Received: 9 January 2019 Revised: 16 February 2020 Accepted: 24 February 2020

DOI: 10.1002/cb.1818

SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE

How does green advertising skepticism on social media affect

consumer intention to purchase green products?

Biao Luo1 | Ying Sun2 | Jie Shen3 | Lihui Xia2

1
School of Management, Hefei University of
Technology, Hefei, China Abstract
2
School of Management, University of Science Underpinned by the stimulus–organism–response model, this study explores the
and Technology of China, Hefei, China
underlying mechanism through which green advertising skepticism on social media
3
Shenzhen Audencia Business School,
Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China affects consumer green purchase intention. It also investigates the boundary factors
that moderate this indirect relationship. Performing structural equation modeling on
Correspondence
Ying Sun, School of Management, University data collected from an online survey on Sina Weibo, this study finds that green adver-
of Science and Technology of China, tising skepticism on social media negatively affects green purchase intention through
No. 96, Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui Province
230026, China. the mediation of perceived information utility. Moreover, interdependent self-
Email: suny11@mail.ustc.edu.cn construal positively moderates, and independent self-construal negatively moderates
this indirect relationship. These findings suggest that truthful and consumer-tailored
green advertising is crucial to green product marketing.

1 | HOW DOES GREEN ADVERTISING
SKEPTICISM ON SOCIAL MEDIA AFFECT
CONSUMER INTENTION TO PURCHASE
G RE E N P R O D U C T S ?
Green products, referring to the products themselves as well as their pro-
duction processes, are resource (e.g., energy and water) saving, low pollut-
ing, low toxic, and recyclable (Sun, Wang, Gao, & Li, 2018). They are
better for the environment and human health (Schuitema & de Groot,
2015; Weber, Baier, & Willers, 2015). Recent decades have witnessed a
growing interest in green products as pollution and climate change have
become global social concerns (Zhang, Li, Cao, & Huang, 2018). There-
fore, enterprises can gain competitive advantages by introducing green
products, such as ecologically friendly products, to distinguish their prod-
ucts from others (Epstein & Buhovac, 2014; Tan, 2011). Green advertising
has increasingly been used to promote green products, and its positive
relationship with consumer green purchase intention has well been
established in the literature (Ankit & Mayur, 2013; Schmuck, Matthes, &
Naderer, 2018). It is suggested that green advertising builds a firm or
product's green image by employing environmental claims to appeal to
green consumers (Benn, Dunphy, & Griffiths, 2014; Brettel, Reich,
Gavilanes, & Flatten, 2015; Segev, Fernandes, & Hong, 2016).
However, green advertisements often present confusing facts, jar-
gon, and ambiguous messages. They often lack accurate information
about the environmental attributes of products or exaggerate the
benefits. Such green advertisements may raise consumers' skepticism of
greenwashing (Baum, 2012; do Paço & Reis, 2012; Matthes &
Wonneberger, 2014). It is argued that green advertising skepticism,
defined as individuals' cynicism toward exaggerated or misleading green
advertising, widely exists, especially among green consumers
(e.g., Atkinson & Kim, 2015; do Paço & Reis, 2012; Matthes &
Wonneberger, 2014; Shrum, McCarty, & Lowrey, 1995; Vermeir & Ver-
beke, 2006). While green advertising skepticism has received growing
research attention past research mainly focused on its antecedents, rather
than its consequences. For example, Shrum et al. (1995) and Matthes and
Wonneberger (2014) explored and found the impact of green consumer-
ism on skepticism toward advertising. Research has begun to address
whether consumers' intention to buy green products is undermined by
their skepticism toward green ads (e.g., Goh & Balaji, 2016; Wei, Chiang,
Kou, & Lee, 2017). Yet, how and when green advertising skepticism
affects consumer green purchase intention remain largely understudied.
The current study addresses this long-standing issue in marketing
and advertising research regarding how and when green advertising
skepticism affects consumer purchase intention. First, this study
explores the direct effect of green advertising skepticism on consumer
green purchase intention. Second, this study investigates the mediat-
ing role of perceived information utility in the relationship between
green advertising skepticism and consumer purchase intention. Per-
ceived information utility refers to the degree to which consumers
perceive the information presented in advertisements as useful for

