Materials required

 Sample of milk
 Lactometer
 Measuring cylinder
 Dairy thermometer

Lactometer

 The lactometer is a special type of hydrometer. It is constructed and graduated so that

the lactometer reading is related to the specific gravity of milk on the ratio of the milk to
water weight of a unit volume at a specified temperature.

Principle

 The lactometer is based on the principle that a freely floating body displaces a quantity of
liquid of the same weight as the floating body and that density of a solution depends on
its total solids content. Of the several types of lactometer in use, the most accepted
lactometers are,
 The quevenne lactometer - designed to determine the specific gravity of milk at 15.5 ºC
(60ºF).
 Zeal Lactometer – designed to determine the specific gravity of milk at 29 º C at 84º C.
 The Watson lactometer – is applied at a temperature of 39ºC.
 ISI lactometer calibrated at 27ºC is used. For temperature differences the correction
factor is added.
 Measurement of the lactometer reading at a temperature below the melting point of milk
fat leads to erroneous result.

Procedure

 The milk must be kept cold (40-50ºF) atleast 1-2 hour before being tested with the
lactometer.
 The milk should be thoroughly mixed by being poured from one container to another
until a homogenous mixture is obtained.
 The milk is then poured into a measuring cylinder having the same temperature.
 The diameter of the cylinder should be atleast 1 inch greater than the largest diameter of
the lactometer and the capacity should be sufficient to float is the lactometer.
 The cylinder should be filled to such a point that when the lactometer is placed in the
milk, the cylinder will over flow.
 All bubbles should be brown from the surface particularly around the stem.
 Note the reading from the lactometer when it becomes stationary.

Specific gravity = 1 + CLR/1000 (CLR- corrected lactometer reading)

Uses of specific gravity assessment

 Used to control composition of milk during manufacture.

 Used to estimate total solids and non-solid porition of milk.
 Used to screen sample for addition of water.
Interpretation

The specific gravity of

o Cow milk ranges from 1.028-1.030. and

o Buffalo milk is 1.030 to 1.032.

ESTIMATION OF FAT, SNF AND TOTAL SOLIDS

Estimation of fat content of milk

 It is highly essential to assess the fat content of milk intended for further processing or
marketing.
 Need for estimation of fat percentage.
 It largely determines the food value of milk.
 The payment of milk and milk products are made according to the fat content.
 The fat content is useful in manufacture of butter and cheese.
 It helps in the detection of adulteration, addition of water, and skimming off milk Fat
content in the sample of milk can be estimated by 
o Analytical method. 
o Commercial method 
 The analytical method comprises of
o Rose-Gottlieb’s method
o Adam’s method 
o Mojonnier’s method.
 The normal methods commercially followed are  
o Gerber’s method
o Babcok’s method

GERBER'S METHOD

The normal methods commercially followed are 

 Gerber’s method and   

 Babcok’s method

Apparatus required 

 Milk butyrometer 
 Acid pipette with safety bulb (10 ml)
 Milk pipette 
 1 ml pipette      
 Lock stopper 
 Regulating pin
 Gerber’s centrifuge

Reagents prepared
  Gerber’s acid :  (91-92% of con. sulphuric acid with a specific gravity of 1.8 - 1.825
at 15oC)
 Amyl alcohol (specific gravity 0.815-0.818)

Procedure

 In this method fat alone is separated from milk by subjecting the milk to digestion by the
addition concentrated sulphuric acid and by the process of centrifugation the fat is
separated and measured
 Dr. Gerber devised this method. This is also known as ‘Fucoma test’
 Special milk bottles called Gerber’s butyrometer are used in this method. A Gerber’s
butyrometer is made up of glass of length 195 mm and diameter 23 mm at the cylindrical
part. It is graduated from 0-10%. Different butyrometers are used for skim milk, cream,
cheese and butter. The tube with large diameter at the flattened end is preferred because
it is resistant to leakage and also the fat column will be well defined.
 The graduation of 1% in the butyrometer has an internal volume of 0.125 ml. Assuming
the specific gravity of fat the weight represented by 1% in the butyrometer, will be
0.125x0.9=0.1125 gms. If 1% contains 0.1125 gm, 100% will contain 0.1125 x100=11.25
gm. Assuming the specific gravity of milk to be 1.032, the volume of milk represented by
11.25 gm will be 11.25/1.032 =10.9 ml.  But, since large variations in the specific gravity
for the various samples of milk are found, it is preferred to use of pipette, which will
measure only 10.75 ml. So, in Gerber’s method only 10.75 ml of milk is used instead of
10.9 ml.1.25 gms of fat we can declare that the

Gerber’s acid serves the following purposes

 It digests the casein and other organic constituents and renders the separation of fat in
an easy way.
 Since there will be a great difference in specific gravity of fat and other portion of liquid
in the butyrometer, usage of this acid will help in separating the fat easily during
centrifuging.
 The heat produced during the mixing of acid and milk reduced the viscosity, which helps
in an easier separation of fat.
 The heat thus produced will also help the fat to remain in fluid condition.

If the acid used is of higher or lower specific gravity then heat produced will affect the other
effects.

Amyl alcohol of specific gravity is 0.815-0.818 is used in this experiment. Addition of amyl
alcohol prevents the partial charring of sugar and fat.

10 ml of Gerber’s acid is pipetted out into butyrometer carefully along the side. Then 10.75 ml of
well-mixed milk is pipetted out and layered over the acid carefully so that there are two separate
layers. Finally 1 ml of amyl alcohol is added. The pipette should not be blown are shaken to
discharge the last drop. A dry rubber lock stopper without any crack should be used to close the
butyrometer using regulating pin. The tube is then inverted several times, So that the acid in the
stem and in the bulb are thoroughly mixed with the milk. The tube is then placed in water bath
at 65oC for 5minutes. The butyrometer is then placed in the centrifuge with the stem towards the
centre and the centrifuge is kept well balanced. Centrifuging is done at 1100 RPM for 5 minutes
and removed from the centrifuge. The tube is placed in water bath at 65oC for 5 minutes. The
stopper is adjusted to bring the lower meniscus of the fat column against ‘o’ unit graduation. The
lower meniscus of the surface of the fat column is noted without any parallelex error, which
gives the fat percentage.

Latest methods include use of electronic devices such as Milko tester or Milkoscan or Infrared
milk analyzer (IRMA). In these equipments the milk is a chemically modified and light ray of
different wavelength / frequency capacities are passed through the sample. Their resultant effect
are electronically gauged by light sensitive gadgets and converted to required units of
measurements.

