmetic mean of the absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic mean.
The mean deviation has two advantages. First, it uses all values in the computation while range only uses
the highest and lowest values. Second, it is easy to understand−it is the average amount by which values
deviate from the mean.
The weighs of some containers being shipped to China are (thousands of pounds):
95, 103, 105, 110, 104, 105, 112, 90
a. What is the range of the weights?
b. Compute the arithmetic mean weight .
c. Compute the mean deviation of the weights .
Solution
a. Range = Highest value – Lowest value
= 112 − 90
= 22
b.
ഥ
=
= ଼ଶସ
଼
= 103
c. |ଽହିଵ଴ |ା |ଵଷିଵ
଴ଷି ଵ |ା |ଵହିଵଷ
଴ହିଵ଴ଷ |ା |ଵଵିଵଷ
଴ିଵ଴ଷ |ା |ଵସିଵଷ
଴ସିଵ଴ଷ |ା |ଵହିଵ
଴ହି ଵ
|ା |ଵଵଶିଵ
|ା |ଽିଵଷ
଴ି ଵ଴ଷ |
଼
= ସଶ
଼
= 5.25
Find the following using the number of ounces by Machine 1 and 2 in Table 2.1.
a. range
b. mean deviation amount in ounces dispensed by each machine.


The Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a set of numerical data makes use of the individual amount that each data
value deviates from the mean. These deviations, represented by (
̅ ), are positive when the data value x
Range
Range = Largest value – Smallest value
Mean Deviation (MD)
ஊ |௫ି௫
̅|
௡
where
̅−
|| −
8
Example 2
is greater than the mean
̅ and are negative when x is less than the mean
̅ . The sum of all the deviations
(
̅ ), is 0 for all sets of data. This is shown in Table 2.2 for the Machine 2 data of Table 2.1.
Table 2.2 Machine 2: Deviations from the Mean
(
ഥ
)
8.01
8.01 − 8 = 0.01
7.99
7.99 − 8 = −0.01
7.95
7.95 − 8 = −0.05
8.03
8.03 − 8 = 0.03
8.02
8.02 − 8 = 0.02
∑(
̅)=0
Because the sum of all the deviations of the data values from the mean is always 0, we cannot use
the sum of the deviations as a measure of dispersion for a set of data. Instead, the standard deviation uses
the sum of the squares of the deviations.
You may question why a denominator of is used instead of n when we compute a sample
standard deviation. The reason is that a sample standard deviation is often used to estimate the population
standard deviation, and it can be shown mathematically that the use of tends to yield better estimates.
The following numbers were obtained by sampling a population. 2, 4, 7, 12, 15.
Find the standard deviation of the sample.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the mean.
̅
=
2 + 4 + 7 + 12 + 15
5
=
40
5
=8
Step 2: For each number, calculate the deviation between the number and the mean.
ഥ
2
2 − 8 = −6
4
4 − 8 = −4
7
7 − 8 = −1
12
12 − 8 = 4


15
15 − 8 = 7
Standard Deviation for Populations and Samples
If ଵ , ଶ , ଷ , … , ௡ is a population of
population is ∑(௫ିఓ
)మ
௡
If
ଵ, ଶ, ଷ, … , ௡ is a sample of
̅ , then the standard deviation of the
sample is ∑(
௫ି
ఓ
)మ
௡
ି
ଵ
Procedures for Computing a Standard Deviation
1. Determine the mean of the n numbers.
2. For each number, calculate the deviation (difference) between the number and the mean of the
numbers.
3. Calculate the square of each of the deviations and find the sum of these squared deviations.
4. If the data is a population, then divide the sum by
by
5. Find the square root of the quotient in Step 4.
9
Your turn 2
Example 3
Your turn 3
Step 3: Calculate the square of each of the deviations in Step 2, and find the sum of these squared
deviations.
ഥ
(
ഥ
)
2
2 − 8 = −6
(−6)ଶ = 36
4
4 − 8 = −4
(−4)ଶ = 16
7
7 − 8 = −1
(−1)ଶ = 1
12
12 − 8 = 4
4 ଶ = 16
15
15 − 8 = 7
7 ଶ = 49
=5
Σ(
ഥ
)= 118
Step 4: Because we have a sample of
values, divide the sum 118 by which is 4.
118
4
= 29.5
Step 5: The standard deviation of the sample is . Thus the standard deviation is
.
A student has the following quiz scores: 5, 8, 16, 17, 18, 20. Find the standard
deviation for this population of quiz score
Variance
A statistic known as the variance is also used as a measure of dispersion. The variance for a given


set of data is the square of the standard deviation of the data.
Find the variance for the sample given in Example 2.
Solution
In Example 2 , we found square of the standard deviation. Thus the variance
is ଶ = (√=
Find the variance for the population given in Your Turn 2.
Computer Solution
We can use spreadsheet like to find the range, standard deviation, and variance and the mode of a
certain data set.
Let us use the same list of data in Example 2.data are: 2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Sum of the squared deviations
Variances
If
ଵ , ଶ , ଷ , … , ௡ is a
population
of
population is ଶ =
∑
(௫ିఓ )మ
௡
If
ଵ, ଶ
,
ଷ
,…
, ௡ is a sample of
̅ , then the variance of the sample is
ଶ
=
∑
(
௫
ି
ఓ
)
మ
௡
ି
ଵ
10
The formula is:
=
The formula is:
=
The formula is:
=
The formula is:
=
The formula is:
=
.
Measures of dispersion are important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a
central value. To measure the spread or dispersion of data, we must compute for statistical values known as
the range, mean deviation, standard deviation, and the variance.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
In exercises 1 to 3, compute the (a) range, (b) mean deviation ,(c) standard deviation, and (d) variance for the
following samples.
range mean deviation standard deviation variance
1) 2, 8, 4, 2, 5, 8, 10, 1, 8, 12
2) 5.2, 11.7, 19.1, 3.7, 8.2, 16.3
3) 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4,
In exercises 4 to 6. The following tables list the ages of female and male actors when they starred in their
Oscar-winning Best Actor performances.
Ages of Best Female Actor Award Recipients,
Academy Awards, 1975–2010
Ages of Best Male Actor Award Recipients,
Academy Awards, 1975–2010
4. Find the mean and the sample standard deviation of the ages of the female recipients. Round each result
to the nearest tenth.


