Respiration: Energy Release in Cycling Race

✂
21 Respiration
Lee Wai Sze in a cycling race
Energy release in cycling race Think about...

1 What is the process of releasing
During a cycling race, athletes have to speed up suddenly. Muscles
energy from food in body cells
(especially those in the legs) have to contract more powerfully at a
called?
higher rate. Muscle cells release energy by different methods to meet
2 How can muscle cells release
the changing energy needs in the race.
additional energy in a short
time?
Watch more
(Answers on p. 41)
Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

All questions from the HKDSE, HKCEE and HKALE are reproduced by permission of the HKEAA.
Unauthorized use of the aforementioned questions in this electronic version is prohibited.
II Organisms and Environment
21.1 Significance of respiration

Like photosynthesis, respiration plays a significant role both for
individuals as well as for ecosystems. Let’s recall what we have learnt in
junior forms first.
A What is respiration?
We have learnt that food stores chemical energy. In living cells,
chemical energy stored in food is released to support the activities of
organisms through a process called respiration. The overall equation for
respiration is:
enzymes
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
In fact, burning glucose in air is represented by the same equation but

without the presence of enzymes. The presence or absence of enzymes
makes a lot of differences. The major differences are shown in the table
below and the two graphs in Fig 21.1 on the next page.
Burning Respiration
Site of occurrence Outside cells Inside living cells
Catalysed by No Yes, each reaction is catalysed

enzymes? by a specific enzyme
Uncontrolled release Controlled release in

Release of energy in one go, i.e. there is a stepwise manner, i.e.
only a single reaction involving many reactions
Formation of All energy (stored in 55% of energy is lost as heat;

ATP glucose) is lost as heat 45% is stored in form of ATP
In summary, respiration
Cross-link • releases energy from food through the controlled oxidative

Refer to Bk 1A, Ch 5, p. 5 breakdown of food. Oxidative breakdown refers to the breaking
for the meaning of oxidation
down of a compound by oxidation, i.e. a reaction involving the loss
and reduction in chemical
reactions. of electron(s);
• involves many steps, each of which is catalysed by a specific

enzyme;
• takes place in all living cells. Glucose is the most common substrate.
21– 2
21 Respiration
In burning In respiration
glucose + oxygen glucose + oxygen
energy level
energy level
energy transferred
energy lost to ATP in some of
as heat the steps; energy
is also lost as heat
carbon dioxide + water carbon dioxide + water

time time
Fig 21.1 Energy change in burning and respiration
Roles of ATP in cellular metabolism

During respiration, some of the energy released from the breakdown of
glucose is used to form ATP by combining a phosphate (P) with ADP.
This process is called phosphorylation.
ATP can be readily broken down into ADP and a phosphate with the
release of a small amount of energy. The energy is sufficient to drive
individual reactions in cells. The ADP and phosphate released can be
reused to form ATP during respiration (Fig 21.2)
(higher energy state)

ATP
energy from
breakdown of energy supplied
glucose in to the cell
respiration
ADP + P
(lower energy state)
Fig 21.2 Formation and breakdown of ATP
Cells require energy from ATP for three main types of activities:
• Movement, such as muscle contraction, movement of cilia in ciliated

epithelium and movement of chromosomes in cell division;
• Synthesis, such as synthesis of large biomolecules like proteins and

DNA;
• Transport, such as pumping molecules or ions across cell membranes

by active transport during mineral absorption by plant roots, and
absorption of digested food across the wall of the alimentary canal in
animals.
21– 3
Features of ATP as energy carrier
• ATP acts as an energy carrier in the cell in which it is made. It

cannot be transferred from cell to cell.
Cross-link • The energy released from the oxidative breakdown of one glucose
The number of ATP molecule can be used to form many ATP molecules in the cell. In
molecules formed from
one glucose molecule in this way, the large amount of energy stored in a glucose molecule is
respiration will be discussed packaged into a smaller amount in each ATP molecule.
in Sections 21.3 and 21.4.
In active body cells, food is broken down by respiration to release

energy for use in other cells.
The ATP formed during respiration is used within the cell where it is
formed.
B Relationship between respiration and

photosynthesis and their roles in the
ecosystem
Respiration is important not only for individual organisms, but for
the ecosystem as a whole. Coupled with photosynthesis, it facilitates
the cycling of materials and flow of energy within an ecosystem as
summarized in Fig 21.3.
oxygen
glucose
energy
Cross-link photosynthesis
Refer to Ch 20 for the details
about photosynthesis.
respiration
carbon dioxide
water
Photosynthetic
organisms convert
light energy to
chemical energy Through respiration, organisms
stored in organic food. break down organic food to
release the stored energy as ATP.
Fig 21.3 Photosynthesis and respiration allow a cycling of materials and flow of energy
in an ecosystem
21– 4
21 Respiration
1 Cycling of molecules
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water from the
surroundings are converted to organic compounds (e.g. glucose). Some
of the carbon dioxide and water in the surroundings are formed from
respiration.
During respiration, the organic compounds (e.g. glucose) formed in

photosynthesis are broken down to carbon dioxide and water, which
are substrates for photosynthesis.
As a result, respiration and photosynthesis allow the cycling of molecules

in ecosystems.
2 Flow of energy
During photosynthesis, light energy from the surroundings is changed
to chemical energy stored in organic food. The energy is transferred to
consumers through feeding along food chains.
Through respiration, organisms break down organic food and release

the energy as ATP and heat.
In both photosynthesis and respiration, ATP acts as the energy carrier.

In photosynthesis, ATP transfers light energy captured by chlorophyll
to make organic compounds. In respiration, ATP transfers the energy
released by the oxidative breakdown of organic compounds to drive
cellular metabolism.
in photosynthesis
ATP ATP
light energy energy stored energy that

captured by in organic drives cellular
chlorophyll compounds metabolism
ADP + P ADP + P
in respiration
Fig 21.4 Relationship between photosynthesis and respiration
21– 5
1 What is respiration?
Respiration is the process by which organisms release
chemical energy from food through the controlled oxidative
breakdown of food. Some of the energy released is used to form
ATP.
2 What is the role of ATP in cellular metabolism?
ATP acts as an energy carrier. When it is broken down into
ADP and a phosphate, energy is released and is readily usable
by the cell for metabolic activities.
3 What is the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis?
Respiration and photosynthesis allows a cycling of molecules
(carbon dioxide, water, oxygen and glucose) and a flow of
energy in ecosystems.
Level 1
Questions 1 to 3: State whether the statements are true or false.
1 Respiration is a process that uses energy, in the form of ATP, to
produce organic compounds. p. 2
2 Respiration and photosynthesis allow a cycling of molecules in the

ecosystem. p. 4, 5
3 Respiration and photosynthesis allow a cycling of energy in the

ecosystem. p. 4, 5
Level 2
4 Which of the following features about ATP is/are correct?
(1) It can be broken down readily.
(2) It captures a small amount of energy released from the
breakdown of food.
(3) It can be transferred to other cells.
A (2) only
B (1) and (2) only
C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 3, 4
21– 6
21 Respiration
21.2 Site of respiration

The first stage of respiration occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell. The
cytoplasm contains various enzymes that catalyse the reaction. The
remaining steps occur in the mitochondria.
A Structure of the mitochondrion

Fig 21.5 shows the structure of the mitochondrion. It is adapted for the
3D model 21.1
process.
mitochondrion
a outer membrane
b
inner membrane
(packed with enzymes)
mitochondrial matrix*
(contains enzymes)
cristae*
Fig 21.5 (a) Electron micrograph of a mitochondrion (×36 000); (b) structure of a mitochondrion
• A mitochondrion is bounded by a double membrane:
a The outer membrane controls the movement of substances

into and out of the mitochondrion.
b The inner membrane is highly folded to form cristae (singular:

crista). The cristae are packed with enzymes involved in the
reactions of respiration. The cristae greatly increase the surface
area for packing more enzymes.
• The space enclosed by the inner membrane is filled with a fluid

called the mitochondrial matrix. It also contains enzymes involved
in the reactions of respiration. It provides a fluid medium for
reactions to take place.
crista 嵴 mitochondrial matrix 線粒體基質
21– 7
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondria have their own DNA which is different from the DNA in the
nucleus of the cell. Mitochondria divide on their own. They share some
similarities in size and biochemistry with bacteria. Some scientists suggest
that mitochondria were evolved from ancient bacteria that were engulfed
by a cell. The bacteria then became organelles that were responsible for
releasing energy.
B Cells with lots of mitochondria

As most of the energy in food is released by reactions occuring inside
the mitochondria, mitochondria are particular abundant in active cells.
Below are some examples of such cells.
Suggest a kind of plant

? cell with abundant
a mitochondria b mitochondria
mitochondria.
liver cell (×2800) muscle cells (×3200)
c mitochondria d mitochondria
synaptic knob (×3000) epithelial cells of an intestinal villus (×3200)
Fig 21.6 Electron micrographs of animal cells with abundant mitochondria
21– 8
21 Respiration
1 How is the cytoplasm adapted for respiration?