J Consumer Behav. 2020;1–11. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cb © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 LUO ET AL.
helping them make the right purchasing decision (Matthes &
Wonneberger, 2014). Our theorizing is underpinned by the stimulus–
organism–response (SOR) model (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), which
posits that stimuli (i.e., external factors) affect internal states of an
individual (i.e., organism), which in turn influence the individual's atti-
tudes and behaviors (i.e., response). Stimuli can exert either a positive
or a negative effect. Green advertising skepticism will exert a negative
effect on consumer perceptions of information utility. This study
focuses on skepticism toward green advertising on social media.
Advertising on social media is less regulated than on traditional media.
The social attributes of social media create a more complicated envi-
ronment in which consumers assess green advertising (Brettel et al.,
2015; Sin, Nor, & Al-Agaga, 2012). This increases the opportunity to
produce exaggerated and misleading green advertisements.
The literature suggests that individual traits moderate the impact
of organism on individual responses (e.g., Chang, Eckman, & Yan,
2011). Self-construal is a prominent individual trait that affects one's
attitudes and behavior toward others. Self-construal describes the
extent to which the self is defined independently of others or inter-
dependently in relation with others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 2010).
People with high independent self-construal tend to pay attention to
their own abilities, traits, preferences, and wishes. Individuals with
high interdependent self-construal have an intrinsic connectedness
with others and consider group goals over their own (for a detailed
review on self-construal, see Cross, Hardin, & Swing, 2011). Indepen-
dent and interdependent construal can coexist in an individual and are
not mutually exclusive, although, they were initially considered exact
opposites (Hu, Zhang, & Luo, 2016; Singelis & Sharkey, 1995). Inde-
pendent self-construal and interdependent self-construal are regarded
as two independent dimensions (Brewer & Gardner, 1996). Kim et al.
(1996) proposed that individuals can simultaneously maintain their
independent and interdependent construal as both high, both low, or
as one high and one low. However, as the two are typically contrary
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, an individual is less likely to score
high in both at one time (Matsumoto, 1999). In accordance with the
literature, we conceptualize that independent self-construal weakens
the impact of perceived information utility on green purchase inten-
tion and that interdependent self-construal strengthens the impact.
We believe that this study makes important contributions to the
advertising and marketing literature. The existing literature on green
purchase focuses on how to promote green purchases. Likewise, the
positive effect of green advertising has received extensive academic
recognition (e.g., Ankit & Mayur, 2013; Zhu, 2013). Although recently
there has been growing research exploring antecedents of green
advertising skepticism, there has been little examination of its impact
on consumer behaviors or its underlying mechanism. This study con-
ceptualizes the mediation of perceived information utility in the rela-
tionship between green advertising skepticism and consumer green
purchase intention as a SOR process. In doing so, this research
extends the SOR model. Moreover, exploring the contingent effects
of different self-construal on the relationship between perceived
information utility and consumer green purchase intention helps
understand the different individual consequences of green advertising
skepticism. Taken together, this research advances the marketing and
advertising literature. The theoretical framework and hypotheses are
depicted in Figure 1.
2 | THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND
HY P O T H E S E S D EV E L O P M EN T
2.1 | Green advertising on social media and green
purchase intention
Green advertising explicitly or implicitly promotes a green lifestyle
and presents an image of corporate environmental responsibility
(Banerjee, Gulas, & Iyer, 1995). With the rapid growth of the Internet,
many enterprises choose to publish green advertisements on social
media, including Facebook, microblogs, WeChat, wikis, and multime-
dia sharing sites, for example, YouTube. Social media is seen as an
effective platform for green advertising, as it allows for interpersonal
interactions and networking that create an indirect, electronic form of
communication that benefits from word-of-mouth (Brettel
et al., 2015).
Green advertising skepticism is a negative, context-specific, cog-
nitive component of consumer attitudes toward green products
lu, & Ellen, 1998). Con-
(Manuel, Youn, & Yoon, 2014; Mohr, Erog
sumers become skeptical of green ads that present misleading and
exaggerated information about the green benefits or environmental
or health attributes of products (e.g., Bickart & Ruth, 2012; do Paço &
Reis, 2012). It is argued that whether consumers will consider buying
green products depends on the extent to which they have confidence
in the green products (Goh & Balaji, 2016; Wei et al., 2017). When
customers are skeptical of green advertising, they are more likely to
attribute green advertisements to money-making or corporate image
improving motives (Elving, 2013; Leonidou and Skarmeas, 2015). Such
suspicion of a company's motive for green advertising leads to nega-
tive product judgment and lower purchase intention (Bickart & Ruth,
2012; do Paço & Reis, 2012; Morel & Pruyn, 2003). In general, if con-
sumers are skeptical of green ads due to their false and exaggerated
information about products' green benefits or environmental or health