5. Find the mean and the sample standard deviation of the ages of the male recipients. Round each result to
the nearest tenth.
6. Which of the two data sets has the larger mean? Which of the two data sets has the larger standard
deviation?
LEARNING POINTS
11
Example 1
Your turn1
LEARNING CONTENTS ( MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION)
Lesson 3: Measures of Relative Position
The measures of relative position of a given value shows where the value stands in relation
position of a given value to other values in the same set of data. The most common measures of relative
position are quartiles, percentiles and standard scores.
Quartiles divide a set of observations into four equal parts. To explain further, think of any set of
values arranged from smallest to largest. The first quartile, usually labeled
, is the value below which 25
percent of the observations occur , and the third quartile , usually labeled
, is the value below which 75
percent of the observations occur . Logically ଶ is the median.
Deciles divide a set of observation s into 10 equal parts. If you found that your GPA was in the 8 th
decile or ଼ at your class, you could conclude that 80 percent of your classmates had a GPA lower than
yours and 20 percent has a higher GPA.
The last one is the percentiles which divide observations into 100 equal parts. For instance, a GPA
of 33rd percentile means that 33 percent of the students have a lower GPA and 67 percent have a higher
GPA.
Find 3rd quartile for the following data.
5, 7, 11, 1, 17, 23, 19, 3, 9, 21, 15 and 13
Solution:
First thing to do is arrange the data in ascending order.
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21 and 23
For 3rd quartile:
= 17 + .75 ∗ (19 − 17)
= 18.5
After you arranged the data in ascending order, you count what number falls under the 9.75 th position.
To get the 9.75th position, we have to interpolate from the given data. The 9.75 th position is interpolated from
the 9th position plus .75 (1018.5.
Using the same data in Example 1, find the 4th decile.
Standard Scores (or the )
The x is the number of standard deviations that x is above or below
the mean of the data.
Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles
Quartile Decile Percentile
௜ = ௜ (௡ାଵ
)
ସ
௜ = ௜ (௡ାଵ
)
ଵ଴
௜ = ௜ ( ଵ଴଴ ௡ାଵ )
where
desired location

 position position position
Qin
9.75th 9 th .75 * (10th 9 th )
4
1
3 12
3 ( 4 1)




12
Example 2
Your turn2
Example 3
Your turn3
A negative
greater than the mean. When
= 0 , the data value is equal to the mean.
A
elements in the data set is large, about 68% of the elements have
−1 and 1. About 95%
have
−3
and 3.
Andrew gets a score of 64 in the Mathematics test where the class mean is 50 with
standard deviation of 8. Belle gets a score of 74 in a Physics test where the mean is
58 and the standard deviation is 10. Find out who actually performed better.
Solution
Find the z-score for each test.
Andrew : ଺ସ = ଺ସିହ଴
଼ = 1.75 Belle: ଻ସ = ଻ସିହ
ଵ଴ = 1.6
So although Belle’s score is higher, Andrew’s score is farther above the mean and we may say that Andrew
performed better.
Cheryl has taken two quizzes in her history class. She scored 15 on the first quiz, for
which the mean of all scores was 12 and the standard deviation was 2.4. Her score
on the second quiz, for which the mean of all scores was 11 and the standard deviation
was 2.0, was 14. In comparison to her classmates, did Cheryl do better on the first quiz or the second quiz?
A consumer group tested a sample of 100 light bulbs. It found that the mean life
expectancy of the bulbs was 842 h, with a standard deviation of 90. One particular
light bulb from the DuraBright Company had a
Solution
Substitute the given values into the
௫=
1.2 = ௫ି ଽ଴଼ସଶ଼ସଶ
108 =
Solve for
950 =
The light bulb had a life span of 950 h.
▼
Roland received a score of 70 on a test for which the mean score was 65.5. Roland
has learned that the z-score for his test is 0.6. What is the standard deviation for this
set of test scores
The following formulas show how to calculate the z-score for a data value x in a population
and in a sample.
Population : ௫ = ௫ ି
ఓ
ఙ
Sample : ௫ = ௫ ି
௫
̅
௦
13
LEARNING CONTENTS (NORMAL DISTRIBUTION)
The measures of relative position of a given value shows where the value stands in relation
position of a given value in relation to other values in the same set of data. The most common measures of
relative position are quartiles, percentiles, and standard scores
In exercises 1 to 2. A data set has a mean of
̅ = 212 and a standard deviation of 40. Find the
each of the following.