The cytoplasm contains enzymes for catalysing the reactions in
respiration.
2 How are the structures of the mitochondrion adapted for respiration?
Structure Adaptive feature for respiration
Double The inner membrane is highly folded to form

membrane cristae. The cristae are packed with enzymes
involved in the reactions of respiration.
Mitochondrial It fills the space enclosed by the inner membrane.

matrix It contains enzymes involved in the reactions
of respiration. It provides a fluid medium for
reactions to take place.
Level 1
1 Which of the following sites in a cell contain enzymes for reactions
of respiration?
(1) cytoplasm
(2) mitochondrial matrix
(3) outer membrane of mitochondrion
A (1) and (2) only
B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 7
Level 2
2 Which of the following is/are the common feature(s) of mitochondria
and chloroplasts?
(1) Both are bounded by a double membrane.
(2) Both are filled with a fluid.
(3) Both have membranes of large surface area for packing enzymes.
A (1) only
B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 7
21– 9
DSE
13(IA)Q10, 14(IA)Q14,
21.3 Aerobic respiration
14(IB)Q1, 16(IA)Q8, 26,
17(IA)Q7, 18(IA)Q11, Respiration can take place with or without oxygen. Respiration that
19(IA)Q3 requires oxygen is called aerobic respiration*. It occurs in three main
stages which take place at different parts in a cell (Fig 21.7).
glucose
Watch this to prepare for
your class and answer the
cell membrane
questions.
1 Glycolysis*
Video & (in cytoplasm)
cytoplasm - breaking down of glucose ATP
questions
to two 3-C compounds
ATP
2 Krebs cycle*
(in mitochondrial matrix)
- a cycle of reactions
CO2
mitochondrion 3 Oxidative phosphorylation* ATP

(on inner membrane of mitochondrion)
- oxidation of certain molecules
by oxygen H2O
Fig 21.7 The stages of aerobic respiration
A Glycolysis
• Glycolysis Glycolysis is catalysed by enzymes in the cytoplasm. It does not require
In Greek, ‘glyco’ means oxygen. The process involves two steps:
‘sugar’ and ‘lysis’ means
‘split’.
2 ATP 2 ADP + 2 P 4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP
glucose 2 triose phosphate 2 pyruvate*

(6-C) (3-C) (3-C)
2 NAD* 2 NADH
❶ Breakdown of ❷ Oxidation of
glucose to triose triose phosphate
phosphate to pyruvate
Fig 21.8 The two reactions in glycolysis
❶ Break down of glucose to triose phosphate

Note that before energy
is released by respiration, Glucose is first activated by phosphorylation. Two molecules of ATP
energy, in the form of ATP,
is needed to initiate the are used. The activated glucose molecule is then broken down into two
reactions. molecules of triose phosphate.
aerobic respiration 需氧呼吸 glycolysis 糖酵解 Krebs cycle 克雷伯氏循環

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) 菸酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸 oxidative phosphorylation 氧化磷酸化 pyruvate 丙酮酸鹽
21– 10
21 Respiration
❷ Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate
Next, each of the two triose phosphate molecules loses hydrogen

(become oxidized) to form a 3-C compound called pyruvate. The
hydrogen is accepted by a carrier molecule called NAD (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide). As a result, NAD is reduced to form NADH.
Two molecules of ATP are formed.
In other words, the oxidation of the two triose phosphate molecules to

pyruvate gives two molecules of NADH and four molecules of ATP.
Summary of glycolysis
The equation below summarizes the reactions in glycolysis:
2 NAD 2 NADH
glucose 2 pyruvate
(6-C) (3-C)
2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP
For each glucose molecule (6-C) undergoing glycolysis,
• 2 pyruvate molecules (3-C) are formed. Pyruvate will be further

oxidized to release more energy in subsequent stages;
• a net amount of 2 ATP are formed;
• 2 NADH are formed. They will act as a hydrogen donor* in

the final stage of respiration to form more ATP.
Carrier molecules in enzymatic reactions

NAD is a carrier molecule (or coenzyme*) in many metabolic processes,
such as glycolysis. A carrier molecule or coenzyme is an organic non‑protein
molecule that is required by certain enzymes to catalyse a reaction.
Many coenzymes are vitamins or derivatives of vitamins. If certain vitamins
are deficient in the diet, body cells will not have the coenzymes needed
to catalyse reactions.
coenzyme 輔酶 hydrogen donor 氫供體
21– 11
Bridging between glycolysis and Krebs cycle
The pyruvate formed in glycolysis then enters the mitochondrion

where reactions of the Krebs cycle occur. Pyruvate does not enter the
cycle directly. It undergoes a conversion process catalysed by enzymes in
the mitochondrial matrix.
NAD NADH
pyruvate acetyl-CoA*
(3-C) (2-C)
CO2 coenzyme A
• During the conversion, a carbon atom is removed from pyruvate

and released as carbon dioxide.
• The remaining 2-C compound loses hydrogen which is accepted by

NAD to form NADH.
• The 2-C compound then combines with a carrier molecule,

coenzyme A, to form acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). It carries the
acetyl group into the Krebs cycle.
B Krebs cycle
The Krebs cycle involves two main stages catalysed by specific enzymes
in the mitochondrial matrix (Fig 21.9).
acetyl-CoA (2-C) (converted from one of the

two molecules of pyruvate
formed in glycolysis)
coenzyme A
❶ Combination of
acetyl-CoA with
4-C compound
The conversion of the 4-C compound Krebs cycle 6-C compound

6‑C compound to the 4‑C
compound involves a number ❷ Regeneration of
of steps which are not 4-C compound
shown here. FADH
FAD
2 CO2
3 NAD
ATP ADP + P 3 NADH
Fig 21.9 An overview of the Krebs cycle
acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl‑CoA) 乙酰輔酶 A
21– 12
21 Respiration
1 Combination of acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound
Acetyl-CoA (2-C) combines with a 4-C compound already present in

the mitochondrial matrix. The 2-C acetyl group is donated to the
4-C compound to form a 6-C compound. Coenzyme A is released.
CoA
acetyl-CoA + 4-C compound 6-C compound

(2-C)
In this way, coenzyme A is regenerated continually. It can carry other

acetyl groups formed from pyruvate in glycolysis into the Krebs cycle.
2 Regeneration of 4-C compound
The 6-C compound is oxidized step by step to regenerate the original

4-C compound. Each of the reactions in the process is catalysed by a
different enzyme.
2 CO2 3 NAD 3 NADH
6-C compound 4-C compound
ADP + P ATP FAD* FADH
• The 6-C compound loses two carbon atoms which are released as
carbon dioxide.
• The 6-C compound also loses hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen

atoms are accepted by two kinds of carrier molecules:
- three molecules of NAD are reduced to NADH;
- one molecule of FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is reduced to

FADH.
• The energy released from the conversion is used to make one

molecule of ATP.
Summary of the Krebs cycle
In glycolysis, each glucose molecule generates 2 pyruvate

molecules. The pyruvate molecules are converted to 2 molecules of
acetyl-CoA, which enter the Krebs cycle. In the Krebs cycle,
a total of 6 NADH, 2 FADH and 2 ATP are formed.
The NADH, FADH and ATP formed store the chemical energy
of glucose. The energy stored in ATP is readily usable by the cell.
The energy stored in NADH and FADH will be released in the final
stage of aerobic respiration.
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) 黃素腺嘌呤二核苷酸
21– 13
C Oxidative phosphorylation
Cross-link The final stage of aerobic respiration occurs on the inner membrane of
Recall that in photosynthesis, the mitochondrion. It is called oxidative phosphorylation because the
photophosphorylation
occurs to form ATP in the energy for forming ATP by phosphorylation comes from oxidation of
photochemical reactions NADH and FADH (Fig 21.10). The NADH and FADH are formed in
(refer to Ch 20, p. 21). glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
Fig 21.10 shows the oxidation of NADH and how water is formed.
❶ NADH
NAD
+ ATP
+
2 e– electron
H
el release ATP through

ec
tro a series of redox
n reactions
tra
❷ ns
po
rt
ch
ai
n
2 e–
+ 1 O2
2 H
❸ 2
H2O
Fig 21.10 Oxidation of NADH and formation of water
1 NADH loses hydrogen and is oxidized to NAD. The hydrogen

atoms split into hydrogen ions and electrons. By losing hydrogen,
NAD is regenerated. It can accept hydrogen in glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle again.
2 The electrons take part in a series of redox reactions along an
electron transport chain. The chain consists of electron carriers
embedded in the inner membrane of mitochondria. The energy
released in the reactions is used to make ATP.
3 The hydrogen ions and electrons are eventually transferred to
oxygen, the final electron acceptor, to form water.
Similar processes take place in the oxidation of FADH to FAD, except

that the electrons from FADH enter the electron transport chain in a
later step. One less ATP is formed per molecule of FADH.
21– 14
21 Respiration
Summary of oxidative phosphorylation
• Oxidation of each NADH forms 3 ATP, while oxidation of each

FADH forms 2 ATP. As a total of 10 NADH and 2 FADH are
produced from glycolysis to the Krebs cycle, a total of 34 ATP
are formed.
• The hydrogen ions and electrons released from the NADH or

FADH are accepted by oxygen to form water.
Animation 21.1 D Overview of aerobic respiration

Fig 21.11 summarizes the steps of aerobic respiration.
cytoplasm
Glycolysis
glucose
2 ATP 2 NADH
2 pyruvate
mitochondrial matrix 2 NADH

2 CO2
2 acetyl-CoA
6 NADH
Krebs cycle
2 ATP
4 CO2
2 FADH
34 ATP Oxidative phosphorylation H2O
O2
inner membrane
of mitochondria
Fig 21.11 Summary of aerobic respiration
21– 15
• From Fig 21.11 (on p. 15), we can see that the energy stored in
NADH and FADH is finally transferred to ATP during oxidative
phosphorylation.
• The chemical equation of aerobic respiration is shown below:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
To break down one glucose molecule completely, six oxygen

molecules are required. Six carbon dioxide and six water molecules
are produced in the process.
• From Fig 21.10 (on p. 14), we can see that oxygen is only used in
oxidative phosphorylation. It acts as the final electron acceptor
and results in formation of water. In other words, the oxygen atom
in the water molecule comes from oxygen and not from glucose.
• If there is no oxygen, electrons released from NADH and FADH

cannot go through the electron transport chain. Oxidative
phosphorylation stops. NAD and FAD cannot be regenerated. As
a result, the Krebs cycle can no longer operate and only glycolysis
can continue. The number of ATP formed will be greatly reduced.
This will be discussed in detail in Section 21.4.
Number of ATP formed in aerobic respiration

The total number of ATP formed per glucose molecule is summarized
below:
Stage Number of carrier molecules formed
Glycolysis 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Conversion of pyruvate to
2 NADH
acetyl‑CoA
Krebs cycle 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH
Oxidative phosphorylation From NADH: (2 + 2 + 6) × 3 = 30 ATP