attributes, they will intend not to buy the product. In line with Goh
and Balaji (2016) and Wei et al. (2017), we develop the following
hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1 Green advertising skepticism on social media negatively
affects consumer green purchase intention.
2.2 | Green advertising skepticism on social media
and perceived information utility
In an asymmetric information environment, consumers rely on envi-
ronmental cues, such as green advertising, to prompt their internal
cognition, and finally decide whether to purchase products or services
(Mikalef, Giannakos, & Pateli, 2013). The SOR model postulates that
LUO ET AL.
FIGURE 1 The conceptual model
environmental cues act as external stimuli that can affect an individ-
ual's internal cognition, including their perceptual, physiological, feel-
ing, and thinking activities (i.e., those of the organism) (Bagozzi, 1986;
Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Jacoby, 2002). Green advertising is an
accessible piece of information used by marketers as a sales strategy
and used by consumers to assess the quality or value of green prod-
ucts (Bloom & Reve, 1990). Applying the SOR model, we argue that
green advertisements on social media can be regarded as external
stimuli that affect viewers' perceived information utility of green
advertising (i.e., internal cognition). As an external stimulus, green
advertising is only effective when consumers perceive information
utility to be high (Boulding & Kirmani, 1993).
Green advertising meets the need of consumers for information
about product attributes and enables them to make better purchase
decisions. High information utility means that the information is per-
ceived as truthful and useful. In contrast, low information utility
means that the information is perceived as untruthful, unhelpful, and
to be ignored (Wei et al., 2017). Consumer perceived information util-
ity level will be lower if consumers are skeptical of green advertising
due to the exaggerated, misleading and/or false information in adver-
tisements (Wei et al., 2017). On the contrary, consumer perceived
information utility level will be high if the information provided in
advertisements is clear, reliable, and credible (Wei et al., 2017). There-
fore, green advertising skepticism is negatively associated with con-
sumer perceived information utility. Hence, we develop the following
hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2 Green advertising skepticism on social media negatively
affects consumers' perceived information utility.
2.3 | The mediation of perceived information
utility
The second part of the SOR model suggests that internal cognition
(i.e., organism) resulting from external stimuli influences individuals'
responses (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Perceived information utility
serves as organism, which has consumer purchasing consequences.
Supporting the SOR model, the advertising literature argues that
3
consumers' cognitive responses to an advertisement will influence
their purchase intention regardless of whether the product is at mar-
ket value (Batra & Ray, 1986). In a similar vein, it can be argued that
perceived information utility of green advertisements on social media
is related to consumer green purchase intention, such that high infor-
mation utility leads to a stronger purchase intention.
Due to the information asymmetry between manufacturers and
consumers, consumers may lack information about green products
(Matthes, Wonneberger, & Schmuck, 2014). Hence, they may strongly
seek information about green products in order to participate in green
consumption. The information provided by green advertisements is
the primary source based on which consumers make decisions about
whether they buy green products. When consumers perceive the
information provided in green ads as useful, they will be more likely to
be interested in and pay attention to green products. They will
browse, buy, and use more green products. Hence, the more the infor-
mation in green advertising is perceived by consumers as useful, the
more likely they are to be exposed to green products. So, if the infor-
mation provided by the green advertisement is helpful, and the infor-
mation utility to consumers is high, the quality of green claims will be
positively evaluated (Matthes & Wonneberger, 2014). In contrast,
when information utility is low, consumers will tend to consume fewer
green products (Wei et al., 2017). Organism in the SOR model repre-
sents cognitive states, which play a mediating role between stimuli
and responses (Goi, Kalidas, & Zeeshan, 2014). In a similar vein, as
Hypothesis 2 proposes a direct relationship between green advertis-
ing skepticism and perceived information utility, bringing together the
above discussions materializes the following mediation relationship:
Hypothesis 3 Green advertising skepticism indirectly affects consumer
green purchase intention via the mediation of perceived informa-
tion utility.
2.4 | Moderating effects of self-construal
The emergence of social media makes personal differentiation and
interactivity more important for green advertising (Zhou, Zhang, Su, &
Zhou, 2012; Liu et al, 2016; Lin et al, 2019). Individuals' interactions
4 LUO ET AL.
with others on social media influence their purchase intentions. The
concept of self-construal provides a conceptual basis for examining
the degree to which consumers interact with others on social media
(Kim & Yun, 2007). Self-construal is a compilation of thoughts, emo-
tions, and behaviors in the context of the relationship and differences
between the self and others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 2010). In the
context of social media, the self-construal of consumers has an impor-
tant impact on whether consumers choose to buy green products