1.
2.
A data set has a mean of
̅ = 4010 and a standard deviation of 115. Find the z-score for each of the
following.
3.
4.
In exercises 5 to 6. A random sample of 1000 oranges showed that the mean amount of juice per orange was
7.4 fluid ounces, with a standard deviation of 1.1 fluid ounces.
5. Determine the z-score, to the nearest hundredth, of an orange that produced 6.6 fluid ounces of juice.
6. The z-score for one orange was 3.15. How much juice was produced by this orange? Round to the nearest
tenth of a fluid ounce.
7. Which of the following fitness scores is the highest relative score?
a. A score of 42 on a test with a mean of 31 and a standard deviation of 6.5
b. A score of 1140 on a test with a mean of 1080 and a standard deviation of 68.2
c. A score of 4710 on a test with a mean of 3960 and a standard deviation of 560.4
In exercises 8 to 10. The following scores were received by 20 accounting students in a short quiz: 10, 9, 15,
20, 13, 15, 18, 11, 7, 12, 15, 13, 18, 19, 12, 8, 10, 13, 17, and 15. Find the following :
8. third quartile,
9. eight decile and
10. forty percentile.
11. Rene scored at the 84th percentile on a test given to 12,600 students. How many students scored
higher than Rene?
Lesson 4: Normal Distribution
Data that has not been organized or manipulated in any manner is called raw data. A large collection
of raw data may not provide much pertinent information that can be readily observed. A frequency
distribution, which is a table that lists observed events and the frequency of occurrence of each observed
event, is often used to organize raw data. For instance, consider the following table, which lists the number of
laptop computers owned by families in each of 40 homes in a subdivision.
LEARNING POINTS
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
14
Table 4.1
The frequency distribution in Table 4.2 below was constructed using the data from Table 4.1. The first
column of the frequency distribution consists of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. The corresponding
frequency of occurrence, f, of each of the numbers in the first column is listed in the second column.
Table 4.2
Normal Distributions and the Empirical Rule
One of the most important statistical distributions of data is known as a normal distribution.
This distribution occurs in a variety of applications. Types of data that may demonstrate a normal distribution
include the lengths of leaves on a tree, the weights of newborns in a hospital, the lengths of time of a
student’s trip from home to school over a period of months, the SAT scores of a large group of students, and
the life spans of light bulbs.
A normal distribution forms a bell-shaped curve that is symmetric about a vertical line through the
mean of the data. A graph of a normal distribution with a mean of 5 is shown below.
In the normal distribution shown below, the area of the shaded region is 0.159 units. This region
represents the fact that 15.9% of the data is greater than or equal to 10. Because the area under the curve is
1, the unshaded region under the curve has area 1 − 0.159, or 0.841, representing the fact that 84.1% of the
data are less than 10.
Properties of a Normal Distribution
Every normal distribution has the following properties.
 The graph is symmetric about a vertical line through the mean of the distribution.
 The mean, median, and mode are equal.
 The y-value of each point on the curve is the percent (expressed as a decimal) of the data
at the corresponding x-value.
 Areas under the curve that are symmetric about the mean are equal.
 The total area under the curve is 1.
15
Example 2


The following rule, called the Empirical Rule, describes the percent of data that lie within 1, 2, and 3
standard deviations of the mean in a normal distribution.
Use the Empirical Rule to Solve an Application
A survey of 1000 U.S. gas stations found that the price charged for a gallon of
regular gas could be closely approximated by a normal distribution with a mean of $3.10 and a standard
deviation of $0.18. How many of the stations charge
a. between $2.74 and $3.46 for a gallon of regular gas?
b. less than $3.28 for a gallon of regular gas?
c. more than $3.46 for a gallon of regular gas?
Solution
a. Converting $2.74 into a z-score, ଶ .଻ସ = ଶ .଻ସିଷ
.ଵ଴
଴ .ଵ଼
= −2 , means that $2.74 per gallon price is 2 standard
deviations below the mean. While the $3.46 price, ଷ .ସ଺ = ଷ .ସିଷ
଺ି ଷ
.ଵ଴
଴ .ଵ଼
= 2 , thus $3.46 price is 2 standard
deviations above the mean. In a normal distribution, 95% of all data lie within 2 standard deviations of the
mean. See Figure 4.3. Therefore, approximately (95%)(1000) = (0.95)(1000) = 950 of the stations charge
between $2.74 and $3.46 for a gallon of regular gas.
Figure 4.3
b. Converting $3.28 price into a z-score, ଷ .ଶ଼
= ଷ .ଶ଼ିଷ
.ଵ଴
଴ .ଵ଼
we can say that $3.28 price is 1 standard deviation
Empirical Rule for a Normal Distribution
In a normal distribution, approximately
 68% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
 95% of the data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
 99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean. Ans
16
Your turn2
above the mean. See Figure 4.4. In a normal distribution, 34% of all data lie between the mean and 1
standard deviation above the mean. Thus, approximately (34%)(1000)= (0.34)(1000)= 340 of the stations
charge between $3.10 and $3.28 for a gallon of regular gasoline. Half of the 1000 stations, or 500 stations,
charge less than the mean. Therefore, about
340 − 500 = 840 of the stations charge less than $3.28 for a gallon of regular gas.
Figure 4.4
c. Converting $3.46 price in a z-score , ଷ .ସ଺ = ଷ .ସିଷ
଺ି ଷ
.ଵ଴ ,
଴ .ଵ଼
will give us a result of 2 standard deviations above
the mean. In a normal distribution, 95% of all data are within 2 standard deviations of the mean. This means
that the other 5% of the data will lie either above 2 standard deviations of the mean or below 2 standard
deviations of the mean. We are interested only in the data that are more than 2 standard deviations above the
mean, which is ଶଵ of 5%, or 2.5%, of the data. See Figure 4.5. Thus about (2.5%)(1000) = (0.025)(1000)= 25
of the stations charge more than $3.46 for a gallon of regular gas.
Figure 4.5
A vegetable distributor knows that during the month of August, the weights of its
tomatoes are normally distributed with a mean of 0.61 lb and a standard deviation
of 0.15 lb.
a. What percent of the tomatoes weigh less than 0.76 lb?
b. In a shipment of 6000 tomatoes, how many tomatoes can be expected to weigh more than 0.31 lb?
c. In a shipment of 4500 tomatoes, how many tomatoes can be expected to weigh from 0.31 lb to 0.91 lb
The Standard Normal Distribution
It is often helpful to convert data values x to z-scores, as we did in the previous section by
using the z-score formulas:
௫
= ௫ିఓ
ఙ or ௫ = ௫ି௫
̅
௦
If the original distribution of
will also be a normal distribution. This normal distribution of z-scores is called the standard normal distribution.