From FADH: 2 × 2 = 4 ATP
Therefore, a total of 38 ATP are formed from the complete breakdown of

one glucose molecule.
21– 16
21 Respiration
Discovery of the Krebs cycle

The Krebs cycle was named after Hans Krebs. It was discovered by Hans Krebs and his team in 1937.
Hans Krebs and Fritz Lipmann shared the Nobel Prize in 1953 for the discovery.
Fig 21.12 Hans Krebs (1900–81) Fig 21.13 Fritz Lipmann (1899–1986)
Krebs and his team used enzyme inhibitors in their studies. They added the inhibitors to small pieces of
living tissue and compared the rate of respiration.
They found that when an inhibitor was added, a certain substance (say substance X) would accumulate
in the tissue while the amount of another substance (say substance Y) dropped. From this observation,
they proposed substance X was converted to Y during respiration.
enzyme inhibitor
added
substance X substance Y
(accumulated) (amount dropped)
Using this approach, they showed how individual reactions are linked up with each other to form
a cyclic process.
Effect of cyanide on respiration

Cyanide is a poison. It inhibits certain enzymes in the electron
nitrogen carbon
transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation. It prevents oxygen
from acting as the final electron acceptor. As a result, no ATP can
be produced.
Early symptoms of cyanide poisoning in humans include headache,
Fig 21.14 Atomic model of a
dizziness, shortness of breath and vomiting. This may then be
cyanide ion (CN– )
followed by low blood pressure and loss of consciousness. Death
may result in serious cases.
21– 17
What happens during the different stages of aerobic respiration?
Stage of Site of Reactions involved

respiration occurrence (per glucose molecule)
Glycolysis Cytoplasm • Glucose is split into two molecules of triose phosphate using
energy from ATP.
• Triose phosphate is oxidized to pyruvate; NADH and ATP are
formed.
Pyruvate to Mitochondrial • Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA. Carbon dioxide and

acetyl‑CoA matrix NADH are formed.
Krebs cycle Mitochondrial • Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-C compound to form a 6-C
matrix compound.
• The 6-C compound is oxidized step by step to regenerate
the original 4-C compound. Carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH
and ATP are formed.
Oxidative Inner • NADH and FADH from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are
phosphorylation membrane of oxidized and lose hydrogen. The hydrogen atoms split into
mitochondrion hydrogen ions and electrons. NAD and FAD are regenerated.
• The electrons take part in a series of redox reactions to
form ATP.
• Hydrogen ions and electrons are finally accepted by oxygen
to form water.
Level 1 Level 2
1 For each of the molecules listed in column 2 Which of the following combinations best
1, select from column 2 one process that describes the processes involved in aerobic
produces it during respiration. Put the respiraton?
appropriate letter in the space provided. Carbon dioxide NADH is
(3 marks) is released oxdized
Column 1 Column 2 A Glycolysis Krebs cycle
Water A Glycolysis B Conversion of Glycolysis
FADH B Kerbs cycle pyruvate to
Pyruvate C Oxidative acetyl‑CoA
phosphorylation C Krebs cycle Oxidative
phosphorylation
p. 15
D Oxidative Glycolysis
phosphorylation p. 10–15
21– 18
21 Respiration
E Comparison between aerobic respiration

and photosynthesis
Cross-link Both aerobic respiration and photosynthesis consist of a series of
Recall what you have learnt reactions. The table below summarizes the similarities and differences
about photosynthesis in
Ch 20. between these two processes.
Aerobic respiration Photosynthesis
Site of • All living cells (cytoplasm and • Chloroplast-containing cells

occurrence mitochondria)
Type of • Catabolism; breaks down organic food • Anabolism; builds up organic food by
metabolism by oxidation to release energy reduction to store energy
Energy • Chemical energy in organic food is • Light energy is converted to chemical

transformation converted to ATP and heat energy in organic food
• Both involve an activation step

Activation process
and products
• Activation of glucose by • Activation of chlorophyll by light

formed
phosphorylation using ATP absorption

• The activated glucose is broken down • Electrons are excited to a high energy
in a controlled manner in glycolysis for level
forming ATP and NADH
Reactions involved in energy transformation
Krebs cycle Calvin cycle

Cyclic process and
• Carbon dioxide is removed from • Carbon dioxide is fixed into the cycle
products formed
pyruvate by a 5-C compound

• NADH, FADH and ATP are formed • NADPH and ATP are used to form
• The original 4-C compound is triose phosphate, which subsequently
regenerated forms glucose
• ATP is also used to regenerate the
5-C compound
• Both involve electron transport

• Energy released in the transport of electrons is used to form ATP
Electron transport and
formation of ATP
• Electrons in NADH and FADH are • Electrons from chlorophyll are finally
finally accepted by oxygen accepted by NADP to form NADPH
• ATP is formed by oxidative • ATP is formed by photophosphorylation
phosphorylation, i.e. oxidation (NADPH and ATP are used to drive the
of NADH and FADH drives ATP reactions in the Calvin cycle)
formation by phosphorylation
• ATP is also formed in glycolysis and
Krebs cycle by phosphorylation
21– 19
F Investigation of aerobic respiration in

organisms
To demonstrate that organisms carry out aerobic respiration, we can
study the oxygen consumption by organisms, or detect the production
of carbon dioxide and heat by organisms.
21.1 Investigation of oxygen consumption in a grasshopper
Introduction
Organisms consume oxygen in the surroundings to carry out aerobic
Practical 21.1
respiration. Carbon dioxide is produced. We can use potassium hydroxide
solution to absorb the carbon dioxide produced by an organism in a closed
system. The reduction in air pressure in the system shows that the
organism consumes oxygen to carry out aerobic respiration.
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown below.
delivery tube
Potassium hydroxide
solution is corrosive.
Avoid contact with
skin.
potassium initial
hydroxide water level
solution
coloured
grasshopper water
2 Observe the change in the water level in the delivery tube after an hour.
Results and discussion

The water level in the delivery tube rises. This is because the carbon dioxide originally present in the
flask and that produced during respiration are absorbed by potassium hydroxide solution. As oxygen
is consumed by the grasshopper, the air pressure in the conical flask gradually drops and becomes
lower than atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure pushes the coloured water in the beaker
downwards and the water level in the delivery tube rises.
21– 20
21 Respiration
Investigation of carbon dioxide production in

21.2 germinating seeds
Introduction
Seeds germinate under favourable conditions. During germination, the rate
Practical 21.2
of respiration of the seeds increases rapidly to break down the food stored in
the seeds. Hydrogencarbonate indicator can be used to detect any carbon
dioxide produced by germinating seeds.
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus with boiling tubes as shown below.
soaked germinating moist cotton wool boiled seeds

seeds (surface sterilized) (surface sterilized)
wire gauze
hydrogencarbonate
indicator
A B
(experimental set-up) (control set-up)
Note that the indicator shows different colours at different carbon dioxide
concentrations:
Lower than Atmospheric level Higher than

atmospheric level (~0.04%) atmospheric level
purple red yellow
2 Leave the tubes for a few hours. Record any colour changes in the
hydrogencarbonate indicator in tubes A and B.
• The hydrogencarbonate indicator in tube B remains red while that in tube A turns yellow after
a few hours. These results show that germinating seeds give out carbon dioxide.
• The seeds in the control set-up (tube B) are killed by boiling and do not carry out respiration.
The surfaces of the seeds in both tubes are sterilized to prevent microorganisms present on the
seeds from affecting the results.
21– 21
Investigation of carbon dioxide production in a living

21.3 mouse
Introduction
Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky. The air breathed out by a mouse
Practical 21.3
is passed through lime water to see whether the mouse has produced carbon
dioxide or not.
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown below. Make sure the bell jar is airtight.
Do not turn on the suction pump. Note the colours of the solutions in • Wear leather gloves
flasks B and C. when handling the
mouse.
air in to suction
pump • Potassium hydroxide
bell jar solution is corrosive.
Avoid contact with
skin.
potassium lime water* living glass lime water

hydroxide mouse plate
solution
Flask A Flask B Flask C
2 Turn on the suction pump to draw a stream of air through the apparatus
for 30 minutes. Record any colour changes in the solutions in the flasks.

• Potassium hydroxide solution in flask A remains clear in the experiment. It is used to absorb
carbon dioxide in the air. This prevents carbon dioxide from entering the bell jar. The lime
water in flask B remains clear in the experiment. It is used to confirm that the air entering the
bell jar contains no carbon dioxide.
• The lime water in flask C turns milky after 30 minutes. This shows that carbon dioxide is present
in the air leaving the bell jar, which must have been given out by the living mouse.
lime water 石灰水
21– 22
21 Respiration
21.4 Investigation of heat production in germinating seeds
Introduction
When germinating seeds carry out respiration to break down the stored food
Practical 21.4
in the seeds, heat is released. Vacuum flasks can be used to trap any heat
produced by the seeds.
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown below. Record the initial temperatures of
vacuum flasks A and B.
vacuum
flasks
soaked germinating boiled seeds

seeds (surface sterilized) (surface sterilized)
cotton wool
thermometers
Flask A Flask B
(experimental set-up) (control set-up)
2 Leave the set-ups for 24 hours. Record any changes in the temperatures
of the vacuum flasks.

• The temperature of flask A increases but that of flask B does not. This shows that germinating
seeds release heat.
• Warm air rises as it is less dense than cold air. Inverting the vacuum flasks can trap the warm air
and minimize heat loss.
21– 23
21.5 Investigation of heat production in a living mouse
Introduction
A differential air thermometer* consists of a U-shaped capillary tube
Practical 21.5
connected to a closed test tube at each end. An increase in temperature of the
tubes will cause the air to expand, leading to the movement of the coloured
liquid in the capillary tube.
Procedure
clip graph paper Wear leather gloves

when handling the
mouse.
arm A arm B
cotton wool
tube A tube B
coloured liquid
in U-shaped
capillary tube
living mouse
2 Open the clips connected to both tubes. Wait until the liquid levels in
both arms of the U-shaped capillary tube become the same. Record the
liquid levels.
3 Close the clips. Record any changes in the liquid levels after 10 minutes.