(Hoffman & Novak, 2012). Prominent group members on social media
may see themselves as concerning the group, and vice versa. Thus, sit-
uations that emphasize group relationships and social environments
may result in individuals having more collective and pro-
environmental considerations.
Interdependent self-construal emphasizes individuals' social con-
nections and group harmony. Individuals with high levels of
interdependent self-construal view themselves as part of the group.
They strive to achieve collective goals and fulfill social obligations and
responsibilities, prioritizing these over individual goals (Singelis, 1994).
Consumers with highly interdependent self-construal usually prioritize
the opinions of those who are important to them. Also, they may sac-
rifice their own interests to benefit their group. When consumers with
highly interdependent self-construal are suspicious of green advertis-
ing, they may still be willing to buy green products if they feel socially
influenced by others to do so (Brewer & Gardner, 1996). When con-
sumers with highly interdependent self-construal perceive higher
information utility from green advertising, they are more likely to fos-
ter an environmental attitude favoring green products, as green pur-
chases will benefit the environment and other people. Such
consumers hold this attitude even though they will pay more for
green purchases. In other words, consumers with interdependent self-
construal tend to consider their decisions as not only concerning
them, and they pay great attention to others’ feelings in the decision-
making process. Thus, Hypothesis 4 is posited:
Hypothesis 4 Interdependent self-construal positively moderates the
relationship between consumers' perceived information utility of
green advertising on social media and green purchase intention,
such that the relationship is stronger when the level of
interdependent self-construal is high and weaker when the level
is low.
Independent self-construal consumers focus on being indepen-
dent and different from others (Singelis, 1994). Consumers with highly
independent self-construal usually seek autonomy, emphasize them-
selves, and focus on fulfilling their own needs and desires. They tend
to pay more attention to their own preferences and pleasant experi-
ences, so they may be unwilling to sacrifice their interests in order to
cater to social preferences. In addition, they are more likely to want to
be special in a group and are less likely to respond to social pressure.
When consumers with highly independent self-construal are suspi-
cious of green advertising, they will not be willing to buy green prod-
ucts to benefit others. Even when such consumers perceive higher
information utility from green advertising, they may still be reluctant
to buy green products, because they want to be different from others
(Chen & Moosmayer, 2018). In other words, for individuals with highly
independent self-construal, making decisions is a matter for them-
selves; in the decision-making process, they focus their attention on
their own feelings. Thus, Hypothesis 5 is posited:
Hypothesis 5 Independent self-construal negatively moderates the rela-
tionship between the consumers' perceived information utility of
green advertising on social media and green purchase intention,
such that the relationship is weaker when the level of independent
self-construal is high and stronger when the level is low.
3 | RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 | Sample and data collection
With the rapid development of the Internet, recent decades have seen
the explosive growth of green advertising on social media (Hensel &
Deis, 2010). China has the largest number of social media users in the
world, far more than in any other country. For example, Sina Weibo
has over 340 million monthly active users, and WeChat has a billion
monthly active users in China (Atkinson, 2018). So, China is an appro-
priate test field to conduct research on advertising on social media.
An online survey was conducted from mid-May to mid-June 2018 on
Sina Weibo, China's largest social networking site, to collect the data
from Chinese social media users. In order to increase the response
rate, we prompted our research on the Sina website and on the cam-
pus in a Chinese in Hefei, Anhui Province. We explicitly explained the
research objectives and indicated in the questionnaire that, in this
study, green products are any product or its production process that
saves energy and causes no or minimal harm to, or benefits, the envi-
ronment and human health. Examples of green products are recycled
products made of recycled material and phosphate-free laundry deter-
gent. The respondents were informed that their names and personal
details would never be revealed and that there were no right answers
or wrong answers. A total of 1,015 adult social media users
volunteered to participate in the online research in exchange for
50 yuan (approximately 7 USD). In total, 1,012 questionnaires were
received. Of these surveys, 327 had missing values; these incomplete
questionnaires were removed. A t test was conducted to examine the
potential nonresponse bias; the results showed no significant pattern
between demographic factors and nonresponses. Finally, 685 valid
questionnaires were retained for further analysis. Table 1 shows the
demographic profiles of the respondents.
Almost half of the respondents were male (44.38%). 69.78% of
respondents were between the ages of 20 and 40. 31.82% of respon-
dents had a high school degree. 68.76% of the respondents had a
monthly income between 2,000 and 8,000 yuan ($285 to $1,138).
According to statistics from the China Internet Network Information
Center (CINIC) from August 2018, 52.70% of social media users are
male; 68% of social media users are under the age of 40; and those
with a high school degree account for around 30%. About 61% of
LUO ET AL. 5