See Figure 4.6. It has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
17
Figure 4.6
Tables and calculators are often used to determine the area under a portion of the standard normal
curve. We will refer to this type of area as an area of the standard normal distribution. Table 4.4 gives the
approximate areas of the standard normal distribution between the mean 0 and z standard deviations from the
mean. (See Figure 4.7) Table 4.4 indicates that the area A of the standard normal distribution from the mean
0 up to z = 1.34 is 0.410 square unit.
Figure 4.7
TABLE 4.4
Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
z
A
z
A
z
A
z
A
z
A
z
A
0.00 0.000 0.56 0.212 1.12 0.369 1.68 0.454 2.24 0.487 2.80 0.497
0.01 0.004 0.57 0.216 1.13 0.371 1.69 0.454 2.25 0.488 2.81 0.498
0.02 0.008 0.58 0.219 1.14 0.373 1.70 0.455 2.26 0.488 2.82 0.498
0.03 0.012 0.59 0.222 1.15 0.375 1.71 0.456 2.27 0.488 2.83 0.498
0.04 0.016 0.60 0.226 1.16 0.377 1.72 0.457 2.28 0.489 2.84 0.498
0.05 0.020 0.61 0.229 1.17 0.379 1.73 0.458 2.29 0.489 2.85 0.498
0.06 0.024 0.62 0.232 1.18 0.381 1.74 0.459 2.30 0.489 2.86 0.498
0.07 0.028 0.63 0.236 1.19 0.383 1.75 0.460 2.31 0.490 2.87 0.498
0.08 0.032 0.64 0.239 1.20 0.385 1.76 0.461 2.32 0.490 2.88 0.498
0.09 0.036 0.65 0.242 1.21 0.387 1.77 0.462 2.33 0.490 2.89 0.498
0.10 0.040 0.66 0.245 1.22 0.389 1.78 0.462 2.34 0.490 2.90 0.498
0.11 0.044 0.67 0.249 1.23 0.391 1.79 0.463 2.35 0.491 2.91 0.498
0.12 0.048 0.68 0.252 1.24 0.393 1.80 0.464 2.36 0.491 2.92 0.498
0.13 0.052 0.69 0.255 1.25 0.394 1.81 0.465 2.37 0.491 2.93 0.498
0.14 0.056 0.70 0.258 1.26 0.396 1.82 0.466 2.38 0.491 2.94 0.498
0.15 0.060 0.71 0.261 1.27 0.398 1.83 0.466 2.39 0.492 2.95 0.498
0.16 0.064 0.72 0.264 1.28 0.400 1.84 0.467 2.40 0.492 2.96 0.498
0.17 0.067 0.73 0.267 1.29 0.401 1.85 0.468 2.41 0.492 2.97 0.499
0.18 0.071 0.74 0.270 1.30 0.403 1.86 0.469 2.42 0.492 2.98 0.499
0.19 0.075 0.75 0.273 1.31 0.405 1.87 0.469 2.43 0.492 2.99 0.499
The Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution is the normal distribution that has a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1.
18
Example 3
0.20 0.079 0.76 0.276 1.32 0.407 1.88 0.470 2.44 0.493 3.00 0.499
0.21 0.083 0.77 0.279 1.33 0.408 1.89 0.471 2.45 0.493 3.01 0.499
0.22 0.087 0.78 0.282
1.34
0.410 1.90 0.471 2.46 0.493 3.02 0.499
0.23 0.091 0.79 0.285 1.35 0.411 1.91 0.472 2.47 0.493 3.03 0.499
0.24 0.095 0.80 0.288 1.36 0.413 1.92 0.473 2.48 0.493 3.04 0.499
0.25 0.099 0.81 0.291 1.37 0.415 1.93 0.473 2.49 0.494 3.05 0.499
0.26 0.103 0.82 0.294 1.38 0.416 1.94 0.474 2.50 0.494 3.06 0.499
0.27 0.106 0.83 0.297 1.39 0.418 1.95 0.474 2.51 0.494 3.07 0.499
0.28 0.110 0.84 0.300 1.40 0.419 1.96 0.475 2.52 0.494 3.08 0.499
0.29 0.114 0.85 0.302 1.41 0.421 1.97 0.476 2.53 0.494 3.09 0.499
0.30 0.118 0.86 0.305 1.42 0.422 1.98 0.476 2.54 0.494 3.10 0.499
0.31 0.122 0.87 0.308 1.43 0.424 1.99 0.477 2.55 0.495 3.11 0.499
0.32 0.126 0.88 0.311 1.44 0.425 2.00 0.477 2.56 0.495 3.12 0.499
0.33 0.129 0.89 0.313 1.45 0.426 2.01 0.478 2.57 0.495 3.13 0.499
0.34 0.133 0.90 0.316 1.46 0.428 2.02 0.478 2.58 0.495 3.14 0.499
0.35 0.137 0.91 0.319 1.47 0.429 2.03 0.479 2.59 0.495 3.15 0.499
0.36 0.141 0.92 0.321 1.48 0.431 2.04 0.479 2.60 0.495 3.16 0.499
0.37 0.144 0.93 0.324 1.49 0.432 2.05 0.480 2.61 0.495 3.17 0.499