• The coloured liquid level in arm B falls and that in arm A rises. This shows that the mouse
releases heat which warms up the air in tube B. The air expands and pushes the liquid level in
arm B downwards.
• The cotton wool is used as an insulator to prevent heat loss to the surroundings.
differential air thermometer 差示空氣温度計
21– 24
21 Respiration
To study the rate of respiration in organisms, we often measure the

rate of carbon dioxide production or the rate of oxygen consumption
by organisms.
Investigation of the rate of respiration in a living mouse

21.6 by measuring the rate of carbon dioxide production
Introduction
We can modify the set-up in Practical 21.3 to investigate the rate of
Practical 21.6
respiration in a living mouse. The rate of carbon dioxide production by the
mouse is measured.
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown below. Make sure the bell jar is airtight.
air in to suction
pump
bell jar
• Wear leather gloves

when handling the
mouse.
• Potassium hydroxide
potassium lime water living drying potassium
hydroxide mouse agent hydroxide solution is corrosive.
solution solution Avoid contact with
skin.
Flask A Flask B U-tube Flask C
2 Do not turn on the suction pump. Measure the mass of flask C.
3 Turn on the suction pump for 30 minutes. Then measure the mass of
flask C again.
4 Replace the reagents in the set-up with the same amount of solutions and
drying agent. Prepare a control set-up without the living mouse in the
bell jar. Repeat steps 1 to 3.

• In the control set-up (without mouse), there is a decrease in the mass of flask C due to the
cont.
evaporation of water from the potassium hydroxide solution.
21– 25
• In the experimental set-up, the mass of flask C depends on the amount of carbon dioxide produced
by the mouse, which is absorbed by potassium hydroxide, and the mass of water lost from the
potassium hydroxide.
• By using the formula below, we can calculate the rate of respiration of the mouse in the 30-minute
duration of this practical (expressed in grams of CO2 per hour, or g CO2 h–1):
[(M1b – M1a) – (M2b – M2a)]/30 × 60
where
M1a is the initial mass of flask C in experimental set-up;
M1b is the final mass of flask C in experimental set-up;
M2a is the initial mass of flask C in contol set-up, and
M2b is the final mass of flask C in control set-up.
Investigation of the rate of respiration in germinating

21.7 seeds by measuring the rate of oxygen consumption
Introduction
We can modify the set-up in Practical 21.5 to investigate the rate of
Practical 21.7
respiration in germinating seeds. The rate of oxygen consumption by the
seeds is measured.
Procedure
clip
Soda lime is corrosive.
arm A arm B 1 mL Avoid contact with
syringe
skin. Handle the
pellets with a spatula
carefully.
water water
bath
sterilized
germinating
seeds
wire gauze
soda lime soda lime

pellets pellets
Tube A Tube B
coloured liquid graph
in U-shaped paper
capillary tube
cont.
outside water bath
21– 26
21 Respiration
2 Remove the syringe and open the clip connected to tube A. Wait until
the liquid levels in both arms of the U-shaped capillary tube become the
same.
3 Connect the syringe to the set-up and close the clip connected to tube A.
At one-minute intervals, move the plunger of the syringe until the levels
of coloured liquid in each arm are the same. Record the readings on the
syringe.

• During the experiment, the liquid level in arm B rises while that in arm A falls. This is because the
respiring seeds take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is absorbed by
soda lime. The reduction in pressure in tube B causes the liquid level in arm B to rise.
• The plunger of the syringe is pushed downwards to adjust the levels of the coloured liquid in both
arms to the same height. The readings show the volume of oxygen consumed by the seeds.
• The rate of oxygen consumption can be calculated in terms of the volume of oxygen consumed
per minute or per hour.
• The water bath is used to prevent the experimental results from being affected by changes in
temperature in the surroundings.
Effect of temperature on respiration

The temperature of the water bath in the set‑up in
❶ ❷
Practical 21.7 can be adjusted. By repeating readings
at different temperatures, the effect of temperature
on aerobic respiration can be measured. Fig 21.15
rate of respiration
shows the typical result that can be obtained with the

set‑up.
❶ At low temperatures (below 40 °C), the rate
of respiration increases because the enzymes
involved in the reactions become more active at
higher temperatures.
❷ When the temperature reaches above 40 °C, 0 10 20 30 40 50
the rate of respiration decreases. This is because temperature (°C)
the enzymes involved in the reactions of aerobic Fig 21.15 The effect of temperature on the rate
respiration are denatured. of aerobic respiration
21– 27
Potassium hydroxide is used to test for carbon dioxide.

Potassium hydroxide is used to absorb carbon dioxide in experiments.
How can we study aerobic respiration in organisms?

We can study aerobic respiration by studying the oxygen
consumption, the carbon dioxide production and the heat
production by organisms.
Level 1 Level 2
1 The diagram below shows a set‑up for 2 The diagram below shows a set‑up for
studying aerobic respiration in a snail. studying the respiration in a mouse.
scale
clip
delivery
tube
glass
tube
delivery tube coloured liquid
snail
water mouse
wire gauze
soda lime
After some time, the water level in the
Complete the following paragraph with delivery tube drops because
suitable words. (5 marks) (1) the mouse releases heat.
(2) the mouse takes in oxygen.
After some time, the drop of coloured
liquid moves (a) the test tube. (3) the mouse produces carbon dioxide.
This is because the snail takes in A (1) only
(b) and give out (c) . B (2) only
The (d) is absorbed by soda C (1) and (3) only
lime. The reduction in (e) in the D (2) and (3) only p. 20–24
tube causes the drop of coloured liquid to
move. p. 20
21– 28
21 Respiration
DSE
12(IB)Q9, 15(IA)Q6,
21.4 Anaerobic respiration
18(IA)Q26
Anaerobic respiration* is another type of respiration. It does not
require oxygen. The reactions occur in the cytoplasm only. Like
aerobic respiration, it starts with glycolysis in which glucose is oxidized
to pyruvate. Without oxygen, pyruvate cannot proceed to the Krebs
The presence of different cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Instead, it follows different
enzymes in the cells pathways and different products are formed (Fig 21.16).
determines the pathway that
glucose
pyruvate follows.
cell membrane
Glycolysis
(in cytoplasm) ATP
cytoplasm
pyruvate
different pathways to
mitochondrion give different products
is not involved
Fig 21.16 Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm only
In this section, we will study anaerobic respiration in yeast and skeletal

muscles.
A Formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide

in yeast
Yeast is a unicellular fungus. It respires aerobically when there is
enough oxygen supply. When oxygen supply is insufficient, it respires
anaerobically and produces ethanol* (an alcohol) and carbon dioxide.
The process is called alcoholic fermentation*.
Fig 21.17 Dried yeast Fig 21.18 Yeast cells (×3200)
alcoholic fermentation 酒精發酵 anaerobic respiration 缺氧呼吸 ethanol 乙醇
21– 29
1 Process of alcoholic fermentation

During alcoholic fermentation in yeast cells, the pyruvate formed from
glycolysis is reduced to ethanol. Carbon dioxide is released and NAD
is regenerated to pick up hydrogen in glycolysis again.
2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD
glucose 2 pyruvate 2 ethanol

(6-C) (3-C) (2-C)
2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP 2 CO2
Glycolysis
The overall equation of alcoholic fermentation is:
glucose energy (2 ATP) + ethanol + carbon dioxide
2 Comparison of ATP production between aerobic

respiration and alcoholic fermentation
During alcoholic fermentation, glucose is partially broken down to
form ethanol and carbon dioxide. Compared with aerobic respiration,
alcoholic fermentation of one glucose molecule produces only two
molecules of ATP through glycolysis. A large amount of chemical energy
is still trapped inside the ethanol formed. Therefore, much less energy
is released from anaerobic respiration than from aerobic respiration.
Alcoholic fermentation in plants

Certain plant cells can also carry out
alcoholic fermentation if oxygen is in
short supply. For example, germinating
seeds and root cells of some plants
(e.g. rice plants) carry out alcoholic
fermentation in water‑logged soil.
Fig 21.19 Rice plants growing in
water-logged soil
21– 30
21 Respiration
B Formation of lactic acid in skeletal muscles

Skeletal muscle cells normally obtain energy through aerobic
respiration. However, they also carry out anaerobic respiration when
there is an insufficient supply of oxygen, e.g. during strenuous exercise
that consists of high-intensity movement for a short duration. Glucose
is broken down into lactic acid with the release of a small amount of
energy. The process is called lactic acid fermentation*.
a b
Fig 21.20 Examples of strenuous exercise: (a) sprinting and (b) weight lifting
1 Process of lactic acid fermentation

When a skeletal muscle cell respires anaerobically, glucose is first
oxidized to pyruvate in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate
accepts hydrogen from NADH and is reduced to lactic acid. In this
way, NAD is regenerated and can be used in glycolysis again. The lactic
acid is released to the blood.
2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD
glucose 2 pyruvate 2 lactic acid*

(6-C) (3-C) (3-C)
2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP
Glycolysis
The overall equation of lactic acid fermentation is:
glucose energy (2 ATP) + lactic acid
lactic acid 乳酸 lactic acid fermentation 乳酸發酵
21– 31
2 Significance of lactic acid fermentation in

skeletal muscles
Compared with aerobic respiration, lactic acid fermentation comprises
relatively simple reactions. It produces only two molecules of ATP
through glycolysis.
During strenuous exercise, skeletal muscles need a lot of energy

from breaking down glucose. Though the blood supply to the muscles
increases, there is still an insufficient supply of oxygen for complete
oxidation of glucose in the muscles. In addition to aerobic respiration,
muscles also carry out lactic acid fermentation to convert pyruvate to
lactic acid. This provides additional energy in a very short time, so
that muscles can contract more powerfully and at a higher rate.
3 Removal of the lactic acid produced

After doing strenuous exercise, we keep breathing fast and deeply for
a period of time in order to take in extra oxygen. With more oxygen,
more NAD is regenerated in the electron transport chain. Then
the lactic acid can be oxidized by NAD to pyruvate, which can be
converted to acetyl-CoA for entering the Krebs cycle. This additional
amount of oxygen required to remove all the lactic acid is called the
oxygen debt (Fig 21.21).
rate of oxygen uptake
oxygen debt*
time
rest exercise recovery rest
Fig 21.21 Changes in the rate of oxygen uptake during and after exercise
Muscle soreness after strenuous exercise

Muscles soreness* often arises one or two days after doing strenuous exercise. The muscles become
increasingly stiff and painful. It was proposed that the accumulation of lactic acid produced by lactic
acid fermentation in the muscles caused muscle soreness. Recently, scientists believe that microscopic
damage is caused to the muscle fibres when muscles are required to work harder than they are used to
or in a different way. This damage leads to inflammation of the muscles, causing pain.
muscle soreness 肌肉酸痛 oxygen debt 氧債
21– 32
21 Respiration
1 How does anaerobic respiration occur in yeast?

Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidized to pyruvate. NADH
and ATP are formed.
Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol by NADH. Carbon dioxide is
released during the process.
2 How does anaerobic respiration occur in skeletal muscles?
Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidized to pyruvate. NADH
and ATP are formed.
Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by NADH.
3 What is the importance of anaerobic respiration during strenuous
exercise?
When there is an insufficient supply of oxygen for complete
oxidation of glucose in skeletal muscles, muscle cells carry out
anaerobic respiration to provide additional energy in a very
short time for muscle contraction.
4 What is an oxygen debt?
An oxygen debt is the extra amount of oxygen breathed
in after exercise for removing all the lactic acid produced by
anaerobic respiration in muscles.
Level 1 Level 2
Questions 1 and 2: State whether the 3 Which of the following is/are produced in
statements are true or false. muscle tissues of an athlete during a
100‑m race?
1 Both alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid (1) lactic acid
fermentation produce carbon dioxide.
(2) carbon dioxide
p. 29–32
(3) ethanol
2 In both alcoholic fermentation and lactic A (1) only
acid fermentation, the products will not be B (1) and (2) only
further metabolized. p. 29–32 C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 31, 32
21– 33
C Industrial applications of anaerobic

respiration
1 Application of alcoholic fermentation in yeast
Yeast breaks down sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide during
alcoholic fermentation. This reaction has the following applications:
i) Beer and wine brewing
In the brewing of beer, yeast is used to break down the sugar in barley*
under anaerobic conditions to produce ethanol. In the brewing of wine,
yeast on the skin of grapes breaks down the sugar in grape juice to
produce ethanol.
Cross-link
The details of the use of
alcoholic fermentation in
food processing will be
discussed in Bk E3, Ch 2.
Fig 21.22 Beer is made from barley Fig 21.23 Wine is made from grapes
ii) Bread-making
In bread-making, yeast is used to break down the sugars in the dough*.

Carbon dioxide formed by alcoholic fermentation in yeast helps raise
the dough (Fig 21.24). During baking, an increase in temperature causes
the carbon dioxide trapped in the dough to expand. This gives the
bread a spongy texture (Fig 21.25). The ethanol produced in alcoholic
fermentation is evaporated at high temperatures.
dough after
raising
dough before
raising
Fig 21.24 Bread dough before and after Fig 21.25 Bubbles of carbon dioxide
raising by adding yeast produced by yeast form the
holes in bread
barley 大麥 dough 麪糰
21– 34
21 Respiration
iii) Production of biofuel
Alcoholic fermentation can be used to produce biofuel* from crops,

such as sugar cane and maize. The sugar in sugar cane is fermented
by yeast. The starch in maize is broken down to sugar, which is then
fermented by yeast. The ethanol produced is extracted as a fuel to power
vehicles.
a b
Fig 21.26 (a) Sugar canes and (b) maize Fig 21.27 A gas station that provides
are common raw materials of biofuel containing ethanol
biofuel production
Design an investigation of alcoholic fermentation

21.8 in yeast
Scenario
Yeast can carry out aerobic and anaerobic respiration, depending on the
Practical 21.8
conditions of the surroundings. Glucose undergoes different pathways
resulting in production of different substances.
Task
Design and carry out an investigation to compare aerobic respiration and
alcoholic fermentation in yeast. Write a full report of your investigation.
Materials and apparatus

The materials and apparatus you need will depend on the design of your
investigation. You may choose from the following:
vacuum flask with stopper 2 yeast

thermometer 2 glucose solution
delivery tube 4 paraffin oil
conical flask with stopper 2 hydrogencarbonate indicator
biofuel 生物燃料
21– 35
2 Application of lactic acid fermentation

i) Making yoghurt and cheese
Some anaerobic bacteria can carry out lactic acid fermentation. They
break down lactose in milk to lactic acid in the absence of oxygen.
They are useful in making yoghurt and cheese (Fig 21.29). The lactic
acid helps coagulate the milk proteins, and gives yoghurt and cheese
their distinct flavours.
Fig 21.28 One of the bacteria used in Fig 21.29 Yoghurt and cheese are made
making yoghurt (×5800) from lactic acid fermentation
ii) Pickling vegetables
Salt-tolerant anaerobic bacteria are naturally present on certain

vegetables. They can carry out lactic acid fermentation. When pickling
vegetables, salt is added to fresh vegetables to draw the juices out from
them by osmosis. The anaerobic bacteria break down the sugars in the
juice to produce lactic acid and other chemicals.
Fig 21.30 Kimchi is
produced from lactic acid Lactic acid decreases the pH of food. The low pH inhibits the growth
fermentation of cabbage of mircoorganisms that cause food spoilage. Lactic acid, together with
other products of fermentation, gives pickled vegetables distinct flavours.
Other industrial applications of anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration in different kinds
of organisms leads to the production of
many other kinds of food or daily
products, such as soya sauce and vinegar.
Search the Internet for information on
how they are produced.
21– 36
21 Respiration
1 What are the industrial applications of alcoholic fermentation in yeast?

For producing ethanol in beer brewing and wine brewing
For producing carbon dioxide to raise the dough in
bread-making
For producing ethanol as a biofuel
2 What are the industrial applications of lactic acid fermentation in
bacteria?
For making yoghurt and cheese
For pickling vegetables
Level 1
1 For each of the food items listed in column 1, select from column 2
one product of anaerobic respiration that is useful in the making of
the food item. Put the appropriate letter in the space provided.
(3 marks)
Column 1 Column 2
Cheese A Carbon dioxide
Bread B Lactic acid
Wine C Ethanol p. 34–36
Level 2
2 Which of the following is/are the useful product(s) of alcoholic
fermentation during production of biofuel?
(1) glucose
(2) carbon dioxide
(3) ethanol
A (1) only B (3) only
C (1) and (2) only D (2) and (3) only p. 35
3 Which of the following statements about the making of yoghurt

is/are correct?
(1) It takes place in the absence of oxygen.
(2) It produces carbon dioxide.
(3) It involves actions of bacteria.
A (1) only B (2) only
C (1) and (3) only D (2) and (3) only p. 36
21– 37
Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice
In an experiment, a sample of yeast is cultured in glucose solution in the absence of oxygen. The
changes in the dry mass of yeast, and the concentrations of glucose and ethanol are recorded in the
table below.
Time Dry mass of Concentration of Concentration of
(h) yeast (g L–1) glucose (mM) ethanol (mM)
0 0.1 115 20
2 0.2 110 30
4 0.4 100 50
6 0.7 80 90
8 1.2 60 160
10 1.7 35 190
12 2.0 0 210
14 2.0 0 210
a Plot a graph with three curves to show the changes in the dry mass of yeast, the concentration
of glucose and the concentration of ethanol during the experiment. (8 marks)
b Explain the changes in the three variables with time. (5 marks)
Suggested answers
a
Changes in dry mass of yeast and concentrations of
glucose and ethanol during anaerobic respiration of yeast
Drawing two or
300 3
more curves in
a graph
dry mass of yeast (g L–1)
glucose / ethanol (mM)
Refer to p. 39.
concentration of
200 2
Key:
dry mass
of yeast
100 1
glucose
concentration
ethanol
0 0 concentration
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
time (h)
Correct title 1
Correct x‑axis with unit 1
Correct y‑axes with units 2
Correct plotting of curves identified with different symbols 3
Correct key 1
b Without oxygen, yeast cells carry out alcoholic fermentation. 1
They break down the glucose to ethanol. 1
Therefore the concentration of glucose decreases 1
while that of ethanol increases. 1
The yeast obtains energy for growth so its dry mass increases. 1
21– 38
21 Respiration
Drawing two or more curves in a graph

When drawing a graph with two or more curves to show changes in different variables, note the
following points:
• Give an appropriate title. The title must describe the purposes of all the curves.
• Correct labelling of axes with units. In case the scales and the units of the axes are different for
the curves, they should be shown clearly.
• Correct plotting and joining of points. Use different symbols to mark the points of different
curves, e.g. dots, small crosses, small circles, small squares, etc. The lines for the two curves
should be different, e.g. continuous line vs dotted line, lines of different colours, etc.
• Provide a key for each curve. An alternative way is to label each curve correctly.
A sample of yeast is cultured in glucose solution in the presence of oxygen. The changes in the dry
mass of yeast, and the concentrations of glucose and ethanol are recorded in the table below.
Time Dry mass of Concentration of Concentration of

(h) yeast (g L–1) glucose (mM) ethanol (mM)
0 0.2 120 0
2 0.4 110 0
4 1.2 90 40
6 2.4 30 130
8 3.4 10 160
10 4.0 0 150
12 4.8 0 120
14 6.4 0 70
16 8.4 0 0
18 8.4 0 0
a Plot a graph with three curves to show the changes in the dry mass of yeast, the concentration of
glucose and the concentration of ethanol during the experiment. (8 marks)
b By comparing your graph with the graph on p. 38, suggest
i whether yeast cells carry out alcoholic fermentation in the presence of oxygen. (1 mark)
ii which mode of respiration leads to a faster growth of yeast cells. (1 mark)
Q4 (p. 43), Q16 (p. 46)
21– 39
21.5 Comparison of aerobic and

anaerobic respiration
The flow chart below summarizes aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration.
glucose
2 ATP glycolysis
pyruvate
oxygen available no oxygen available

aerobic anaerobic
respiration respiration
mitochondrion
ethanol lactic (no ATP)
& CO2 acid
36 ATP H 2O
CO2
Fig 21.31 Summary of aerobic and anaerobic respiration
What are the similarities and differences between aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration?
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Similarities • Release energy from the oxidative breakdown of

organic substances
• Transfer energy to the energy carrier ATP, and some
energy is lost as heat
• Consist of a number of reactions controlled by
enzymes
Differences • Occurs in cytoplasm • Occurs only in cytoplasm

and mitochondria
• Oxygen is required • Oxygen is not required
• Organic substances are • Organic substances are
completely broken partially broken down
down into carbon to form lactic acid or
dioxide and water ethanol and carbon
dioxide
• A larger amount of • A much smaller amount
energy is released of energy is released
(38 ATP per glucose) (2 ATP per glucose)
21– 40
21 Respiration
Level 1
1 Which of the following are common to both aerobic respiration and

anaerobic respiration?
(1) They both can occur in plant cells.
(2) They both produce water.
(3) They both produce pyruvate at the end of the first stage.
A (1) and (2) only
B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 40
Level 2
2 Which of the following comparisons between aerobic and anaerobic

respiration is incorrect?
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
A occurs in mitochondria occurs in cytoplasm
B produces more ATP produces less ATP
C produces ATP more produces ATP more
slowly quickly
D oxygen as the final pyruvate as the final
electron acceptor electron acceptor p. 40
Recall ‘Think about...’ (p. 1)