TABLE 1 Demographic profiles of the respondents Self-construal was measured using the eight items from Singelis

Percentage (1994), which include four items for interdependent self-construal and
Demographics Frequency (%) four items for independent self-construal. A sample item for
Gender interdependent self-construal is, “I would like to maintain harmony in

1. Male 304 44.38 my team on social media.” A sample item for independent self-
construal is, “I want to be different from others on social media.”
2. Female 381 55.62
Green purchase intention was measured using four items adapted
Age
from Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) and Sun et al. (2018). A sample item
1. Below 20 23 3.36
is, “I would like to buy green products from now on.”
2. 21–30 218 31.82
3. 31–40 260 37.96
4. 41 and over 183 26.72 3.2.1 | Control variables
Education
1. Junior middle school or below 27 3.36 A range of demographic variables, including gender, age, household
2. High school degree 88 31.82 income, and education, have been found to be related to consumer
3. Bachelor's degree 350 37.96 green purchase intention (e.g., Sun et al., 2018). We therefore con-
4. Master's degree/doctorate 220 16.50 trolled for these variables in the substantial analyses. In addition, there
Household income is social pressure from consumers' immediate peers on social media

1. Less than ¥2,000 ($291) 41 5.99 for them to buy green products (Ajzen, 1991). Some consumers may
have more connections with environmentally friendly individuals
2. ¥2,000–¥4,000 ($291–$583) 118 17.23
(which also depend on their own level of green consumerism), so their
3. ¥4,000–¥8,000 ($583–$1,166) 182 26.57
social pressures may be greater than for those with less such connec-
4. ¥8,000–¥12,000 171 24.96
tions. Thus, perceived social pressure for a green lifestyle was also
($1,166–$1,748)
controlled for. Perceived social pressure was measured using four
5. Over ¥12,000 ($1,748) 173 25.26
items adapted from Chen and Tung (2014), including, for example,
Total 685 100
“Most people close to me suggest that I should buy green products.”
We also controlled for green consumerism, which refers to consumers'
care for the environment when they buy and consume products; it is
social media users have a monthly income between 2,000 and 8,000 believed to affect consumer green purchase intention (Mainieri,
yuan ($285–$1,138), and those earning between 2,000 and 5,000 Barnett, Valdero, Unipan, & Oskamp, 1997) and their tendency to be
yuan ($285–$711) form the largest group (36.7%). Comparing our skeptical of green advertisements (do Paço & Reis, 2012). Four items
sample with the total social media users from the CINIC's data, the adapted from Gilg, Barr, and Ford (2005) were used to measure green
t test did not indicate significant differences in gender (t = −1.33, consumerism. A sample item is, “I always purchase recycled products
p > .05), age (t = 1.16, p > .05), household income (t = 0.23, p > .05) in my daily life.”
nor education (t = −0.54, p > .05). Thus, the t tests indicate that the
composition of our sample is very similar to that of the CINIC. Hence,
our sample is likely to be representative of the netizens1 in China 4 | DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
overall.
4.1 | Measurement reliability and validity

3.2 | Measures
Existing measures were used for all study constructs. Slight modifica-
tions were made to suit the current research on green purchases and
green advertisements. A five-point Likert-type scale (1 = greatly dis-
agree; 5 = greatly agree) was used for all measures.
Green advertising skepticism was measured using four items
adapted (i.e., we added “on social media” to each item) from Mohr
et al. (1998). A sample item is, “Most green advertisements on social
media are exaggerated or false.”
Perceived information utility was measured using four items from
Matthes and Wonneberger (2014). A sample item is, “Green advertise-
ments on social media help me make green purchase decisions.”
AMOS 22.0 and SPSS 19.0 software packages were used to analyze
the data in this research. The results from the confirmative factor
analysis (CFA) show that the overall fit indices of the measurement
model including the normed χ 2(254) = 2.38, p < .001, Goodness-of-
fit index (GFI) = 0.93, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.96, Tucker-
Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.95, Parsimony Normed Fit Index (PNFI) = 0.77,
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.05 were
acceptable, indicating that the model had satisfactory properties.
The reliability, discriminant validity, and convergence validity of the
structure were evaluated. As shown in Table 2, the values of
Cronbach's alphas ranged between .74 and .89, all being above the
required threshold of .70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The values
of composite reliability were between 0.85 and 0.90, all being above
6 LUO ET AL.

TABLE 2 Confirmatory factor analysis

Construct Items Standard loading Cronbach's alpha value Composite reliability AVE
Green advertising skepticism (GAS) GAS1 0.78 .78 0.85 0.60
GAS2 0.78
GAS3 0.74
GAS3 0.78
Information utility (IU) IU1 0.78 .80 0.87 0.63
IU2 0.83
IU3 0.80
IU4 0.76
Interdependent self-construal (ITSC) ITSC1 0.89 .84 0.90 0.76
ITSC2 0.87
ITSC3 0.86
Independent self-construal (ISC) ISC1 0.85 .89 0.89 0.72
ISC2 0.84
ISC3 0.86
Green purchase intention (GPI) GPI1 0.78 .85 0.90 0.69
GPI2 0.84
GPI3 0.86
GPI4 0.85
Green consumerism (GC) GC1 0.82 .81 0.87 0.64
GC2 0.72
GC3 0.82
GC4 0.83
Perceived social pressure (PSP) PSP1 0.82 .74 0.85 0.66
PSP2 0.87
PSP3 0.74

Note: AVE means average variance extracted.