Result

 The fat percentage in the given sample of cream is = -----------

ESTIMATION OF SNF CONTENT IN MILK

Gravimetrically Solid not fat content of milk can be estimated by assessing the total solid
content and  subtracting the fat percentage. Total solid content can be estimated by

 Gravimetrric method
 Using Formula method (Richmonds’s or, Babcock’s, or Fleismann’s method, BIS/ISI
method )
 Using Richmond’s sliding rule. Originally ISI formula as given below was followed

     %SNF = CLR/4 + 0.25F + 0.6 and   % SNF =  %TS - % F 

          Thus, % T.S   = %SNF+% Fat = CLR/4 + 1.25F+ 0.6

 Where CLR is the corrected lactometer reading and “F” is the fat percentage of milk sample. For
calculating the CLR, lactometer is allowed to float freely and the reading is taken. The
temperature of milk is also noted. Normally the lactometer reading should be noted at the
temperature calibration of lactometer. In practice the temperature of milk varies and hence it
has to be corrected. As per amendment No 1 Feb 1992 to ISI 10083:1982, the following formula
and correction factor are to be used for determination of SNF in milk by the use of ISI
lactometer

SNF =CLR/4 +0.25F+0.44

The LR correction at a temperature (19 C to 35 C) and fat (0 to 8 percent) is given as

under       

TEMPERATUR      FAT PERCENT OF SAMPLE

E
0 % 2 % 4% 6 % 8 %
19.0 -2.2 -2.4 -2.6 -2.7 -2.9
19.5 -2.1 -2.3 -2.4 -2.6 -2.7
20.0 -2.0 -2.1 -2.2 -2.4 -2.4
20.5 -1.8 -2.0 -2.1 -2.2 -2.3
21.0 -1.7 -1.8 -1.9 -2.0 -2.2
21.5 -1.5 -1.7 -1.7 -1.9 -2.0
22.0 -1.4 -1.5 -1.6 -1.7 -1.8
22.5 -1.3 -1.4 -1.4 -1.5 -1.6
23.0 -1.1 -1.2 -1.3 -1.4 -1.4
23.5 -1.0 -1.1 -1.1 -1.2 -1.3
24.0 -0.8 -0.9 -1.0 -1.0 -1.1
24.5 -0.7 -0.8 -0.8 -0.9 -0.9
25.0 -0.6 -0.6 -0.6 -0.7 -0.7
25.5 -0.4 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5
26.0 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.4
26.5 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2
27.0 0 0 0 0 0
27.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
28.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
28.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
29.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7
29.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9
30.0 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1
30.5 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3
31.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4
31.5 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6
32.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
32.5 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.9 2.0
33.0 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
33.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
34.0 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5
 34.5 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7
35.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9
 

Result

 The SNF percentage in the given sample of cream is = --------

PREPARATION OF CREAM AND ANALYSIS

 Cream may be defined as that portion of milk in to which milk fat has been gathered or
which is rich in fat. According to PFA rules (1976) cream, excluding sterilised cream is
the product of cow or buffalo milk or combination there of which contains not less than
25 per cent milk fat. Cream is rich in fat soluble vitamins A,D,E & K. Milk can be
converted into cream and skim milk by using cream separator. Cream can be broadly
classified as Market cream (which is used for direct consumption) or Manufacturing
cream (which is used for the manufacture of dairy products). Based on the fat content it
may be Light/coffee cream (20-25 per cent), whipping cream (30-40 per cent) and
heavy/plastic cream (65-85 per cent).

Centrifugal cream separator

Parts of open-bowl type clarifier / cream separator

 Supply can
 Faucet
 Regulating chamber with float
 Cream or skim milk screw
 Bowl shell
 Milk distributor
 Cream spout
 Skim milk spout
 Top disc
 Discs with perforated holes and button like structures (on the upper surface of cone or
inverted cup shaped disc for allowing milk to flow in between and move upwards. The
bottom disc will have buttons on both sides)
 Bowel nut with lock holes for the locking handle to fix in
 Rubber ring
 Spindle
 Set of Gears
 Crank handle, etc

(Draw a neat diagram of lab model cream separator and label the parts)

Cream separation
  When milk is allowed to enter the separator at controlled speed by the float, milk flows
down through the central inlet of the axis and is uniformly distributed by the milk
distributor. Milk will be subjected to tremendous force and moves towards the periphery
as well as rises upwards through the holes in the disc. Denser skim milk towards
periphery and lighter cream at the centre builds up as two columns separated by thin
zone of diffusing composition. At the level with the upper disc, skim milk outlet is
located and skim milk is collected through skim milk spout. The cream still moves
upwards and drains off through the cream outlet cum screw in to cream spout. The
lightest column of cream rich in fat will be close to the axis of rotation and further
proceeds outward with reduced fat content. Thus, moving the cream screw towards the
centre will allow cream with high fat content or thicker cream to flow out and vice versa.
The fat loss in skim milk increases with collection of high fat cream. Thus based on the
purpose; the position of the cream screw can be adjusted.
 CREAM SEPARATION

When milk is allowed to enter the separator at controlled speed by the float, milk flows down
through the central inlet of the axis and is uniformly distributed by the milk distributor. Milk
will be subjected to tremendous force and moves towards the periphery as well as rises upwards
through the holes in the disc. Denser skim  milk towards periphery and lighter cream at the
centre builds up as two columns separated by thin zone of diffusing composition. At the level
with the upper disc, skim milk outlet is located and skim milk is collected through skim milk
spout. The cream still moves upwards and drains off through the cream outlet cum screw in to
cream spout. The lightest column of cream rich in fat will be close to the axis of rotation and
further proceeds outward with reduced fat content. Thus, moving the cream screw towards the
centre will allow cream with high fat content or thicker cream to flow out and vice versa.  The fat
loss in skim milk increases with collection of high fat cream. Thus based on the purpose; the
position of the cream screw can be adjusted.

PRINCIPLES APPLED IN PREPARATION OF CREAM

 Cream may be defined as that portion of milk in to which milk fat has been gathered or
which is rich in fat.  According to PFA rules (1976) cream, excluding sterilised cream is
the product of cow or buffalo milk or combination there of which contains not less than
25 per cent milk fat.  Cream is rich in fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K. Milk can be
converted into cream and skim milk by using cream separator.
 Cream can be broadly classified as Market cream (which is used for direct consumption)
or Manufacturing cream (which is used for the manufacture of dairy products).
 Based on the fat content it may be
o Light/coffee cream (20-25 per cent),
o Whipping cream (30-40 per cent) and
o Heavy/plastic cream (65-85 per cent).

Traditional method (Gravity: method)

 Stokes law states that the when difference in density exists the velocity of particle (fat
globule) is directly proportional to the difference in densities of the media and gravity. It
is inversely proportional to the viscosity of skim milk.
  Difference in density of fat and serum results in the upward movement of fat globules
and the velocity at which fat globules rise is given by stokes law

                                        V = 2G(ds-df)r2 / 9 u

where ,

G - Acceleration due to gravity  

ds – Density of skim milk 

df – density of fat 

r- radius of fat globule  

u - voscosity of skim milk

Using cream separators by application of Centrifugal force

 When milk is allowed to stand for sometime, there is a tendency for the fat to rise. This
method being very slow, can not be used commercially for cream separation.
 In a cream separator milk enters the rapidly revolving bowl of the cream separator, it is
subjected immediately to tremendous centrifugal force, which is 3000 to 6000 times
greater than the gravitational force. 
 The difference in density affects the heavier portion (skim milk) more intensely than the
lighter portion (cream).  Due to this skim milk is forced to the periphery, while the fat
portion moves towards the centre to form two vertical columns in the bowl.
 When Stokes law is applied to centrifugal separation, the velocity is changed as follows.
The angular velocity “w” =KwRN2 and hence                     

V = KR (ds-df)r2N2  / u                                                                                                                                                                

where

V: velocity of fat globule

G: Acceleration due to gravity  

K: Constant

N: RPM of bowl

R: Distance of the fat globule from the axis of rotation

ds: Density of skim milk

df: density of fat ( is the viscosity of milk)

r: radius of fat globule.

  Clarifier also works on the same principle. It is used to remove impurities along with
maximum bacterial load.