1 Respiration.
2 Muscle cells can carry out anaerobic respiration to release additional energy.
Suggested answers to ?
p. 8 Root hair cells.
21– 41
Key terms
1 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 腺苷三磷酸 10 mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria)
2 acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) 乙酰輔酶 A 線粒體
3 aerobic respiration 需氧呼吸 11 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

(NAD) 菸酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸
4 alcoholic fermentation 酒精發酵
12 oxidative phosphorylation 氧化磷酸化
5 anaerobic respiration 缺氧呼吸
13 oxygen debt 氧債
6 flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
黃素腺嘌呤二核苷酸 14 phosphorylation 磷酸化
7 glycolysis 糖酵解 15 pyruvate 丙酮酸鹽
8 Krebs cycle 克雷伯氏循環 16 respiration 呼吸作用
9 lactic acid fermentation 乳酸發酵 17 triose phosphate 丙糖磷酸
Concept map
Respiration
is
that requires that does not
oxidative breakdown oxygen require oxygen
of food
aerobic respiration anaerobic respiration
releases
chemical energy
both involve
mostly some glycolysis

as stored in
heat ATP if aerobic, then if anaerobic, then
followed by followed by
Krebs cycle
formation of ethanol formation of
and and carbon dioxide lactic acid
(in yeast) (in skeletal muscle)
oxidative
phosphorylation
occur in
occur in
mitochondria cytoplasm
21– 42
21 Respiration
Level 2
Exercise
4 AL Bio 2009 I Q8
Section 21.1 An experiment was conducted to investigate
the effects of chemical X on an animal cell
Level 1 culture. After treating the cells with different
MC concentrations of chemical X for 24 hours, the
1 Which of the following statements about concentration of cellular ATP and percentage
respiration is correct? of cell death in each cell culture were
A All the energy released in respiration will measured. The table below shows the mean
be used in the formation of ATP. results obtained after repeated trials:
B All organic food must be converted to
glucose before they can be used for Concentration Concentration Percentage
of chemical X of cellular ATP of cell
respiration.
(ng mL–1) (nmole mL–1) death
C Glucose is broken down into carbon
dioxide and water in a one-step reaction 0 80 1
during respiration. 2 70 3
D The processes in respiration involve
4 50 10
enzymes. p. 2–4
8 20 25
16 5 70
Section 21.2
32 1 95
Level 1 a Plot a graph to show the effects of chemical

MC
2 Which of the following statements about X on the cells. (6 marks)
mitochondria is not correct? b Find the concentration of chemical X that
A Mitochondria can be found in plant cells i reduced the concentration of cellular
and human cells. ATP by half, (1 mark)
B The inner membrane of mitochondria is ii killed 50% of the cells. (1 mark)
highly folded to increase the surface area
c i Based on your answer in b, deduce
for the absorption of glucose.
which parameter was more sensitive to
C The outer membrane of mitochondria
the effects of chemical X. (2 marks)
controls the passage of different molecules.
D The space enclosed by the inner membrane ii Which organelle might chemical X act
contains a fluid. p. 7, 8 on? Give a reason for your answer.
MC
(2 marks)
3 Which of the following cells probably has the iii Suggest how the change of
smallest number of mitochondria? concentration of cellular ATP would
A the cell body of a neurone lead to the death of the cells. (1 mark)
B a muscle cell d The cells used in the above experiment
C an epithelial cell of the intestine were taken from the epithelium of the
D an epithelial cell of air sacs p. 7, 8 small intestine rats. In what way would the
intestinal function be affected if rats were
fed with an animal feed containing a high
concentration of chemical X? (1 mark)
p. 7, 8
21– 43
MC
5 The electron micrograph below shows the 7 DSE Bio 2019 IA Q3
cross section of a mitochondrion.
Which of the following process(es) in the
respiratory pathways release(s) carbon dioxide?
(1) Oxidative phosphorylation
(2) Reactions in the Krebs cycle
(3) Conversion of glucose to pyruvate
X A (1) only B (2) only
C (1) and (3) only D (2) and (3) only
p. 15
MC
Y 8 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q11
Which of the following processes takes place at
the inner membrane of mitochondria?
(×9700)
A glycolysis
a Name structures X and Y. (2 marks) B conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
b Mitochondria in animal cells can vary C Krebs cycle
greatly in length and shape. However, their D oxidative phosphorylation p. 15
diameter is usually within 1 μm. Suggest
one advantage of having their diameter Level 2
within 1 μm. (1 mark) MC
9 DSE Bio 2017 IA Q7
c A researcher calculated the ratio of the
surface area of structure X to the surface Which of the following combinations correctly
area of structure Y from the muscle cells matches the reaction in aerobic respiration with
of two mice (P and Q). He found that the the location where it takes place?
ratio in mouse Q was higher than that in Reaction in
mouse P. Location
aerobic respiration
Deduce which mouse, P or Q, is more A regeneration of NAD cytoplasm
likely to have carried out physical exercise B production of carbon cytoplasm
for a longer period of time. Briefly explain dioxide
your answer. C conversion of pyruvate to mitochondrion
(4 marks) acetyl-CoA
p. 7, 8 D conversion of triose mitochondrion
phosphate to pyruvate
Section 21.3 p. 15
MC
Level 1
MC Which of the following processes in aerobic
6 Which of the following solutions will lead to respiration release NADH?
the contraction of muscle fibres within the (1) glycolysis
shortest period of time? (2) Krebs cycle
A 1% ATP solution (3) oxidative phosphorylation
B 1% NAD solution A (1) and (2) only
C 1% glucose solution B (1) and (3) only
D 1% starch solution p. 3, 10, 11 C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 15
21– 44
21 Respiration
MC
11 DSE Bio 2013 IA Q10 13 When studying aerobic respiration in
germinating seeds, the seeds have to be
Which of the following combinations best
sterilized. Then the seeds are placed in
describes the processes involved in respiration?
vacuum flasks held in an inverted position.
Carbon dioxide The temperatures inside the vacuum flasks are
Oxygen is required
is released recorded.
A Conversion of pyruvate to Glycolysis Suggest the purpose of the following in the
acetyl-CoA experiment:
B Conversion of pyruvate to Krebs Cycle a sterilizing the seeds; (1 mark)
acetyl-CoA
b placing the vacuum flasks in an inverted
C Oxidative phosphorylation Glycolysis
position. (2 marks)
D Oxidative phosphorylation Krebs Cycle
p. 21
p. 15
12 The diagram below outlines the processes of Level 3

aerobic respiration in a cell.
Directions: Questions 14 and 15 refer to the
glucose set-up below, which was used to study the rate
of respiration of a grasshopper. After 20 minutes,
2 triose phosphate the distance travelled by the liquid dye in each test
tube was recorded.
2 pyruvate
position after initial position
20 minutes of liquid dye
2 acetyl-CoA
test tube X
20 mm position after
20 minutes
soda lime
test tube Y
2 4-C compound 2 6-C compound 2 mm

cross-sectional area of
the capillary tube: 1 mm2
MC
14 Which of the following statements can be
electrons
deduced from the experiment?
(1) The amount of oxygen in test tube X
electron transport chain
decreased.
a Indicate on the diagram the sites where (2) The soda lime in both test tubes absorbed
carbon dioxide is released. (2 marks) the same amount of carbon dioxide.
(3) The environmental temperature has
b In which step is ATP used? State the
increased during the experiment.
function of ATP in this step. (2 marks)
A (1) only
c Name one electron carrier that transfers
B (1) and (3) only
electrons from glycolysis and Krebs cycle to
C (2) and (3) only
the electron transport chain. (1 mark)
D (1), (2) and (3)
d Suggest the role of oxygen in the electron p. 26, 27
transport chain. (1 mark)
p.10–14
21– 45
MC
15 The rate of respiration of the grasshopper is Section 21.4
A 20 mm3 oxygen per hour.
B 54 mm3 oxygen per hour. Level 1
C 60 mm3 oxygen per hour. MC
D 66 mm3 oxygen per hour. p. 26, 27 18 A student used the following set-up to
investigate the anaerobic respiration of yeast.
16 A researcher extracted mitochondria from
rubber tubing
muscle cells. He then put the mitochondria
into a buffer solution containing a substrate,
ADP and phosphate ions. He monitored the
tube X tube Y flask
consumption of oxygen, the substrate and tube Z
phosphate ions in the solution. The table
oil layer
below shows the results. (The consumption of lime yeast
substances is in arbitrary unit.) water mixture
Time (min) 10 20 30 40 The set-up failed to detect the carbon dioxide