T A B L E 3 Means, SD, and

Means SD GAS PIU ITSC ISC GPI GC PSP
correlations (n = 685)
GAS 2.61 0.54 0.77
PIU 2.99 0.48 −0.48*** 0.79
ITSC 4.14 0.66 −0.30*** 0.27*** 0.87
ISC 3.57 0.58 −0.22*** 0.27*** 0.57*** 0.85
GPI 3.99 0.60 −0.42*** 0.49*** 0.72*** 0.59*** 0.83
GC 4.03 0.57 −0.25*** 0.23*** 0.65*** 0.48*** 0.58*** 0.80
PSP 3.94 0.64 −0.22*** 0.20*** 0.49*** 0.44*** 0.56*** 0.47*** 0.81

Note: GAS, green advertising skepticism; GC, green consumerism; GPI, green purchase intention; ISC, independent self-construal; ITSC, interdependent
self-construal; PIU, perceived information utility; PSP, perceived social pressure. The square roots of the AVEs are the bold elements.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

the required threshold of 0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). This
means that the measurements had good internal consistency reli-
ability. The values of standard loadings were between 0.72 and
0.89, well above the required threshold of 0.70 (Hair, Black, Babin,
Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The values of average variance
extracted (AVE) were between 0.60 and 0.76, well above the
required threshold of 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). This means that
the measurements had good convergent validity. The CFA results
for the measurements are shown in Table 2.
The square roots of AVE values are shown on the diagonal of
Table 3. Discriminant validity was measured by comparing the correla-
tion of each pair of constructs with the square roots of AVE. The
results showed that the measurements had good discriminant validity,
as the square roots of AVE were all higher than the correlation of each
LUO ET AL.
pair of constructs (Paulraj, Lado, & Chen, 2008). Hence, the measure-
ments had good convergent validity. The statistics including means,
SD, and correlations of the study variables, excluding demographic
variables, are shown in Table 3.
Because single-source data were used in this study, it is important
to examine whether common method variance (CMV) was a problem.
We adopted the approach suggested by Harman (1976), to let all mea-
suring items load on an additional factor. The results showed that a
single factor accounted for 32% of the variance, which is lower than
the required threshold of 50%, indicating that CMV was limited in our
study.
4.2 | Hypothesis testing
We tested the research hypotheses by performing structural equation
modeling. To reduce the possibility of multicollinearity, all study vari-
ables were mean-centered when they were used to analyze the data.
We first compared the full mediation model (Model 1) with the partial
mediation model by adding a path from green advertising skepticism
and green purchase intention (Model 2). The results show that there
are no significant differences between Model 1 (χ 2[128] = 2.72,
p < .001, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, IFI = 0.96, PNFI = 0.79, RMSEA = 0.05)
and Model 2 (χ 2[127] = 2.73, p < .001, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95,
IFI = 0.96, PNFI = 0.78, RMSEA = 0.05), which indicates that the par-
tial mediation does not improve the model. Next, we compared Model
1 with the direct effect model (Model 3), in which green advertising
skepticism directly affects green purchase intention. The results indi-
cate that Model 1 fitted the data better than Model 3 (χ 2[52] =6.92,
p < .001, CFI = 0.90, TLI = 0.88, IFI = 0.90, PNFI = 0.70,
RMSEA = 0.09). Therefore, Model 1 was the preferred model. As our
CFA results show, the model with moderating variables was also
acceptable (χ 2[282] = 3.74, p < .05, CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, IFI = 0.91,
PNFI = 0.87, RMSEA = 0.06). Collinearity tests showed that the vari-
ance inflation factors were all less than 10.0, indicating that
multicollinearity was unlikely to be a serious problem in this research.
Gender, age, household income, and education had no significant
influence on green purchase intention. As predicted, green consumerism
F I G U R E 2 The moderating effect of
interdependent self-construal on the
relationship between information utility and
intention to buy green products
7
(β = .26, t = 4.68, p < .001) had a significant positive effect on green pur-
chase intention. Moreover, both perceived social pressure (β = 0.19,
t = 5.23 p < .001) and interdependent self-construal (β = .27, t = 5.50,
p < .001) had positive effects on green purchase intention. As men-
tioned earlier, individuals with highly interdependent self-construal con-
sider interpersonal connections to be critical and are more likely to act
in accordance with other people's expectations when they perceive
social pressure (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Hence, we examined
whether independent self-construal and social pressure interactively
affected green purchase intention. The results show that there was sig-
nificant positive interaction between interdependent self-construal and
perceived social pressure (β = 0.10, t = 2.96, p < .01).
Hypothesis 1 suggests that green advertising skepticism is nega-
tively related to consumer green purchase intention. The results
showed that there is no significant relationship between green adver-
tising skepticism and consumer green purchase intention (β = −.06,
t = −1.27, p > .05), which means that Hypothesis 1 was not
supported.
Hypothesis 2 proposes that green advertising skepticism is nega-
tively related to consumer perceptions of information utility. The ana-
lytical results indicated that green advertising skepticism had a
significant negative impact on perceived information utility (β = −.60,
t = −11.01, p < .001), which means that Hypothesis 2 received
support.
Hypothesis 3 suggests that perceived information utility mediates
the relationship between green advertising skepticism and consumer
green purchase intention. The analytical results showed that per-
ceived information utility had a significant positive impact on green
purchase intention (β = .38, t = 8.00, p < .001). The indirect effect of
green advertising skepticism on green purchase intention through the
mediation of perceived information utility was examined through
decomposition tests using the bootstrapping technique. The boo-
tstrapping (bootstrapping 2,000 times) results showed that the indi-
rect effect was significant, with a 95% confidence interval
(CI) excluding 0 (β = −.23, p = .001, 95% CI = [−0.31, −0.17]). There-
fore, Hypothesis 3 was supported.