ASSEMBLING OF CREAM SEPARATOR

 Check the cleanliness of separator parts which is normally washed in Luke warm water
followed by detergent washing, hot water sterilization and dried. 
 Insert the milk distributor through the central axis fixed in the base of the cream
separator and fix by proper locking. Position the rubber ring in the base at the proper
slot.
 First, place the bottom disc with button structure on both the sides. Then place other
discs one after another over the bottom disc so that the holes in the discs are in line.
 Finally place the top disc with cream screw. Bowel shell is fixed promptly positioning the
cream outlet and the base to sit over the rubber ring and lock.
 The bowel nut is fastened and tightened. Thus, the properly positioned rubber ring and
bowel nut prevents leakage of milk at the base and top. Fix the skim milk spout and
cream spout.
 Regulating chamber with float and supply can with faucet are finally fixed. Keep the
faucet in the closed position so that milk is not wasted while filling the supply can with
milk. After assembling the unit, clean the separator with clean hot water.
 Fill the supply can and allow the separator to rotate by operating the handle at high
speed or by switching on the motor attached to the separator. Now open the faucet and
regulate the flow so that milk does not spills over.

Calculations

Skimming efficiency of cream separator = Quantity of fat in cream X 100 / Quantity of fat in
milk

Fat loss in skim milk = Quantity of fat in skim milk X 10 / Quantity of fat in milk

ESTIMATION OF FAT IN CREAM BY FAT METHOD

Cream butyrometer can be used for estimation of fat in cream. By using milk butyrometer fat in
cream can be assessed as follows

Aim

 To determine the fat percentage in cream.

Apparatus and Reagents

 Exactly the same apparatus and reagents as for milk are required.

Procedure

 Procedure for cream containing less than 32% of fat (Thin  Cream)
 o In this method ordinary milk butyrometer may be used for the determination of
fat.  10 ml of Gerber's acid is taken in butyrometer, 8.2 ml of water is added,
followed by 3 ml of cream and finally 1 ml of amyl alcohol, is added. 
o The butyrometer is closed with the stopper.  The contents are well mixed and
then centrifuged for 5 minutes.  After centrifuging, the butyrometer is taken out
and the fat percentage is read.

 Procedure for a cream containing more than 32% of fat (Thick  cream)
o In this method, 5 gm of cream is taken (as a standard).  10 ml of water and 10 ml
of Gerber's acid are mixed in a small beaker and this is added to the butyrometer
containing the cream. 
o Then 1 ml of amyl alcohol is added and the same procedure is carried out as for
milk to find out the fat percentage of the cream taken.

Calculation

 Fat % in thin cream = {(B.M.R. X 4) - 0.8}

o where BMR is the butyrometer reading.
 Fat % in thick cream = {(B.M.R. X 4 - 0.8)} X 2

Purpose of estimation of fat percentage in the cream

 For the preparation of butter from cream, we require a fat percentage of 35 to 45.  After
estimating the fat percentage, we can standardize the cream fat to the desired fat
percentage.

Result

 The fat percentage in the given sample of cream is

ESTIMATION OF ACIDITY IN CREAM

 When the cream is intended for long storage the acidity should be reduced (before
churning) to 0.06 to 0.08 percent as lactic acid, and for early consumption a level of 0.25
to 0.35 percent lactic acid is preferred. Acidity if excess, should be neutralised before
churning.
 Calcium hydroxide can be added at a level of 490 g or sodium bicarbonate can be added
at a level of 830 g of per Kg lactic acid.

Procedure

 Heat the cream to boiling point for one minute before testing for acidity. Take 10 ml of
cream in porcelain dish to which a few drops of phenopthalin indicator is added. It is
then titrated against N/10 NaOH taken in a burette.

Calculation

Titratable acidity = 9 V1N1 / V2

Where,

V1: Titre value

N1: Normality of NaOH

V2: Volume of cream

Result 

 The acidity of the given sample of cream is = -------------

ANALYSIS OF BUTTER BY KHOMAN METHOD

 Apparatus required: Aluminum cup, glass stirrers, balance, hot plate and tongs.
 Chemical required: Petroleum ether

Procedure

 The weight of empty Aluminum cup with stirrer is taken and weighed as W1. Take about
10 grams of butter and weigh it accurately as W2.
 Place the cup with stirrer and contents on sand bath over a hot plate and heat the
contents with constant stirring till all the moisture is driven off. Care should be taken not
to char the contents. End point is the formation of golden brown particles of the residue.
 Remove the cup; wipe the bottom to remove the sand particles. Cool it in a desiccators
and weigh it as W3. Add about 6-10 ml of petroleum ether. Stir well to dissolve the fat
and allow it to stand for 2-3 minutes and decant the supernatant in the cup.
 Repeat the extraction with 10 ml of petroleum ether. Dry the cup in a sand bath and keep
it in desiccators. The cup containing the curd and salt is weighed as W4.

Judging of butter

 Examine the packet of butter for the presence of molds and for neatness. Open the
packet and immediately inhale and note the odour. Cut with spatula and note the
firmness of the body. Examine the cut side for oozing of moisture and presence of water
droplets and air packets. Examine for the uniform distribution of colour on the cut
surface. About 1 gm of butter is put into hemouth and allowed to melt. Note the taste and
odour. Quality of butter is graded according to score card ADSA grades.
 The characters (Flavour, body and texture, Colour, Salt, Package) and Maximum marks
(45,25 15, 10 and 5 points, A for 92 Point, B for 90 points and C for 89 Points and C for
89 Points.

Flavour

 Flavour gets maximum score and it is the main character in butter. It is a combination of
taste and odour and odour being most important. The desired flavour in butter is
described as sweet and nutty. Flavour is also described as fishy, rancid, curdy, cooked
and yeasty, Butter can absorb odours and are desribed as unclean, fruity and etc.
  Body: this includes texture. It should be recently formed, close textured and waxy. There
should not be excess moisture and should not stick on to hands.

Common defects

 Leaky and crumbly

o When butter is under worked crumbly butter results, if it is over worked. Greasy
or sticky butter results. Cumbly butter also results if it contains higher amount of
HMTG (High molting Tri glycerides). If butter is produced with prolonged
churning and high temperature of wash water, it results in leaky butter.
 Colour : Natural colour of butter
o Cow – light yellow – golden yellow
o Buffalo – White.
o Distinct discolouration of surface occurs and it may be due to certain species of
micro organisms. If colour is not uniformly distributed mottling results.
 Salt: if salt is added and not dissolved uniformly grittiness results. Salt is added to
import a pleasant taste and to prolong keeping quality.
 Package: Packing material differs depending upon the usage and market demand,
whatever be the packing material it should be hygienically clean and it should provide
protection to contents from moisture, sunlight.

TESTS FOR ADULTERATION IN MILK

 There are many methods known for detection of adulteration in milk but the methods
discussed below are simple but rapid and sensitive methods to detect adulteration.

I. Detection of Neutralizers in milk

 Rosalic acid test (Soda Test)

o In milk neutralizers like hydrated lime, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or
sodium bicarbonate are added which are generally prohibited.
 How to detect?
o Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube and add 5 ml alcohol followed by 4-5 drops of
rosalic acid. If the colour of milk changes to pinkish red, then it is inferred that
the milk is adulterated with sodium carbonate / sodium bicarbonate and hence
unfit for human consumption.
o This test will be effective only if the neutralizers are present in milk. If the added
neutralizers are nullified by the developed acidity, then this test will be negative.
In that case, the alkaline condition of the milk for the presence of soda ash has to
be estimated.
 How to proceed?
o Take 20 ml of milk in a silica crucible and then the water is evaporated and the
contents are burnt in a muffle furnace. The ash is dispersed in 10 ml distilled
water and it is titrated against decinormal (N/10) hydrochloric acid using
phenolphthalein as an indicator. If the titre value exceeds 1.2 ml, then it is
construed that the milk is adulterated with neutralizers.