0.38 0.148 0.94 0.326 1.50 0.433 2.06 0.480 2.62 0.496 3.18 0.499
0.39 0.152 0.95 0.329 1.51 0.434 2.07 0.481 2.63 0.496 3.19 0.499
0.40 0.155 0.96 0.331 1.52 0.436 2.08 0.481 2.64 0.496 3.20 0.499
0.41 0.159 0.97 0.334 1.53 0.437 2.09 0.482 2.65 0.496 3.21 0.499
0.42 0.163 0.98 0.336 1.54 0.438 2.10 0.482 2.66 0.496 3.22 0.499
0.43 0.166 0.99 0.339 1.55 0.439 2.11 0.483 2.67 0.496 3.23 0.499
0.44 0.170 1.00 0.341 1.56 0.441 2.12 0.483 2.68 0.496 3.24 0.499
0.45 0.174 1.01 0.344 1.57 0.442 2.13 0.483 2.69 0.496 3.25 0.499
0.46 0.177 1.02 0.346 1.58 0.443 2.14 0.484 2.70 0.497 3.26 0.499
0.47 0.181 1.03 0.348 1.59 0.444 2.15 0.484 2.71 0.497 3.27 0.499
0.48 0.184 1.04 0.351 1.60 0.445 2.16 0.485 2.72 0.497 3.28 0.499
0.49 0.188 1.05 0.353 1.61 0.446 2.17 0.485 2.73 0.497 3.29 0.499
0.50 0.191 1.06 0.355 1.62 0.447 2.18 0.485 2.74 0.497 3.30 0.500
0.51 0.195 1.07 0.358 1.63 0.448 2.19 0.486 2.75 0.497 3.31 0.500
0.52 0.198 1.08 0.360 1.64 0.449 2.20 0.486 2.76 0.497 3.32 0.500
0.53 0.202 1.09 0.362 1.65 0.451 2.21 0.486 2.77 0.497 3.33 0.500
0.54 0.205 1.10 0.364 1.66 0.452 2.22 0.487 2.78 0.497
0.55 0.209 1.11 0.367 1.67 0.453 2.23 0.487 2.79 0.497
Because the standard normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean of 0, we can also use Table 4.4 to
find the area of a region that is located to the left of the mean.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z =1.44 and
z =0.
Solution
Because the standard normal distribution is symmetrical about the center line
normal distribution between
and
is equal to the area between
in Table 4.4 associated with
Thus the area of the standard normal distribution between
−1.44 and See Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Symmetrical region
19
Your turn3
Example 4
Your turn4
Example 5
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between
In Figure 4.9, the region to the right of tail region. A tail region is a region of the standard
normal distribution to the right of a positive
tail region, we subtract the entry in Table 4.4 from 0.500. This procedure is illustrated in the next example.
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of .
Solution
Table 4.4 indicates that the area from
0.500 square unit. Thus the area to the right of See Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 Area of a tail region
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the left of
Because the area of a portion of the standard normal distribution can be interpreted as a percentage
of the data or as a probability that the variable lies in an interval, we can use the standard normal distribution
to solve many application problems.
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Tests show that the
actual amount of soda dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 11.5
oz and a standard deviation of 0.2 oz.
a. What percent of cups will receive less than 11.25 oz of soda?
b. What percent of cups will receive between 11.2 oz and 11.55 oz of soda?
c. If a cup is chosen at random, what is the probability that the machine will overflow the cup?
Solution
a. Recall that the formula for the
௫ = ௫ି௫
̅
௦
The
The Standard Normal Distribution, Areas, Percentages, and Probabilities
In the standard normal distribution, the area of the distribution from
 the percentage of
values that lie in the interval from


a to b.
 the probability that
lies in the interval from
a to b.
20
ଵଵ .ଶହ = 11.25 − 11.5
0.2
= −1.25
Table 4.4 indicates that 0.394 (39.4%) of the data in a normal distribution are between
Thus
10.6% of the cups filled by the soda machine will receive less than 11.25 oz of soda.
b. The Figure 4.9 Portion of data to the left of
ଵଵ .ହହ = ଵଵ .ହହିଵଵ
.ହ
଴ .ଶ
= 0.25
Table 4.4 indicates that 0.099 (9.9%) of the data in a normal distribution is between
The z-score for 11.2 oz is
ଵଵ .ଶ = 11.2 − 11.5
0.2 = −1.5
Table 4.4 indicates that 0.433 (43.3%) of the data in a normal distribution are between
Thus the percent of the cups that the vending machine will fi ll with between 11.2
oz and 11.55 oz of soda is 43.3% + 9.9% = 53.2%.
Figure 4.10 Portion of data between two
c. A cup will overflow if it receives more than 12 oz of soda. The
ଵଶ = ଵଶିଵଵ
.ହ
଴ .ଶ
= 2.5
Table 4.4 indicates that 0.494 (49.4%) of the data in the standard normal distribution are between
4.11. Thus 0.6% of the time the machine produces an overflow, and the probability that a cup chosen at
random will overflow is 0.006.
21
Your turn5
Figure 4.11 Portion of data to the right of
A study of the careers of professional football players shows that the lengths
of their careers are nearly normally distributed, with a mean of 6.1 years and
a standard deviation of 1.8 years.
a. What percent of professional football players have a career of more than 9 years?
b. If a professional football player is chosen at random, what is the probability that the player will have a
career of between 3 and 4 years?
A normal distribution forms a bell-shaped curve that is symmetric about a vertical line through the mean
of the data.
Empirical Rule for a Normal Distribution
In a normal distribution, approximately
68% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
95% of the data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean. A
In exercises 1 to 3. Use the Empirical Rule to answer each question. In a normal distribution, what percent of
the data lie
1. within 3 standard deviations of the mean?
2. below 2 standard deviations of the mean?
3. between 2 standard deviations below the mean and 3 standard deviations above the mean?
In exercises 4 to 5. Use the Empirical Rule to answer each question. A baseball franchise finds that the
attendance at its home games is normally distributed, with a mean of 16,000 and a standard deviation of
4000.
4. What percent of the home games have an attendance between 12,000 and 20,000 people?
5. What percent of the home games have an attendance of fewer than 8000 people?
In exercises 6 to 8, find the area, to the nearest thousandth, of the standard normal distribution between the
given z-scores.
6. The region where