Hypothesis 4 indicates that interdependent self-construal posi-
tively moderates the relationship between perceived information
8 LUO ET AL.
utility and green purchase intention. The results showed that
interdependent self-construal (β = .27, t = 5.50, p < .001) and the
interaction term “perceived information utility × interdependent self-
construal” (β = .15, t = 2.79, p < .01) had significant positive effects on
green purchase intention. These results indicate that interdependent
self-construal had a direct effect on green purchase intention as well
as positively moderating the relationship between perceived informa-
tion utility and green purchase intention. The moderation effect is
depicted in Figure 2, which shows the different strengths of the rela-
tionship between perceived information utility and green purchase
intention when interdependent self-construal level was one SD above
and below its mean. Thus, Hypothesis 4 was confirmed.
Hypothesis 5 denotes that independent self-construal negatively
moderates the relationship between perceived information utility and
green purchase intention. The results showed that independent self-
construal had a significant positive effect on green purchase intention
(β = .14, t = 3.50, p < .001) and that the interaction term between
information utility and independent self-construal was negatively
related to green purchase intention (β = −0.13, t = −2.14, p < .05).
These results indicated that independent self-construal had a direct
effect on green purchase intention and negatively moderated the rela-
tionship between perceived information utility and green purchase
intention. As shown in Figure 3, when independent self-construal was
one SD above its mean, the effect of perceived information utility was
weaker than when independent self-construal was one SD below its
mean. Therefore, Hypotheses 5 was supported.
5 | DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Social media is an effective platform for green advertisements
because consumers can choose their own sustainable development
lifestyle groups through interacting with others (Minton, Lee, Orth,
Kim, & Kahle, 2012). Consumers' purchase decisions are largely based
on their perceptions of information utility from green advertising.
However, green advertisements may be misleading or exaggerated,
F I G U R E 3 The moderating effect of
independent self-construal on the
relationship between information utility and
intention to buy green products
and such distortions can reduce information utility (Goh & Balaji,
2016; Schmuck et al., 2018). This study discusses how green advertis-
ing skepticism on social media affects perceived information utility,
which in turn affects consumer green purchase intention.
The results show that green advertising skepticism has no direct
impact on consumer green purchase intention. Rather, this study finds
that green advertising skepticism indirectly affects consumer green
purchase intention via the mediation of perceived information utility.
The information provided in green advertisements may be considered
unreliable if consumers are suspicious of the credibility of green
advertisements. Consumers with a high level of skepticism toward
green advertising tend to perceive a low level of information utility.
The information utility of green advertisements is the basic informa-
tion with which consumers make their purchase decisions. As is
supported by this study, perceived low levels of information utility
have a negative consequence for green product purchase intention.
When consumers perceive the information in green advertisements as
useful and helpful, they are more likely to buy the green products.
Moreover, the interaction between information utility and
interdependent self-construal significantly positively affects green
purchase intention. Specifically, for a given level of information utility,
consumers with higher interdependent self-construal will have higher
levels of green purchase intention. This result is in line with the early
studies that argue that interdependent self-construal is associated
with empathy (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), or that consumers with
interdependent self-construal act according to social norms and seek
acceptance within the group (Wang & Juslin, 2009). Moreover, per-
ceived information utility and independent self-construal interactively
and negatively affect green purchase intention. Specifically, con-
sumers with higher independent self-construal are more likely to be
different from others, act on their own preferences (Singelis, 1994),
and tend not to buy green products.
Thus, the findings of this study demonstrate that people's green
purchase choices depend to some degree on their perceptions of their
self and relationships with others. People with highly interdependent
self-construal are more likely to sacrifice their own interests in favor
LUO ET AL.
of group harmony (Duclos & Barasch, 2014). People with high
interdependent self-construal are more likely to buy green products
when they believe green advertisements offer useful information. In
contrast, those with high independent self-construal feel a need to be
different from others by not consuming green products, even if they
believe that green products are good for society.
Overall, this study contributes to the marketing and advertising
literature by addressing, firstly, the underlying mechanism through
which green advertising skepticism influences consumer green pur-
chase intention, and secondly, the boundary conditions under which
the strength of this relationship changes according to the characteris-
tics of an individual's self-construal.
5.1 | Practical implications
This study has considerable practical implications. First, our findings
suggest that green advertising skepticism discourages green buying
via perceived information utility. Hence, false, misleading, and exag-
gerated green advertising has serious consequences. Thus, it is imper-
ative to combat false, misleading, and exaggerated green advertising.
Significant measures should be taken at multiple levels. To develop
consumer confidence in green advertising and increase green product
consumption, the government should strengthen the legal regulations
on green advertising on social media. Industry authorities should rein-
force their scrutinization of the green advertising of individual firms.
At the enterprise level, advertisers and marketers should avoid using