II. Test for detection of hydrogen peroxide

  Take 5 ml milk in a test tube and then add 5 drops of paraphenylene diamine and shake
it well. Change of the colour of milk to blue confirms that the milk is added with
hydrogen peroxide.

III. Test for detection of formalin

 Formalin (40%) is poisonous though it can preserve milk for a long time.

How to detect?

 Take 10 ml of milk in test tube and 5 ml of conc. sulphuric acid is added on the sides of
the test tube with out shaking. If a violet or blue ring appears at the intersection of the
two layers, then it shows the presence of formalin.

IV. Test for detection of sugar in milk

 Generally sugar is mixed in the milk to increase the solids not fat content of milk i.e. to
increase the lactometer reading of milk, which was already diluted with water.

How to detect?

 Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube and add 5 ml of hydrochloric acid along with 0.1 g of
resorcinol. Then shake the test tube well and place the test tube in a boiling water bath
for 5 min. Appearance of red colour indicates the presence of added sugar in milk.

V. Test for detection of starch

 Addition of starch also increases the SNF content of milk. Apart from the starch, wheat
flour, arrowroot, rice flour are also added.

How to detect?

 Take 3 ml milk in a test tube and boil it thoroughly. Then milk is cooled to room
temperature and added with 2 to 3 drops of 1% iodine solution. Change of colour to blue
indicates that the milk is adulterated with starch.

VI. Test for detection of glucose

Usually poor quality glucose is added to milk to increase the lactometer reading. There are two
tests available to detect the adulteration of milk with glucose.

How to proceed?

 Phosphomolybdic or Barford Test

o Take 3 ml of milk in a test tube and add 3 ml Barford’s reagent and mix it
thoroughly. Then keep it in a boiling water bath for 3 min and then cool it for 2
min by immersing in tap water with out disturbance. Then add 1 ml of
phosphomolybdic acid and shake. If blue colour is visible, then glucose is present
in the milk sample.
   Diacetic test
o Take a strip of diacetic strip and dip it in the milk for 30 sec to 1 min. If the strip
changes colour, then it shows that the sample of milk contains glucose. If there is
no change in the colour of the strip, then glucose is absent. In this method the
presence of glucose in milk can be quantified by comparing the colour developed
with the chart strip.

VII. Test for detection of urea

 Urea is generally added in the preparation of synthetic milk to raise the SNF value.
 Five ml of milk is mixed well with 5 ml paradimethyl amino benzaldehyde (16%). If the
solution turns yellow in colour, then the given sample of milk is added with urea.
 Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube and add 0.2 ml of urease (20 mg / ml). Shake well at
room temperature and then add 0.1 ml of bromothymol blue solution (0.5%).
Appearance of blue colour after 10-15 min indicates the adulteration milk with urea.
 Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube and add 5 ml alcohol followed by 4-5 drops of rosalic
acid. If the colour of milk changes to pinkish red, then it is inferred that the milk is
adulterated with sodium carbonate / sodium bicarbonate and hence unfit for human
consumption.
 This test will be effective only if the neutralizers are present in milk. If the added
neutralizers are nullified by the developed acidity, then this test will be negative. In that
case, the alkaline condition of the milk for the presence of soda ash has to be estimated.

How to proceed?

 Take 20 ml of milk in a silica crucible and then the water is evaporated and the contents
are burnt in a muffle furnace. The ash is dispersed in 10 ml distilled water and it is
titrated against decinormal (N/10) hydrochloric acid using phenolphthalein as an
indicator. If the titre value exceeds 1.2 ml, then it is construed that the milk is
adulterated with neutralizers.

TEST FOR PASTEURISED MILK

Aschaffenburg and mullen phosphatase test

 Enzymes like peroxidase, catalase, lipase and alkaline phosphatase present in milk are
destroyed by pasteurisation temperature.

Phosphatase test

 If the milk is added to a suitably buffered solution of disodium-p-nitrophenyl phosphate,

this is hydrolysed by enzyme phosphatase to form p-nitrophenol which is yellow in
alkaline solution. Standard disc will have numbers of 0, 6,8,10 and 42.

Buffer solution

 g of Na2Co3 and 1.5g of NaHco3 are dissolved in 2 litres of distilled water.

Substrate
  Disodium–p–nitrophenyl phosphate not less than 95% pure is used for the test.

Buffer Substrate

 Transfer 0.15 g of substrate into 100 ml of measuring cylinder or in graduated flask and
make up to 100th mark with the buffer solution. It should not be stored for a long time;
but can be kept in refrigerator up to one week. It should give the reading of less than 10
on the disc.

Procedure

 To 10 ml or 5 ml of buffer substrate in a test tube add 2 ml or 1 ml of milk respectively.

Close the test tube with a sterile rubber stopper.
 Invert the test tube and mix gently. Prepare a blank in the same way with heated milk.
 Incubate in a water bath at 370C ± 0.50C for 30 minutes
 Return to the water bath and take second reading after 90 minutes. Yellow colour is read
in a lovibondall purpose comparator fitted with the phosphatase disc calibrated in
microgram of p-nitrophenol.
 Blank is kept on the left side of comparator and the sample on the right and the disc is
rotated until the colour matches. 30 minutes test reveals serious faults in pasteurisation
and 90 minutes reveals minor errors in pasteurization. Addition of even 0.1% raw milk
can be detected.

Interpretation

Disc reading after 30 minutes Interpretation

 0 to trace Properly pasteurised

 6 Doubtful
 10 and above Under pasteurised
 Disc reading after 2 hours Interpretation
 0 to 10 Properly pasteurised
 Above10 Under pasteurised.

Result

Comment

Questions

1. Name the test conducted for testing the efficiency of pasteurization?

2. When does phosphatase test give false positive results?
3. Name the phosphatases present in milk and give their inactivation temperature.
4. What does the colour development indicate in the test?
 MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY EVALUATION OF MILK AND
MILK PRODUCTS

Standard plate count

This method is used for determining the total number of viable bacteria per ml of milk and
consists of mixing appropriate quantity of milk with suitable nutrient agar medium in a
petridish and counting the bacterial colonies developed after incubation at a specified
temperature for a definite period of time. This method is time consuming and expensive.

Apparatus required

 1.1 ml pipettes, Petridishes, petridish can, pipette can, conical flask, incubator,
refrigerator, autoclave, hotair oven, test tubes.

Reagents required

 Standard plate count agar and dilution blank

Composition of agar / litre

 Tryptone - 5 g
 Yeast extract - 2 g
 Dextrose - 1 g
 Agar - 15 g
 pH - 7 ± 0.2 (approx)

Identifying plates

 Each plate is identified with samples number and dilution to be used. Plating time as
well as the date is to be noted.

Shaking sample and dilution

 The sample and diluetent has to be thoroughly mixed by shaking before drawing out the
sample or dilution blank. Mechanical shaker can also be used to shake the blank for 15
seconds.