7. The region where
8. The region where
In exercises 9 to 11. Find the area, to the nearest thousandth, of the standard normal distribution between the
given z-scores.
9.
LEARNING POINTS
LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
22
10.
11.
In exercises 12 to 13. A psychologist finds that the intelligence quotients of a group of patients are normally
distributed, with a mean of 102 and a standard deviation of 16. Find the percent of the patients with IQs
12. above 114.
13. between 90 and 118.
Lesson 5: Regression and Correlation
Correlation is a degree of relationship between variables, which seeks to determine how well a linear
or other equation describes or explains the relationship between variables. It also implies “association”
between two variables.
If the linear correlation coefficient positive
correlation. In this case, if one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase. If
the linear relationship between the variables has a negative correlation. In this case, if one variable
increases, the other variable tends to decrease.
Figure 5.1 shows some scatter diagrams along with the type of linear correlation that exists between
the 1, the stronger the linear relationship between the variables.
Figure 5.1 Linear Correlation
LEARNING CONTENTS ( CORRELATION AND REGRESSION)
PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (or Pearson r for short) is a measure of
the strength of a linear association between two variables with interval and ratio type of scale.




2
2
2
2











y
y
N
x

Nx
y
x
xy
N
r
where :
x = sum of the values of x

y = sum of the values of y
x 2
= sum of the values of the square of x
y 2
= sum of the values of the square y
xy= sum of the values of the product of x and y

n = total number of pair
23
Example 1
Below are the scores of 12 college students in Mathematics and Physics tests of 80
items each.
Table 5.1
Mathematics (
65 63 67 64 68 62 70 66 68 67 69 71
Physics (
68 66 68 65 69 66 68 65 71 67 68 70
a. Draw a scatter diagram
b. Find the correlation coefficient of Mathematics and Physics scores and interpret.
Solution
Step 1: Draw a scatter plot. If the scatter plot does not show any (linear) trend stop analysis, conclude “no
relationship”. Otherwise proceed to step number 2
The scatter plot indicates an upward linear trend between Mathematics and Physics proficiency. Thus, “there
is a reason to believe that they are related.”
Step 2: Compute for Pearson
Table 5.2
Number
Mathematics
(
Physics (
x2
y2
xy
1 65 68 4225 4624 4420
2 63 66 3969 4356 4158
3 67 68 4489 4624 4556
4 64 65 4096 4225 4160
5 68 69 4624 4761 4692
6 62 66 3844 4356 4092
7 70 68 4900 4624 4760
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
60 62 64 66 68 70 72

The arbitrary scale for the interpretation of is given below.

Range of computed r
Interpretation
± 1.0
Perfect Relationship
± 0.70 to 0.99
Strong/ High Relationship
± 0.40 to 0.69
Moderate Relationship
± 0.10 to 0.39
Slight/ Low Relationship
0
No Correlation
24
Your turn1
8 66 65 4356 4225 4290
9 68 71 4624 5041 4828
10 67 67 4489 4489 4489
11 69 68 4761 4624 4692
12 71 70 5041 4900 4970
 x 800  y 811  x
N = 12 2 53418  y 2 54849  xy 54107
     
    

    

2
2
811
54849
12
800
12 53418
811
800
54107
12



r
r  0.70
Referring to the arbitrary scale for the interpretation of
relationship between the scores of the students in Mathematics and Physics.
Find the linear correlation coefficient for stride length versus speed of a camel as given
in Table 5.3 and interpret the result. Round your result to the nearest hundredth.
Table 5.3
LINEAR REGRESSION
Regression is a term used to describe the process of estimating the relationship between two
variables. The relationship is estimated by fitting a straight line through the given data. The method of least


squares permits us to find a line of best fit called regression line which keeps the errors of prediction to a
minimum.
Stride length(m) 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.2
Speed (m/s) 2.3 3.9 4.4 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 7.6
The equation for a fitted line is:
a bx
Y

where
Y = predicted value
a = y-intercept
b = slope of the regression line
x = the value of x to be predicted
To find the slope b:
To find the value of :






2
2
x
x
N
y
x
b N xy
where :
 x = sum of the values of x
 y = sum of the values of y
x 2
= sum of the values of the square of x

 xy
= sum of the values of the product of x and y
n= total number of pairs
ത−
̅
where :
ത
=
̅=
25
Example 2
Your turn2
Find the regression line equation of Table 5.2 and predict the score in Physics (
the score in Mathematics (
Solution
Formulate the regression line equation by solving first the value of the variables b and a.
Solving for
     