misleading and exaggerated green claims in advertising and should
bear the consequences should they publish false or otherwise decep-
tive green advertisements. Authentic advertising reduces green skep-
ticism, which helps increase the perceived information utility and
purchasing intention of consumers. Marketers and advertisers should
regularly conduct customer skepticism surveys and consider consumer
feedback in designing green advertising. Marketers and advertisers
should disclose complete information relating to their green products
on social media and communicate with consumers about the benefits
of using such products. Consumers also need to be educated to dis-
cern genuine green products from products falsely claimed to be
green. Correspondingly, they should also share green knowledge and
experience on social media to educate and inform others. Also, when
consumers are confronted with false green advertisements, they
should exercise their rights and denounce this advertising in order to
protect the interests of the broader society (Schmuck et al., 2018).
Secondly, for a given level of information utility, consumers with
higher interdependent self-construal will have higher levels of green
purchase intention. Marketers and advertisers therefore should
understand the importance of group relationships to different con-
sumers in order to tailor green advertisements accordingly. People
with high interdependent self-construal tend to maintain harmonious
relationships with their communities, and such relationships may be
more pronounced when they are under great social pressures. Mar-
keters should therefore help foster close relationships among social
media users. These consumers may acquire green information through
9
their social media contacts, rather than by themselves. Advertisers
and marketers should leverage the social attributes of social media
and demonstrate how their green products can be part of a shared
connection between friends. They should also actively encourage con-
sumers to share green advertisements and interact with their group.
This would raise green awareness and increase green purchase inten-
tion among the group.
The current marketing strategy for green products generally
emphasizes benefits to the environment. This strategy should be
directed more toward people with high independent self-construal as
this group of people pay more attention to their own interests, prefer-
ences, and abilities. It can be suggested that advertisers and marketers
target highly independent self-construal consumers with green adver-
tisement content covering how the product will directly benefit the
consumer's own interests, such as their personal health, achievement,
pride, and quality of life.
5.2 | Limitations and future research directions
There are several limitations to be addressed. First, this research
argues that green advertising skepticism indirectly affects consumer
green purchase intention via perceived information utility. However,
because we used cross-sectional data, the finding regarding this indi-
rect relationship may not be causal. This is as a relationship the other
way may also exist, that is, perceived information utility influencing
green purchase intention via advertising skepticism. Also, we only
included one mediator, that is, perceived information utility, in our
conceptual model. There may exist other mediators that link green
advertising skepticism and consumers' green purchase intention.
Future research may explore alternative underlying mechanisms. Sec-
ond, this study focused only on consumers' perceived skepticism
toward green advertising and did not consider the impact of green
advertising frequency on consumers' green purchase intention. It is
possible that the increase in consumer exposure to green advertise-
ments will affect consumers' green purchase decisions. It is worth-
while for future research to examine or control for the influence of
green advertising frequency when exploring the green advertising-
green buying relationship. Third, eco-labeling may have an impact on
consumer green purchase intention. Future studies should explore or
control for this impact. Finally, this research was conducted in China,
where the institutional environment significantly differs from other
markets. We suggest that cross-cultural research be conducted to
increase the generalizability of the research findings.
5.3 | Conclusions
Marketers and advertisers increasingly promote green products on
social media. As social media is less regulated, green advertising often
lacks reliable information about the environmental attributes of prod-
ucts. Such green advertisements may raise consumer skepticism of
greenwashing. This study finds that green advertising skepticism
10
affects consumers’ green purchase intention via the mediation of per-
ceived information utility. Interdependent self-construal positively
moderates and independent self-construal negatively moderates this
indirect relationship. The research findings suggest that truthful and
consumer-tailored green advertising is crucial to green product
marketing.
ORCID
Ying Sun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1446-7125
ENDNOTE
1
The term “Netizens” is defined by Chen and Zhang (2016) and China
Internet Network Information Center as those who are 6 years old or
above and have used the Internet in the past 6 months. In this study, we
sampled netizens who were aged 18 and older.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Biao Luo is a professor of School of Management, Hefei Univer-
sity of Technology and his primary research interests are con-
sumer behavior and marketing.
Ying Sun is a PhD student of School of Management, University
of Science and Technology of China and her primary research
interests are green consumption and green marketing.
Jie Shen is a professor of Management in Shenzhen Audencia
Business School (SABS), Shenzhen University, and his primary
research interests are green strategy management and green
human resources management.
Lihui Xia is a PhD student of School of Management, University
of Science and Technology of China and her primary research
interests are green strategy management and sustainable
development.
How to cite this article: Luo B, Sun Y, Shen J, Xia L. How does
green advertising skepticism on social media affect consumer
intention to purchase green products? J Consumer Behav.
2020;1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1818