Selecting dilutions

 Dilutions are set in such a way that the total number of colonies in a plate is between 30
and 300.

Measuring the sample portions

 While removing the sterile pipette from the containers it should not be dragged over the
exposed exterior surface of the can. While transferring milk or dilution blank sufficient
time should be given for the column to drain from the graduation mark to the tip of the
pipette. The pipette should not be rinsed with dilution blank as it may increase the count.
Transfer of dilution blank to petridish

 While transferring, the pipette should be held at an angle of 1200 and the petridish cover
should be opened just enough to insert the pipette. Complete draining of the pipette
should be allowed.

Plating

 Melt the required amount of sterilized media in boiling water. Cool it to 40-45 0 C.
Transfer the serially diluted milk sample in the petridish. Then approximately 10-15 ml
of the media is poured into the petridish, time taken should not be more than 20 minutes
is allowed before diluting the first sample and pouring the last plate. The serially diluted
sample of milk and medium should be thoroughly mixed by rotating 5 times clockwise
and 5 times anticlockwise and 5 times up and down and 5 times sideways, and the plate
is kept undisturbed for 10 minutes for solidification of media. Plates are inverted and
kept in the incubator maintained at 370 ± 0.50 C for 48 hrs.

Counting the plates

 Plates should be counted in such a way that the number of colonies does not exceed 300
per plate. All the colonies irrespective of size, shape and colour should be counted.

Interpretation

 The number of colonies is multiplied by the dilution factor gives the result and recorded
as colony forming units per ml of milk.

Standard for grading

Type of milk Count in cfu per ml Grade

Pasteurized Not more than 30,000/ml  
Milk
< 200,000/ml Very good
Raw Milk
200,000-1 Million Good

 1 – 5 Million  Fair

 > 5 Million Poor

Result

Comment

 
Questions

1. What are the sources of error in SPC method? 

2. What are the limitations of the standard plate count?
3. Why are the petridishes kept inverted in the incubator?
4. Why are the plates incubated at 370C?

COLIFORM COUNT

The presence of coliform groups shows the unsanitary condition prevailing in the areas or may
be used to find out the faecal contamination. The unsanitary condition in the place of
production and at the processing site may be due to

1. Improper cleaning of dairy utensils

2. Improper cleaning of animals
3. Contaminated water supply to the dairy farms.

Presence of coliform causes souring, taints, gassiness and unclean flavour in milk and milk
products.Estimation of coliforms in milk is carried out in similar manner as that of standard
plate count. Violet red bile agar is used as the selective media for coliform count.

Apparatus required

 Petridishes, Petridish can, 1.1 ml pipettes, Pipette can, conical flask, test tubes, incubator,
hot air oven, autoclave, refrigerator.

Reagents required

 Violet red bile agar, dilution blank

Composition of media

 Peptone 20 g
 Lactose 10 g
 Bile salts 5 g
 Nacl 1.5 g
 Neutral red 2.25g
 Agar 15 g
 Distilled water to make up 1 litre pH adjusted to 7.4

As the bile salts inhibit the growth of other type of micro organisms and only coliform groups
grow well in this medium. Coliform group of organisms are present only in 1/100 and hence the
dilution can be restricted upto 1/100. Coliform group will form subsurface colonies.

Procedure

 1 ml of milk sample is taken and serially diluted. The serially diluted sample is then
transferred to a sterile petridish and about 15 ml of media is poured. Petridish is left
undisturbed for solidification and is then followed by addition of 5 ml of agar over the
 solidified medium which is known as over laying. Then the petridishes are incubated at
370 C ± 0.50 C for 20 hours. Colonies are pink in colour in the centre surrounded by an
area of discolouration or zone of precipitation which is due to precipitation of bile salts
by coliforms.
 Colonies more than 0.5 mm in diameter should be counted. Sometimes the diameter of
the colony may be less than 0.5 mm when the violet red bile agar is over heated or if the
plates are incubated more than 24 hrs. In ice cream samples also the colonies will be less
than 0.5 mm in dia. In such cases, confirmatory tests have to be carried out by using
broths like Brilliant green lactose peptone bile broth or Formatericinoleate lactose
peptone broth. Durham’s tubes have to be inserted into the broth for detecting gas
production.
 Brilliant green lactose peptone bile broth helps to differentiate lactose and non- lactose
fermenting organisms. Brilliant green and sodium ricinoleate inhibit gram positive
organisms and favour the growth of gram negative organisms where asformate aids in
the increased gas production.

BIS standard

 Raw milk: Coliform should be absent in 1/100 dilution

 Pasteurized Milk: Coliform should be absent in 1/10 dilution

Result

Comment

Question

1. What is the significance of finding coliform organisms in milk and water?

2. What type of fermentation is brought about by coliform bacteria in milk?

THERMOPHILIC COUNT

This method is used for determining the total number of thermophilic bacteria in milk. The
method consists of mixing appropriate quantity of milk with suitable nutrient agar medium in a
petridish and counting the bacterial colonies developed after incubation at a specified
temperature for a definite period of time. This method is time consuming and expensive.

Apparatus required

 1.1 ml of pipettes, Petridishes, Petridish can, Pipette can, Conical flask, Incubator,
Refrigerator, Autoclave, Hot air oven, Test tubes, Distilled water, SPC agar.

Procedure

 Each plate is identified with sample number, dilution rate, date and time of plating.
 Mix the milk sample by rotating between the palms before serially diluting the sample.
 Plating should be done in a presterilized area and serial dilution of sample is done.
 Transfer of serially diluted sample and the media into the petridish and should be done
near the flame.
  1 ml of mixed milk sample is taken and is transferred to the 1 st test tube containing 9 ml
of sterilized distilled water (dilution blank).
 The milk sample is mixed with the dilution blank by rotating between the palms before
further serial dilution.
 1 ml of serially diluted sample is drawn from the 6th test tube and transferred to the
petridish.
 10-15 ml of sterilized standard plate count agar at a temperature of 40-45 0C is
transferred to the petridish.
 The serially diluted milk sample in the petridish is mixed with the medium by rotating
gently five times clockwise, 5 times anti clock wise, 5 times up and down and five times
side ways.
 Petridish is kept undisturbed for few minutes until the media gets solidified.
 Then the petridish is inverted and kept inside the incubator maintained at 550C and
incubated for 48 hours. All the colonies are counted. The number of colonies multiplied
by the dilution factor gives thermophiles per ml of milk.

Calculation

Total Number of thermophiles = No. of organisms X Dilution factor = cfu per ml of milk.

Result

Comment

Questions

1. Enumerate the significance of thermophiles in milk?

2. Name the bacteria that is a misnomer for thermophile?

FAECAL STREPTOCOCCI (ENTEROCOCCI)

Enterococci are index organisms which assume the safety of milk and milk products while
coliforms are indicator organisms which suggest the quality of product. The importance of
enerococci as indicator organisms for the presence of related pathogenic micro-organisms in
food materials including milk and milk products is now widely recognized. Since complete
reliance can not be placed on faecal coliforms or E.coli, it has been suggested that enterococci
provide a better index of food sanitary quality than do coliforms since these organisms are more
resistant to adverse processing conditions like low and high temperature (freezing and heating).
However, subsequently, the use of both E.coli and enterococci as indicator organisms for
reliable and accurate assessment of hygienic quality of food products have been recommended.
In view of considerable importance of these organisms in dairy products, their detection in these
products is also equally important.