Consumption of produced by the yeart mixture. Which of the
1.0 1.5 2.1 2.9
oxygen following modification(s) is/are required to
Consumption of make the set-up work?
1.0 2.0 3.3 4.7
substrate (1) Connect tube X to a vacuum pump.
(2) Insert tube Y into the lime water.
Consumption of
3.0 6.0 10.0 14.0 (3) Insert tube Z into the yeast mixture.
phosphate ions
A (2) only
a Plot a graph to show the consumption of B (1) and (3) only
oxygen, the substrate and phosphate ions C (2) and (3) only
by the mitochondria during the experiment. D (1), (2) and (3)
(4 marks) p. 35
b Based on the graph in a, calculate the
amount of ATP produced from the Level 2
respiration of one arbitrary unit of the MC
substrate. (3 marks) 19 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q26

c Suggest one reason to explain why the After vigorous exercise, the blood lactic acid
amount of ATP produced in the experiment concentration of an athlete increases. Which of
is much lower than that in an intact cell. the following word equations correctly shows
(1 mark) the process that leads to the formation of lactic
acid?
d If the experiment was repeated using
glucose as the substrate, how would the A glucose → lactic acid
amount of ATP produced be different? B glucose → lactic acid + water
Briefly explain your answer. (2 marks) C glucose → lactic acid + carbon dioxide
p. 7, 15 D glucose + oxygen → lactic acid + carbon
dioxide
17 In plants, both chloroplasts and mitochondria p. 31
20
21 are involved in the production of ATP. Discuss
the similarities and differences between the
production of ATP in these organelles. Explain
why plants cannot rely on chloroplast as the
only source of ATP. (11 marks)
p.19
21– 46
21 Respiration
MC
20 DSE Bio 2014 IA Q14 ATP NADH Pyruvate
Which of the following processes produce Control
ATP? (without 100% 100% 100%
(1) glycolysis treatment)
(2) Krebs cycle Drug X 2% 3% 5%
(3) conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid
Drug Y 20% 15% 150%
A (1) and (2) only B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3) The data for the control are set as 100% for
p. 15, 31 comparative purpose.
a Suggest the key process that is inhibited by
21 The diagram below shows the change in drug X. Explain your answer. (3 marks)
concentration of lactic acid in the blood of two
b Suggest the key process that is inhibited
individuals (X and Y) when they ran a 200-m
by drug Y. Explain why there is an
race. One of the individuals is an athlete.
accumulation of pyruvate in the muscle
cells after treatment with drug Y. (3 marks)
concentration of lactic acid
c Instead of incubating in the presence of

in the blood (arbitrary unit)
before during after

running running running oxygen, the untreated muscle cells were
incubated under anaerobic conditions.
X Predict the change in the cellular ATP,
NADH and lactate levels. (3 marks)
d A student would like to study the enzymes
Y
involved in glycolysis, the Krebs cycle
and oxidative phosphorylation separately.
time Suggest which cellular components he
a The concentration of lactic acid in the needs to isolate for the investigation.
blood increases in both individuals during (3 marks)
running. Why? (2 marks) p. 15, 31, 32
b Which individual is an athlete? Explain

your answer. (3 marks) Section 21.5
c Sketch a curve to show how the breathing
rate of individual X changes before, during Level 2
and after running. (1 mark) MC
p. 31, 32 23 DSE Bio 2015 IA Q6

Which of the following combinations correctly
Level 3 compares the aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration of muscle cells?
22 DSE Bio 2012 IB Q9
Aerobic Anaerobic
Drugs X and Y may inhibit enzymes involved respiration respiration
in glycolysis, the Krebs cycle or oxidative
A occurs only when occurs only when
phosphorylation. To study the effects of the
oxygen is present oxygen is absent
drugs, some muscle cells were isolated and
B produces more produces less
treated with these two drugs separately in the
NADH NADH
presence of oxygen. The cellular levels of ATP,
C glycolysis takes place no glycolysis
NADH, and pyruvate were determined. The
D takes place only inside takes place only in
results are shown in the table below:
the mitochondria the cytoplasm
p. 40
21– 47
Reading to learn
Read the article below and answer the questions.
Energy production in a sprint and a marathon

In muscles, stored glycogen is converted to glucose, which is then broken down through aerobic
and/or anaerobic respiration to release energy. Skeletal muscles can carry out aerobic and anaerobic
respiration at the same time. The pathways of energy production for muscle contraction depend on
the intensity and duration of physical exercise.
For example, in a 100-m sprint, the athlete runs very fast for
a short period of time. The muscles need a rapid supply of
energy. Most of the energy is produced through the anaerobic
pathway. In a marathon of 42.195 km, the athlete runs at a
steady and moderate speed for hours. Most of the energy is
produced through the aerobic pathway.
To improve the performance in a marathon, runners often take

in a large amount of carbohydrates several days before the race.
The high intake of carbohydrates increases muscle glycogen
levels above normal. This helps delay the time for depletion of Fig 21.32 Marathon running
muscle glycogen during the race.
Questions
1 Write down the word equations for aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration in skeletal muscles.
(4 marks)
2 Compare the pathways of energy production for muscle contraction during a 100-m sprint and a
marathon. (2 marks)
3 Explain why a high carbohydrate intake can improve the performance in a marathon. (2 marks)
21– 48
Self test Time allowed: 15 minutes Total: 10 marks
Section A (1 mark each)

1 Which of the following does not occur in the 2 The diagram below shows a mitochondrion.
Krebs cycle?
A Carbon dioxide is produced. P
B ATP is produced. Q R
C Hydrogen atoms are released. S
D Oxygen is consumed.
Where are carbon dioxide and water formed in
the mitochondrion?
Carbon dioxide Water
A P Q
B R S
C Q R
D S P
Section B (8 marks)
3 The diagram below shows a set-up used to investigate the respiration in germinating seeds. After
30 minutes, the liquid dye in the capillary tube moved towards the test tube.
scale
syringe
three-way tap
glass tubing
capillary tube liquid dye
soaked germinating seeds

(surface sterilized) wire gauze
potassium hydroxide
a What is the purpose of sterilizing the surface of the germinating seeds? (2 marks)
b Explain the movement of liquid dye in the capillary tube. (3 marks)
c How would you modify the above set-up to determine whether the seeds carry out aerobic or
anaerobic respiration? (3 marks)
21– 49
Cross-topic exercise 7 (Chapters 1 to 21)
Multiple-choice questions 3 Which of the following parts provides rigidity

to support the plant?
Human digestion, respiration, photosynthesis A 1 B 2
1 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q1 C 3 D 4
Which of the following processes involves
4 Which of the following parts is responsible for
enzymes on cell membranes?
the transport of food?
A excretion of carbon dioxide by the lungs
A 1 B 2
B transport of water along the xylem vessel
C 3 D 4
C Calvin cycle in the chloroplasts of plant
cells 5 Which of the following parts is most likely to
D digestion of carbohydrates in the small have more mitochondria?
intestine
A 1 B 2
C 3 D 4
Cell structure, respiration
2 Test tubes X, Y and Z contain different cellular Metabolism, respiration
content purified from a yeast extract. The three
tubes were incubated with different substances
and the presence of carbon dioxide in the test Which of the following combinations correctly
tubes was determined. The table below shows matches the biochemical reaction with the type
the results. of metabolism involved?
Incubated with X Y Z Biochemical reaction Type of metabolism
Pyruvate – + + A conversion of glucose anabolism

Pyruvate + cyanide – – + to pyruvate
Key: ‘+’ indicates the presence of carbon dioxide B conversion of protein anabolism
‘–’ indicates the absence of carbon dioxide to amino acids
C conversion of amino catabolism
Which of the following correctly identifies the
acids to urea
content in test tubes X, Y and Z?
D conversion of glucose catabolism
X Y Z to glycogen
A nucleus cytoplasm mitochondria
B cytoplasm mitochondria nucleus
C nucleus mitochondria cytoplasm Transpiration, photosynthesis, respiration
D mitochondria nucleus cytoplasm Directions: Questions 7 and 8 refer to the
experiment below. Leaf discs of equal size were
Transport and support in plant, respiration removed from a destarched leaf as shown in the
diagram. The dry masses of the leaf discs were
DSE Bio 2016 IA Q21–23
measured.
Directions: Questions 3 to 5 refer to the diagram
below, which shows the cross section of a young disc X removed disc Z removed
dicotyledonous root:
1 removed from the

2 put under light stem and put
3 for 24 hours under darkness
for 24 hours
4
disc Y removed
21– 50
7 The difference in dry mass between discs X Vegetative propagation, photosynthesis, respiration
and Y was due to 10 The graph below shows the rate of
A respiration only. photosynthesis and that of respiration of a
B transpiration only. potato plant at different temperatures.
C photosynthesis and respiration.
D photosynthesis, respiration and
rate of photosynthesis
transpiration.
and respiration
(arbitrary unit)
photosynthesis
8 The difference in dry mass between discs Y
and Z was due to
respiration
A respiration.
B photosynthesis. 5 10 15 20 25
C transpiration. temperature (°C)
D translocation.
Which of the following statements about the
potato plant is/are correct?
Transpiration, photosynthesis
(1) The potato plant has the highest growth
9 DSE Bio 2019 IA Q5 rate at 20 °C.
The photographs on the right below show (2) Potato tubers are formed more slowly when
leaves taken from different parts of the canopy the temperature is above 24 °C.
of the same tree. (Note: The photographs are (3) There is a net production of oxygen when
of the same magnification.) the temperature is above 24 °C.
A (1) only B (1) and (2) only
leaves from the top C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
of the canopy
canopy Plant growth, ecology

leaves from the bottom of 11 The graph below shows the change in the
the canopy
width of tree rings of a tree from 1900 to 1980.
The width of tree rings shows the fluctuations
in the growth rate of the tree from year to year.
Which of the following is the most likely

width of tree ring
explanation for the differences between the

leaves taken from the two parts of the canopy?
(mm)
A The leaves from the top of the canopy

are smaller because they do not receive
sufficient water for growth.
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
B The leaves from the top of the canopy are year
smaller because they can reduce water loss
due to transpiration. Which of the following might be the reason for
C The leaves from the bottom of the canopy the increase in ring width after 1940?
are larger because they can store more food A Competition between trees increased after
from photosynthesis. 1940.
D The leaves from the bottom of the canopy B There was less rainfall after 1940.
are larger because they can collect light C A forest fire occurred in 1940.
escaped through the top of the canopy. D Secondary growth of the tree occurred after
1940.
21– 51
Short questions
Photosynthesis, respiration
For each of the biomolecules listed in column 1, select from column 2 one phrase that matches it. Put the
appropriate letter in the space provided. (3 marks)
Column 1 Column 2
NADPH A a product of oxidative phosphorylation
pyruvate B a product of photochemical reactions
NAD C a product of carbon fixation
D a product of glycolysis
Homeostasis, respiration
13 DSE IS 2018 I Q2
The use of insulin is abused by some runners to boost their performance in middle- and long-distance
races.
a i These runners infuse insulin and glucose solution into their blood two hours before the race.
Explain why this practice can load the muscles with energy reserves. (2 marks)
ii Since 1998, the International Olympic Committee has banned the use of insulin by athletes except
for those having certain diseases. Suggest one such disease. (1 mark)
b A proper way for middle- and long-distance runners to enhance their performance is to undergo
training that increases their aerobic capacity. Explain how an increased aerobic capacity helps enhance
the performance of the runners. (3 marks)
Structural questions
Ecology, respiration
14 An enzyme that catalyses the production of cyanide is present in some clover plants. The enzyme is
normally stored in an organelle. Cyanide will be produced when the membrane of the organelle is
ruptured. The table below shows the average temperature, distribution of clover plants that can and cannot
produce cyanide in four different regions.
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 Region 4