    
12 53418 800 2
12 54107 800 811


b
b  0.48
Solving for
  
0.48 66.67
a  67.58 
a  35.59
Substitute the computed values of b and a to the regression line equation
Y = a + bx
y  35.59  0.48x
We can now estimate scores in Physics (
or score in Mathematics (

75
 35 .59  0.48
y
 71.59
y
Therefore, the estimated score in Physics is 71.59 or approximately equivalent to 72 if the score in
Mathematics is 75. The regression line equation may be used now in estimating scores for y by substituting a
value of
Find the regression line equation of Table 5.3 and predict the speed of a camel (
the stride length(
Computer Solution
Using the data on the scores of 12 college students in Mathematics and Physics tests of 80 items
(Table 5.1), the following screenshot shows
B2 − B13) as calculated by the spreadsheet’s built in PEARSON() ,INTERCEPT(), SLOPE()function.
regression line equation
26
Note here that the value of
because of some rounding off error.
Correlation is a degree of relationship between variables, which seeks to determine how well a linear or
other equation describes or explains the relationship between variables. It also implies “association”
between two variables
Regression is a term used to describe the process of estimating the relationship between two
variables. The relationship is estimated by fitting a straight line through the given data. The method of least
squares permits us to find a line of best fit called regression line which keeps the errors of prediction to a
minimum.
Given the bivariate data:
a. Draw a scatter diagram for the data.
b. Find n, Σx, Σy, Σ ଶ , (Σ ଶ , and Σxy.
c. Find a, the slope of the least-squares line, and b, the y-intercept of the least-squares line.
d. Find the regression line equation
e. Use the equation of the least-squares line to predict the value of y when
f. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the linear correlation coefficient
REFERENCES
References :
LEARNING POINTS


LEARNING ACTIVITY 5
The formula is :
=
gives the
The formula is :
=
gives the value of
The formula is :
=
gives the value of
The linear regression equation is
27
 Paguio et. all, Statistics with Computer Based Discussion
Photo credits:
Population vs sample, keydifference.com
Figure 4.1 A histogram for the frequency distribution , Aufman,Richard et. al, Mathematics in the Modern
World
Answers to Your Turn (Lesson 1)
1. a. The six friends are sample of the population of 20 students. Use
̅ instead of
̅=∑
10
=₱
The mean of the test scores is
₱
b. Parameter, because was computed using all the population values.
2. a. The amount of benefits received : ₱3400 , ₱2000 , ₱4000 , ₱4300 , ₱2500 , ₱3600 , ₱3500, ₱5000
contains 8 numbers. The median of the list of data with an even number of entries is found by ranking the
numbers and computing the mean of the two middle numbers. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest
gives
2000, 2500, 3400, 3500, 3600, 4000, 4300, 5000
The two middle numbers are 3500 and 3600. The mean of 3500 and 3600 is 3,550. Thus ₱3550 is the
median of the data.
b. The scores : 2, 4, 10, 7, 8, 0,5, 8, 2 contains 9 numbers. The median of a list with an odd number of
entries is found by ranking the numbers and finding the middle number.
Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives
0, 2, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 8, 10
The middle number is 5. Thus 5 is the median.
3. a. In the list 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 8, the numbers 3, 4, and 5 occur more often. Thus 3, 4, and 5 are the
mode.
b. In the list 12, 34, 12, 71, 48, 93, 71,the numbers 12 and 71 occur more often that others, thus 12 and 71
are the mode
4.
(
)ା (
ା
= 11.78
ANSWERS TO YOUR TURN EXERCISES
28
Answers to Your turn (Lesson 2)
1.
Machine 1 Machine 2
a. Range
=
ℎ
−
Range =
10
.07


−5
.85
= 4.
22
8
.03
−7
.95
=
0.08
b.
=
ஊ |௫ ି ௫
̅|
௡
=
=
=
=
2.
=
=
=
ඨ
≈
√
≈
The standard deviation for this population is approximately 5.51.
3. In Your turn 2, we found
is
ଶ ≈ ൫ √30.33 ൯ ଶ = 30.33
1. First thing to do is arrange the data in ascending order.
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21 and 23
For 4th
ସ=
4 ) = 4(12 + 1
10 ) = 5.2 ௧௛ ௧௛ ௧௛ − 5 ௧௛ )
= 9 + .2(11 − 9)
= 9.4
After you arranged the data in ascending order, you count what number falls under the 5.2 th position. To get
the 5.2th position, we have to interpolate from the given data. The 5.2
th position is interpolated from the 5th
position plus .2 (
69.4
2.
ଵହ = ଵହିଵ
ଶ
.ସ = 1.25
ଵସ = ଵସିଵଵ
ଶ= 1.5
These
indicate that in comparison to her classmates, Cheryl did better on the second quiz than
she did on the first quiz.
3.
௫ = ௫ିఓ
ఙ
0.6 = ଻଴ି଺ିହ
ఙ .ହ
−
ഥ
(
−
ഥ
)
5
5
−


14
=
−
9
(
−
9
)
ଶ
=
81
8
8
−
14
=
−
6
(
−
6
)
ଶ
=
36
16
16
−
14
=
2
2
ଶ
=
4
17
17
−
14
=
3
3
ଶ
=
9
18
18
−
14
=
4
4
ଶ
=
16
20
20
−
14
=
6
6
ଶ
=
36
=6
Σ
(