Some of the selective media used for the presumptive isolation of enterococci in milk and milk
products are listed below.

 Citrate azide medium

 m-Enterococcus agar
 KF streptococcal agar
 Packer’s agar
  Enterococcus selective differential medium
 Thallus acetate agar

Out of all these media, citrate azide agar appears to be the medium of choice as almost all the
types of Enterococcus group can grow on this medium.

Medium

 Sodium azide citrate agar : To the medium triphenyl tetrazolium chloride at 0.01 %
and sodium azide at 0.04% concentration are added. These are added at the time of
plating.

Procedure

 Serial dilutions of milk sample is prepared (1 in 10, 1 in 100)

 Suitable dilution is transferred to the petridish and approximately 10-15 ml of tempered
media also is poured into the plate and mixed.
 Incubate the plate at 370 for 24 hours.
 The colonies pink in colour are counted.

Calculation

No.of colonies x dilution factor

Result

Comment

Questions

1. As per lancefield and sherman’s classification under which group does the enterococci
fall?
2. Enumerate the bacteria under enterococci group?
3. Differentiate enterococci from lactic streptococci?

YEAST AND MOULD COUNT

Aim

 To enumerate yeast and mould in the given sample of butter.

Apparatus required

 Sterile petridishes, 1.1 ml pipettes, BOD incubator (Biological Oxygen Demand), Pipette
can, petridish can refrigerator, conical flask, test tubes.
Medium required

 Potato dextrose agar medium, 10% Lactic acid or tartaric acid.

Composition of the medium

 Potato infusion from white potato - 200 gm

 Dextrose - 20 gm
 Agar - 15 gm
 Distilled water - 1000 ml
 pH = 5.6 ± 0.2

Procedure

 The medium potato dextrose is sterilized by autoclaving at 121 0 C for 15 minutes at 15
pounds pressure. The pH of the medium is adjusted to 3.0 – 3.5 using 10 % lactic or
tartaric acid. Yeast and mould count is normally done in products like butter, cream and
fermented milk products. About 5g of butter is melted in water bath at 450 C to liquefy
and there after 1 ml of this liquefied butter is transferred to 9ml of the sterile distilled
water and mixed gently till a uniform emulsion is formed. Serial dilution is carried out
up to 1:1000. The required dilution of serially diluted sample is transferred to a sterile
petridish followed by the addition of potato dextrose agar medium.
 Mix the contents of the petridish gently and allow it to remain undisturbed for 15-20
minutes for solidification. Then the petridish is transferred to BOD incubator and
incubated for 5 days at 210C. After 5th day take the plate and count the colonies.
 Yeast appears as convex glistening surface colonies on the agar. The Mould colonies
appear in different colours viz white, black, green and are cottony, wooly and velvety in
texture. The colour of mould colonies is due to the colour of the spores and due to the
aerobic nature yeast and mould form surface colonies.

BIS standard for butter

Yeast and mould Grade

count
Less than 20 Good
20-50 Fair
50-100 Poor
Above 100 Very poor

Result

 Yeast and mould count per gram or ml = No.of colonies x dilution factor.

Comment

Questions
 1. How does butter favour the growth of yeast and mould?
2. What is the significance of high yeast and mould count in butter?

PREPARATION OF CURD AND GHEE

Preparation of curd

In India curd is also called Dahi. As per PFA rules, dahi is a product obtained from pasteurised
or boiled milk by souring natural or otherwise by using harmless lactic cultures.

Apparatus required

 Stainless steel wares, glass wares, water bath, incubator, refrigerator, etc.

Materials required

 Good quality milk, starter culture which includes Streptococcus diacetyl lactis,
Streptococcus. cremoris, ith an aroma producing bacteria mainly Leuconostoc
citrovorum or Leuconostocdextranicum.

Procedure

 Pasteurise milk at 85oC for 10 min and cool the milk immediately (20-25 oC) by keeping
the container in running water, by simultaneous agitation. Add 0.5% of starter culture at
this temperature and mix thoroughly. Distribute this cultured milk into a small sterile
steel or glass container taking aseptic precautions, and fix a sterile Aluminium cap.
Permit the cultured milk to remain undisturbed for 16-18 hours at 22-25 oC, or to reach
the acidity of 0.8-0.98

Judging of dahi

 It is done to find whether the dahi offered for sale possess desirable characters for direct
consumption.

Procedure

 If the container is taken from cold storage, it is allowed to warm slightly without opening
the lid. Examine for the firmness of body, separation of whey at the bottom, middle or
top, presence of gas bubbles and change in colour. Open the lid and immediately
examine the contents for flavour, odour, etc.
 Desirable characters of market quality of dahi includes colour, appearance, flavour, body
and texture and acidity.

While examining the body and texture following defects have to be noted..

1. Watery consistency : Due to low solids or due to poor quality of milk. Too high or
insufficient heat treatment can also cause this defect.
2. Hard and lumpy curd: This is due to over ripening especially at high temperature and
this defect is usually found along with same amount of whey formation.
Whey off: Wheying off in dahi may be due to low solid content or due to deliberate dilution with
milk. Higher acidity also causes these defects. Disturbances or vibrations at the time of curd
setting also result in whey formation.

3. Ropiness: Ropiness due to faulty fermentation resulting in low acid production and

sweet curdling due to certain microbes.

Common flavour defects are:

 Bitter and cheasy: due to peptonising proteolytic organisms.

 Cooked defect: due to overheating
 Flat: due to low acid and diacetyl production
 Rancid: due to lipolytic organisms
 Fruity and alcoholic: due to yeast and molds
 Malty defect: due to S. lactis var. multigenes

Requirements for dahi

Characteristics Requirement for sweet Requirement for sour

dahi dahi
Acidity, lactic (percentage 0.70 1.0
weight)
Yeast and mould count/gm 100 100
Coliform count/gm 10 10
Phosphatase test Negative Negative
PREPARATION OF GHEE

Ghee is defined as clarified butter fat with a strong characteristic flavour prepared by heating
makkhan, in an open pan, to about 110-120oC till all the moisture is evaporated and the
characteristic flavour develops. It can be compared to butter oil. Butter oil is the western
counterpart of ghee.

 Origin: Ghee originated in India much before recorded history and the name originates
from the sanskrit word meaning “bright”. The Vedas contain numerous references to
ghee.
 Method of Preparation: More than 90 percent of ghee is produced by the traditional
method from desi butter or makkhan and then converting it into ghee. Makkhan, which
is produced by churning the curd, is heated in a metallic vessel and stirred over a low fire
to evaporate the moisture. When practically all the moisture is removed, further heating
is stopped and the vessel is removed from the fire. After the residue has settled down on
cooling, the clear fat is decanted into suitable containers a ghee. The composition ghee is

Cow Buffalo
Milk fat (%) 99-99.5 99-99.5
 Moisture (%) Not more than 0.5 Not more than 0.5
Unsaponifiable
Matter: 3.2-7.4 -

Carotene (mg/g) 19-34 17-38

Vitamin A (IU/g) 26-48 18-37

Tocopherol (mg/g) max. 2.8 agmark* max. 2.8 agmark

Free fatty acid (%oleic)