Average temperature (°C) 8 4 0 –4
Percentage of clover
plants that can produce 100 75 50 20
cyanide (%)
Percentage of clover
plants that cannot 0 25 50 80
produce cyanide (%)
21– 52
a Cyanide inhibits certain enzymes in the electron transport chain in the cells of most animals and
plants. Describe how inhibition of the electron transport chain may eventually kill animals and plants.
(2 marks)
b The membrane of the organelle will be ruptured when the plant is eaten by herbivores or when ice
crystals are formed inside the cell. Based on this information, explain the distribution of the clover
plants shown in the table. (4 marks)
c Predict and explain the effect of global warming on the distribution of clover plants. (2 marks)
Ecosystem, photosynthesis
15 The photograph below shows the distribution of different organisms on the surface of a sea cliff.
trees
black lichens
green seaweeds
barnacles
red seaweeds
a With reference to the photograph, explain why

i the trees do not grow lower down the cliff. (2 marks)
ii the barnacles do not grow up the cliff. (2 marks)
The red seaweed contains a red pigment called phycoerythrin. Graph I shows the absorption spectrum of
chlorophyll and phycoerythrin molecules. Graph II shows the depth of penetration of different wavelengths
of light in the ocean.
Graph I Graph II
0
depth penetrated by light (m)
amount of absorption
chlorophyll
50
(arbitrary unit)
phycoerythrin*
100
150
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700

wavelength (nm) wavelength (nm)
b With reference to the above information, explain why red seaweeds are usually found in deeper water
than green seaweeds. (4 marks)
phycoerythrin 藻紅蛋白
21– 53
Cell membrane, photosynthesis, respiration
16 AL Bio 2006 I Q11
To study the responses of two plant species A and B to heat stress, the rates of photosynthesis and
respiration, and the ion leakage of the leaves of these plants were measured after they had been exposed
to different temperature treatments. The control experiments were carried out at 30 °C. The results of the
study are shown in the graphs below:
(N.B.: The rates of photosynthesis and respiration at each temperature treatment were expressed as a percentage of the
respective rate at 30 °C.)
photosynthesis
100
CO2 uptake A
(% of the control) B
50
100
CO2 evolution
(% of the control)
50
respiration
0.3
ion leakage 0.2 ion leakage

(arbitrary unit)
0.1
35 40 45 50 55 60
temperature (°C)
a i State the temperature beyond which photosynthesis and respiration become inhibited in species A.
(2 marks)
ii For both species, which process, photosynthesis or respiration, is more sensitive to heat stress?
What experimental evidence supports your answer? (2 marks)
iii Give two causes that may lead to the inhibition of photosynthesis and respiration at high
temperatures. (2 marks)
iv These two plant species are native to two different places, namely Hong Kong and the Sahara
desert. Which species do you think is native to the Sahara desert? Explain your choice based on
the experimental results. (3 marks)
b i Explain why ion leakage can be used as a parameter for measuring the heat stress response of the
plants. (2 marks)
ii What was the critical heat-killing temperature for species B? Give one piece of evidence to support
your answer. (2 marks)
c Fruits and vegetables that are grown in high but sub-lethal temperatures for a prolonged period
during the growing season are less sweet. With reference to the findings of this study, explain the
physiological basis underlying such a phenomenon. (3 marks)
21– 54
Homeostasis, respiration
17 AL Bio 2009 II Q2
a The following flow chart shows some effects of insulin glucose triglycerides
on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in liver cells: + –
i With reference to the flow chart, explain why a fatty acids
+
carbohydrate-rich diet will result in the deposition
–
of fat in the fatty tissue of a healthy individual. acetyl CoA ketoacids
(4 marks) – (a kind of
4-C organic acid)
compound
ii (1) Insulin-dependent (type I) diabetic patients fail
to produce enough insulin. If these patients Krebs cycle 6-C compound
do not receive insulin injections, they will
produce a large amount of ketoacids. Explain Key:
this phenomenon based on the information ‘+’ stimulated by insulin ‘–’ inhibited by insulin
provided in the flow chart. (4 marks)
(2) Diabetic patients who produce an excessive amount of ketoacids in the body are treated with
sodium hydrogencarbonate tablets. Suggest why the accumulation of ketoacids has adverse
effect on cellular metabolism. (2 marks)
b To control the blood glucose level, some diabetic patients take in prescribed drugs at meal time which
stimulate insulin secretion. An overdose of such drugs can result in dizziness and even death of the
patient. Explain why. (4 marks)
c Diet control is a strategy to manage non-insulin-dependent (type II) diabetes by preventing a sudden
rise of plasma glucose beyond the normal level. The following recommendations help this type of
diabetic patients manage their blood glucose at a proper level. For each recommendation, explain the
biological principle behind it.
i Eat plenty of vegetables at every meal (4 marks)

ii Take small but frequent meals (2 marks)
Transport in plants, photosynthesis

The photographs below show the appearance of the leaves of a well-watered potted plant at 9 am and
1 pm on a sunny day in summer.
Photograph X (9 am) Photograph Y (1 pm)
a Briefly describe how the appearance of the leaves shown in photograph X is maintained. (2 marks)
b Suggest an explanation for the appearance of the leaves at 1 pm (Photograph Y). (3 marks)
c With reference to the appearance of the leaves in the two photographs, which one is more effective for
photosynthesis? Explain your answer. (4 marks)
21– 55
Leaf structure, photosynthesis
Photomicrographs X and Y below show the cross sections of two leaves taken from different plant species.
Photomicrograph X Photomicrograph Y
R
vascular
bundles
vascular
bundle
a i Comparing the cell shapes of both leaves, which labelled tissue (P, Q or R) in Photomicrograph X
is absent from Photomicrograph Y? (1 mark)
ii With reference to Photomicrograph X, what is the observable adaptive feature of the tissue
identified in i? What is the significance of this adaptive feature? (2 marks)
b The leaf in Photomicrograph Y was taken from a plant species with leaves oriented vertically, as shown
in the following photograph:
Explain how the distribution of the photosynthetic tissue in these leaves is related to the vertical
orientation of the leaves. (3 marks)
Essay
Nutrition in plants, photosynthesis, nitrogen cycle
20 DSE Bio Sample Paper IB Q12
Hydrogen and nitrogen are essential components of proteins. Compare and contrast the processes by
which non-leguminous plants acquire these two elements from the environment and describe how they
can be incorporated together to form proteins in mesophyll cells. (11 marks)
21– 56

Respiration: Energy Release in Cycling Race

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Lee Wai Sze in a cycling race

Energy release in cycling race Think about...

Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

21.1 Significance of respiration

In fact, burning glucose in air is represented by the same equation but

Site of occurrence Outside cells Inside living cells

Catalysed by No Yes, each reaction is catalysed

Uncontrolled release Controlled release in

Formation of All energy (stored in 55% of energy is lost as heat;

Cross-link • releases energy from food through the controlled oxidative

• involves many steps, each of which is catalysed by a specific

carbon dioxide + water carbon dioxide + water

Roles of ATP in cellular metabolism

(higher energy state)

Fig 21.2 Formation and breakdown of ATP

• Movement, such as muscle contraction, movement of cilia in ciliated

• Synthesis, such as synthesis of large biomolecules like proteins and

• Transport, such as pumping molecules or ions across cell membranes

Features of ATP as energy carrier

• ATP acts as an energy carrier in the cell in which it is made. It

In active body cells, food is broken down by respiration to release

B Relationship between respiration and

During respiration, the organic compounds (e.g. glucose) formed in

As a result, respiration and photosynthesis allow the cycling of molecules

Through respiration, organisms break down organic food and release

In both photosynthesis and respiration, ATP acts as the energy carrier.

light energy energy stored energy that

Fig 21.4 Relationship between photosynthesis and respiration

2 Respiration and photosynthesis allow a cycling of molecules in the

3 Respiration and photosynthesis allow a cycling of energy in the

21.2 Site of respiration

A Structure of the mitochondrion

• A mitochondrion is bounded by a double membrane:

a The outer membrane controls the movement of substances

b The inner membrane is highly folded to form cristae (singular:

• The space enclosed by the inner membrane is filled with a fluid

crista 嵴 mitochondrial matrix 線粒體基質

B Cells with lots of mitochondria

Suggest a kind of plant

liver cell (×2800) muscle cells (×3200)

synaptic knob (×3000) epithelial cells of an intestinal villus (×3200)

Fig 21.6 Electron micrographs of animal cells with abundant mitochondria

1 How is the cytoplasm adapted for respiration?

Structure Adaptive feature for respiration

Double The inner membrane is highly folded to form

Mitochondrial It fills the space enclosed by the inner membrane.

mitochondrion 3 Oxidative phosphorylation* ATP

Fig 21.7 The stages of aerobic respiration

glucose 2 triose phosphate 2 pyruvate*

Fig 21.8 The two reactions in glycolysis

❶ Break down of glucose to triose phosphate

aerobic respiration 需氧呼吸 glycolysis 糖酵解 Krebs cycle 克雷伯氏循環

❷ Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate

Next, each of the two triose phosphate molecules loses hydrogen

In other words, the oxidation of the two triose phosphate molecules to

The equation below summarizes the reactions in glycolysis:

For each glucose molecule (6-C) undergoing glycolysis,

• 2 pyruvate molecules (3-C) are formed. Pyruvate will be further

• a net amount of 2 ATP are formed;

• 2 NADH are formed. They will act as a hydrogen donor* in

Carrier molecules in enzymatic reactions