−
ഥ
)
=
182
29
ସ
.
ହ
଴
.଺
= 7.5
The standard deviation for this set of test scores is 7.5.
1. a. The percent of data in all classes with an upper bound of 25 s or less is the sum of the percents for the fi
rst fi ve classes in Table 4.2. Thus the percent of subscribers who required less than 25 s to download the file
is 30.9%.
b. The percent of data in all the classes with a lower bound of at least 10 s and an upper bound of 30 s or
less is the sum of the percents in the third through sixth classes in Table 4.2 . Thus the percent of subscribers
who required from 10 to 30 s to download the fi le is 47.8%. The probability that a subscriber chosen at
random will require from 10 to 30 s to download the fi le is 0.478.
2. a. 0.76 lb is 1 standard deviation above the mean of 0.61 lb. In a normal distribution, 34% of all data lie
between the mean and 1 standard deviation above the mean, and 50% of all data lie below the mean. Thus
34% +50% = 84% of the tomatoes weigh less than 0.76 lb.
b. 0.31 lb is 2 standard deviations below the mean of 0.61 lb. In a normal distribution, 47.5% of all data lie
between the mean and 2 standard deviations below the mean, and 50% of all data lie above the mean. This
gives a total of 47.5% + 50% = 97.5% of the tomatoes that weigh more than 0.31 lb.
Therefore
(97.5%)(6000)
= (0.975)(6000)= 5850 of the tomatoes can be expected to weigh more than 0.31 lb.
c. 0.31 lb is 2 standard deviations below the mean of 0.61 lb and 0.91 lb is 2 standard deviations above the
mean of 0.61 lb. In a normal distribution, 95% of all data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
Therefore(95%)(4500) =(0.95)(4500) = 4275 of the tomatoes can be expected to weigh from 0.31 lb to 0.91
lb.
3
. The area of the standard normal distribution between
and
0and
distribution between
4. Table 4.4 indicates that the area from
is 0.500 square unit. Thus the area to the left of
0.500 − 0.429 = 0.071 square unit.
5.
Round
z
-scores to the nearest hundredth so you can use Table 4.4 .
a.
=
≈
Table 4.4 indicates that 0.446 (44.6%) of the data in the standard normal distribution are between
. The percent of the data to the right of
professional football players have careers of more than 9 years.
b.
=≈−==−
From Table 4.4:
ଵ .଻ଶ = 0.457 ଵ .ଵ଻ = 0.379
0.457 − 0.379 = 0.078
The probability that a professional football player chosen at random will have a career of between 3 and 4
years is about 0.078.
30


1.
Number
ଶ
ଶ
1 2.5 2.3 6.25 5.29 5.75
2 3.0 3.9 9.00 15.21 11.70
3 3.2 4.4 10.24 19.36 14.08
4 3.4 5.0 11.56 25.00 17.00
5 3.5 5.5 12.25 30.25 19.25
6 3.8 6.2 14.44 38.44 23.56
7 4.0 7.1 16.00 50.41 28.40
8 4.2 7.6 17.64 57.76 31.92
N=8 Σ ଶ 97.38 Σ ଶ 241.72 Σ




2
2
2
2











y
y
N
x
Nx
y
x
xy
N
r
(
)−(
ඥ[
)
−(
][]
The linear correlation coefficient, rounded to the nearest hundredth, is 1.00. Referring to the arbitrary scale for
the interpretation of
of a camel.
2. Formulate the regression line equation by solving first the value of the variables
Solving for
     

    
8 106.72 28.8 2
8 195.86 28.8 52.1


b
b  2.7303
Solving for
  
2.7303 3.6
a  6.5125 
a  3.31658
Substitute the computed values of b and a to the regression line equation
Y = a + bx
y  3.3  2.7x
We can now estimate the speed of a camel
(
value or stride length of the camel (

5.0
 3.3  2.7
y
 10.2
y
Therefore, the estimated speed of a camel is 10.2 if its stride length is 5.0. The regression line
equation may be used now in estimating scores for y by substituting a value of
regression line equation

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Study Guide in Mathematics in the Modern World FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

LEARNING CONTENTS (Mathematics as the Study of Patterns)

Lesson 1. Mathematics as the Study of Patterns

1.1 What is Mathematics?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

Below are examples of various patterns:

. Example 1 What comes Next ?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

Your turn 1 . What comes next ?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

Your turn 3 Draw a figure to continue the series below.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

Example 4 Fill in the blank.

knife:knives life:lives wife:______

Your turn 4 Fill in the blank.

meet :met lead: led feed: ____

1.2 Patterns in Nature

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

the proportions and symmetry of

Spiderwort with a three-fold symmetry Starfish has a five-fold symmetry

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

Consider the image of a snowflake.

Let us try to see more patterns in nature by watching this video.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

area of the circles 3 π cm2

1.3. World Population

a. What was the population of the city in 1995 ?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

a. What is the population after 20 years?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 10

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

the letter corresponding to the missing pattern.

2. Calculate 2+ 4+6+ …+2 n for n=1,2 ,..6 .

3. Calculate 1+3+5+ …+(2 n −1) for n=1,2 ,.. , 6.

4. Calculate 1+3+7+ …+(2 n −1) for n=1,2 ,.. , 6.

5. What is the missing number in each of these sequences?

7. Draw Fig.5 following the given pattern.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 11

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

b. If this pattern continues; what is the perimter of Fig. 9.

8. Fill the table below to complete the power of 3.

Figur 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315

LEARNING CONTENTS ( Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio)

Lesson 2: Fibonacci Sequence and Golden

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 12

GE 7 Mathematics in the Modern World Module 1 : Mathematics in our World

integer sequence : 1 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 5,8 , 13 ,21 , 55 , 89 ,144 ,… .

The position of each number in the sequence is indicated by a subscript , so that