*Agricultural produce (grading and marketing) act 1937

Agmarkspecificatios /standards for ghee

Tests All India Regional

Winter Summer
Baudouin Negative Negative
Phytosterol acetate Negative Negative
B.R.reading (40 c) 40.0-43.0 41.5-44.0 42.5 - 45
R.M.Value 28.0 not less than 23.0 Not less than 21.0
P. Value 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.2 0.5-1.0
Moisture (%) not more than
0.3
FFA (% oleic)
a)Special-grade Agmark Red label not more than 1.4
b)General-Grade Agmark Green not more than 2.5
label

Flow Chart

Milk

Butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) as preservative cab be added at a rate of 0.02% for ghee and
butter

Percentage of ghee residue = Weight of ghee residue x 100 / Weight of butter

Percentage of ghee obtained = Weight of ghee x 100 /Weight of fat in butter

Weight of fat in butter = 80 x weight of butter

Judging of ghee

 Colour : Though it is influenced by the method of production, the colour of ghee from
cow milk is deep yellow, while ghee from buffalo milk is white with a characteristic
yellowish or greenish tinge. When mixed, colour varies accordingly. Also the state of
ghee as liquid or solid influences the colour.
 Flavour: (smell and taste). It is an important characteristic small quantity of ghee is
rubbed over the back of palm and smelled by inhaling. A well-prepared sample of ghee
has a pleasant, cooked and rich flavour. The taste is usually sweet and characteristic of
milk fat, although a slight acidic flavour is preferred.
 Texture: (grain and consistency). Indian buyers relay on granulation for quality and
purity. Granulation of ghee is partly due to glycerides of high melting saturated fatty
acids (hard fat - palmitic and stearic etc.,) and thus buffalo ghee crystallizes more
effectively than cow ghee. The desi method produces large crystals in ghee compared to
direct-cream method. Heating ghee to 60-100oC and rapid cooling yields small grains in
ghee. However if the ghee is kept at 1oC above the melting point of ghee (cow ghee –29oC:
buffalo ghee – 31oC) a large number of big graining results. Cold storage of ghee should
be avoided, since it leads to loss of granularity and the development of waxy consistency
in the stored product.
 Packaging: Non-toxic, non-tainting material with easy availability, economical,
resistance to rough handling, suited for printing and capacity to hold desirable volume
are preferred.

Results and comments 

PREPARATION OF PANEER

 Paneer is primarily an acid coagulated milk solid.

Procedure

                            Standardization of milk to 6% fat

                                                  ↓

                                     heating upto 82 C

                                                  ↓

                                        cooling to 70 C

                                                   ↓

                        coagulation with 1% citric acid (1.5-2/litre)

                                                    ↓

                                    Drain the whey

                                                   ↓

                           pressed & made it into cubes

                                                   ↓

          hardened in chilled water for 1-2 hours (4-6o     temperature)

                                                   ↓

                                   cut into pieces and packed 

PREPARATION OF CHANNA

 Channa is an indigenous milk product obtained by coagulating whole milk and by

subsequent separation of whey. This coagulation is done by addition of lactic or citric
acid.
 Channa differs from paneer in the method of preparation that no pressure is applied to
remove the whey. The coagulum is collected in a cloth and hung on a peg without
applying pressure to drain off the whey.

Physical appearance

 Channa from cow milk is light yellow in colour, has a moist surface, soft body and
smooth texture whereas that from buffalo milk is whitish in colour. Both have a pleasant,
sweetish mildly acid flavour.

Yield

 For cow milk, generally 15 per cent and from buffalo milk the yield is higher.

Uses

 Widely used in eastern parts of India and Bangladesh for the preparation of many milk-
based sweets.
 Channa is also produced in the rural milk sheds and transported by road or rail to larger
urban agglomerates in wicker baskets which allow further drainage of whey.
 Channa so produced is usually used for the preparation of sandesh. High quality sandesh
is usually prepared from fresh channa.
 It is also used for rasagolla preparation. Channa has the same legal requirements as
those of paneer.

PREPARATION OF KHOA
According to PFA Khoa is a product obtained from cow, buffalo (goat or sheep) or mixed milk by
rapid drying. The milk fat content should not be less than 20 per cent of the finished product. It
is also called khawa or mawa. The product is obtained by heat desiccation of milk to 65 –  69 per
cent solids in an open pan. 

Use:  Khoa forms the base material for a variety of Indian sweets and for stuffing vegetables in
dishes.

Origin:  Not known, but this product has been prepared for centuries in India as a base
material for manufacturing sweets.  It is prepared by the traditional method by milk traders and
halwais.  A five times concentration of milk is normally required. The three main varieties are
“pindi” for burfi, “dhap” for gulabjamun, pantooa etc., and “danedar” used for kalakand. Khoa
making has been the easiest way of preserving rurally produced milk in the flush season.

Method of preparation

 In the traditional method, milk is taken in small lots of about 4-5 litres in an open,
shallow iron pan.  It is directly heated over a non-smoky vigorous fire.  Milk is slowly
agitated in the beginning with a continuous light scraping action, with a ladle (iron
scraper), on the sides to avoid scorching of milk solids sticking to sides of the pan.
Continuous evaporation takes place and milk thickens rapidly.  At certain concentration,
usually of 2.5 to 2.8 times, the heat coagulation of proteins begins.  Concentration now
takes place faster and a change of colour is seen.  The heating is turned down to about
82-87oC and stirring and scraping intensified to avoid browning of milk solids due to
scorching. The viscous milk begins to dry up.  When the khoa mass begins to leave the
sides and bottom of the pan, heating is shut off and khoa forms into pats.
 The final solids content in the khoa ranges between 65 to 70 per cent.  Some khoa
makers add, 0.1 per cent citric acid at the closing stage to get a granular texture which is
considered desirable for certain sweets like kalakand.
 The traditional trade usually pays for milk on the basis of the yield of khoa.  Cow milk
usually yields 18 per cent of khoa.  The yield from buffalo milk is usually 20 per cent. 
Buffalo milk is preferred for khoa making since it yields a whiter product with a soft,
loose body and a smooth granular texture which makes it suitable for the preparation of
high-grade Khoa sweets.  A minimum fat percentage of 4.0 for cow milk and 5.0 for
buffalo milk is necessary.

Equipment required for laboratory preparation

 Clean stainless steel karahi, weighing balance, butter paper etc.

Procedure

The empty weight of karahi is taken.  About 1 kg of milk is then taken in the karahi and weighed
accurately.  The difference in weights, gives the weight of milk taken.  The karahi with milk is
placed over brisk fire and stirred continuously by means of a stirrer.  The milk in the vessels first
will become into a viscous product, until it reaches a pasty consistency and then begins to dry
up.  The flame is then reduced, however heating is continued.  Heating is stopped when the
product in the pan begins to leave the sides and sticks together forming homogenous mass
known as 'khoa-pat'.   Karahi with the product is then cooled and weighed.  From the difference
the weight of product is obtained.   It is then packed for further analysis judging and
consumption.

 Yield of khoa from cow milk  =  17-19%

 Yield of khoa from buffalo milk =  21-23% 

Score card for judging

 Note the condition of the package, before taking the bag observe the khoa for uniformity
of colour outside and inside.  Observe the texture of khoa for hardness, moisture and fat
leakage.

Character Maximum score

Flavour 45
Body and texture  35
Colour and 15
appearance
Package  5
Total  100

Results and comments

PREPARATION OF FLAVOURED MILK AND JUDGING

Definition

 Flavoured milk are milk to which some flavour have been added and when the term milk
is used, the product should contain, fat percentage atleast equal to minimum legal
standard. If the fat percentage is lower (1-2%) the term drink is used. Normally flavoured
milk can have 2 % fat.

Purposes

 To make milk more palatable

 To stimulate the sale of milk
 To put skim milk into profitable use.

Method of manufactures

 The milk on receipt is standardised and preheated to 35-45oC and filtered. To the warm
milk, sugar is added at a level of 7-8% and stirred so as to dissolve them completely. The
mixture is pasteurized at 71oC/30 min and cooled rapidly to 5oC. Now to this fruit
flavour, essence together with permitted / matching colour are added. The common
flavours used are rose, coco, orange, vanilla, pineapple etc. Matching colours are rose,
coco, orange, plain and yellow. For in-bottle sterilized flavoured milk heat resistant
 colour and flavour are used. The contents are mixed / homogenised well and then packed
and stored at refrigerant temperature.
 Using 9 point 0 Hedonic scale/score card does judging of flavour milk. The product is
judged for its colour, flavour and acceptability.

Preparation of Whey drink and judging

 Fresh whey obtained during preparation of paneer or channa can be used to prepare
whey drink. Rasana or flavoured syrup can be added to pasteurized whey, and chilled
before use. Whey can be used in the preparation of soups instead of water.

PREPARATION OF SOFTY ICE-CREAM

 Ice cream is also accepted as a nutritious food for the aged, sick and convalescing.
Generic educational campaigns need to be carried out to create a better awareness of ice
cream as a healthful and hygienic food that can be consumed throughout the year.
 Milk contains 3.5% fat, 9% SNF, where as ice cream contains 10-11% fat, 11-12% SNF. Fat
content is increased to by addition of cream or butter. SNF content is increased by
addition of skim milk powder or WPC or protein replacers. To stabilise the mix and to
prevent the ice crystal formation stabilizers like sodium alginate at a level of 0.3% is
used. For better whipping ability emulsifier like glyceryl monostearate (G.M.S) is added
at a level of 0.2%. For sweetness, sugar is added up to 15%. Equipments like Batch
freezer or softy Ice cream freezer, pasteurizing and ageing vats and homogeniser, deep
freezer are required

Ingredients

 Whole milk, Cream, butter, oils, skim milk powder, emulsifier (glycerol mono stearate),
stabilizer (CMC, sodium alginate, guargum, gelatin), sweetening agents (cane sugar)
dried fruits and nuts, total solid replacers etc.

Procedure

This includes three steps:

1. Calculating / Figuring the mix

2. Preparing the mix
3. Freezing the mix

Figuring the mix / Calculation of mix

Thus the optimum SNF for a mix containing 10% fat, 15% sugar and 0.5% combined
emulsifier/stabilizer would be

36 – (10 + 15 + 0.5) = 10.5%

The simplest situation is that in which all of the fat and all of the SNF is derived from single
ingredients (eg. Butter and skim milk powder). Butter has a fat content of 80% and skim milk
powder has a SNF content of 97% (the small amounts of SNF contributed by butter and fat
contributed by skim milk powder may be ignored). Thus for the basic formula discussed above
the quantities of each ingredients may be determined by simple developing algebraic equations
with variable “X” for whole milk, “Y” for Skim milk or powder and “Z” for cream etc. Thus for
three variables three equations can be formed as

1. Fat equation [ X(Fat % in Milk)+ Y(Fat % in SMP)+ Z(Fat % in Cream = 10 ]

2. SNF equation [ X(SNF % in Milk)+ Y(SNF % in SMP)+ Z(SNF % in Cream = 10.5 ]
3. Weight equation

{ X+ Y+ Z+ % of Sugar +% of stabilizer + % of Emulsifier = 10 }

By solving equations 1, 2 and 3 the unknown variables of milk, milk powder, cream etc can be
algebraically calculated.

Preparing the mix

 There are different ingredients used in preparation of ice cream mix, which include
whole milk, skim milk powder, cream, sugar and stabiliser. Cream and stabiliser are
heated in the vat at 110oF. At this temperature, dissolve skim milk powder, sugar and
stabiliser. Initially they are mixed separately with little quantity of milk and then the
mixture is agitated to get a uniform mix without any clumps in a mixer.
 After uniform mixing, the mix can be pasteurised and cooled to room temperature, and
then to 5oC. It is maintained at same temperature for 4-6 hours for ageing. After ageing
of mix, freezing is done in an ice cream freezer. Colour and essence are added to ice
cream mix and measured quantity of the mix is poured into the freezing table. The
compressor is started and motor is switched on, which rotates the dasher cum scrapper.
The ice cream formed is checked for its consistency and later drawn into container for
use.
 Prepared ice cream is packed in wax coated paper cups / plastic cups or edible wafer
cones. Knowing the volume of each cone or cup and the number of cups produced total
volume of ice cream prepared is arrived at and over run is calculated accordingly.

Sample Ice Cream mix ( ingredients for 1 Litre)

 Milk - 800 ml
 Cream - 140 g.
 Skim milk powder - 50 g.
 Sugar - 175 g.
 Sodium alginate - 3 g.
 (G.M.S.) - 2 g.

Preparation of Ice-cream
Cooling and ageing

 After homogenisation, hot mix is quickly cooled in the surface cooler and transferred to
ageing vats for 5-6 hours.
Freezing the mix

 Colour and flavour are added before freezing. The preferable Combination of Flavour
and Colour are Green for Pista, Yellow for Mango, Pink for Strawberry and plain colour
for Vanilla. The ice cream mix, along with air, is then pumped in to the freezer where it is
converted into ice cream. This process calls for simultaneous whipping and freezing.
High speed blades in the freezer whip the mix and air together to form a creamy mix. It
is at this stage that fruits, nuts and other ingredients are added.

Over run in ice cream

 Although frozen, the ice cream is soft enough to be poured into cones or cups or moulds
at different shapes. Ice cream would not be ice cream but for the air, without this
aeration, the finish product would be a solidly frozen mass which just could not be eaten.
Whipping air into the mix helps make sure that ice creams is smooth and easy to scoop.
This exertion is called “Over run”.

Hardening and storage

 The ice cream collected in cups is hardened by bringing down the temperature to ( –
25oC). The “rapid hardening process” that takes place also ensures a smoother ice cream.

Character Score Card

Flavour and 45
odour
Body and texture 20
Melting resistance 20
Packing  15
Total 100

Resuts and comments

Over run = -------------

Kulfi

 Kulfi is the indigenous ice cream frozen in small containers. Usually consumed in
summer and also called malai kulfi.
 Method of Preparation: Milk is sweetened by addition of sugar to boiling milk and the
product is concentrated to approximately 2:1. When the concentrate has cooled, malai
(indigenous cream), crushed nuts and the desired flavour are added and then well
stirred. The mix is placed in conical or cylindrical moulds of various capacities made of
galvanized iron sheets or cylindrical earthenware pot. The moulds are closed on top by
means of a small disc and the edges made air tight with wheat dough (modern moulds
are made of plastic or aluminum, generally conical in shape with screw cap plastic tops).
 The mix in the moulds is frozen using a large earthen vessel containing a mixture of ice
and salt in the ratio of 1:1.
 VISIT TO MODERN MILK PROCESSING AND
MANUFACTURING PLANTS

Students have to pay a visit to Modern Milk Processing Plants and Milk Manufacturing
Plants and observe the ongoing events pertaining to Grassland production, Feeding dairy cows,
Milking, Processing, Distribution and storage of milk and milk products.