Cabbage by Astrit Balliu

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Cabbage
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Chapter 4
Cabbage
Astrit Balliu
1. INTRODUCTION
Vegetable brassicas, also known as cole crops, which are derived from the Latin
word caulis (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) are important vegetables known to
mankind for over 4,000 years. Records show that the Ancient Greeks, Romans,
Indians and Chinese all valued and used them greatly. Mankind took both the
wild parents and their hybrid progeny, refined them by selection and further
combination, and produced over biblical time crops that are, together with the
cereals, the mainstay of world food supplies (Dixon, 2007). Currently, the estimated
production is about 58 million tons from about 3 million ha of agricultural land
cultivated with cabbages. China remained the leading producer of cabbage (740230
ha), followed by India (300500 ha) and Russian Federation (115600 ha) (FAOSTAT
2011).
Collectively, brassicas deliver leaf, flower and root vegetables that are eaten
fresh, cooked and processed; used as fodder and forage, contributing especially
overwintering supplies for meat and milk producing domesticated animals; sources
of protein and oil used in low fat edible products, for illumination and industrial
lubricants; condiments such as mustard, herbs and other flavorings; and soil
conditioners as green manure and composting crops.
The regular consumption of vegetables, specifically the dark green leafy
vegetables is highly recommended because of their potential in reducing the risks
of chronic diseases. These vegetables are important food crops because they provide
adequate amounts of dietary vitamins and minerals for humans (Miller-Cebert
et al., 2009). Among brassica crops broccoli is considered a very good source of
vitamins A and C; rich in potassium, calcium and phosphorus. Brussels sprout is a
very good source of vitamins A and C, rich also in potassium and folate. Cauliflower
is a good source of vitamin C, folate and potassium. It supplies small amounts of
several minerals and vitamins to the diet. Cabbage is an excellent source of vitamin
C. In addition to containing some B vitamins, cabbage supplies some potassium
and calcium to the diet (http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/nr/agrifoods/crops/veg_pdfs/
cole_crops.pdf). The chemical composition of cole crops is depended on the growing
80 Handbook of Vegetables Vol. III
cycle. Total chlorophyll and phenolic contents, and particularly the total antioxidant
activity found at the individual stages were much higher in spring in comparison
with the autumn. The main factor which caused this variability seems to be the
isolation (Leja et al., 2002).
More generally brassicas are seen as functional foods with long-term roles in the
fight against cancer and coronary diseases. The Brassica vegetables are becoming
increasingly seen as contributing substantially to the long-term health of consumers.
In addition to providing high levels of fibre, vitamins and minerals, the brassicas
contain glucosinolates that are hydrolyzed into isothiocyanates by the action of
myrosinase enzymes. Increased consumption of glucosilonates from Brassica
vegetables is associated with reduced risk of cancer induction and development
(Kang et al., 2006). The content of glucosinolates, as well as the ratio among different
groups of glucosinolates (aliphatic, indole, and aromatic) differs with regard to
environmental influence (Bohinc and Trdan, 2012). Manipulating N and S fertility
may be one means of altering glucosinolates concentration and profiles in cabbage
and thereby potentially increasing health benefits of consuming this vegetable
(Rosen et al., 2005).
Recently, the tiny cruciferous weed Arabidopsis thaliana has become very
important for molecular biology, proving important educational and research tools.
Arabidopsis has a simple five-chromosome genome with minimal levels of
duplication, making it an ideal plant for research. The research from Arabidopsis
is being used to study the functioning of important genes involved in the horticulture
and agronomy of Brassica crop species, including the genes responsible for head
formation in cauliflower and broccoli (Lan and Paterson, 2000).
2. ORIGIN, EVOLUTION, GENETIC VARIATION AND CLASSIFICATION

The varieties of cultivated cabbages are descended from the wild cabbage (Brassica
oleracea L.), called colewort or field cabbage. It is native to the coasts of Western
Europe and the Western Mediterranean, occupies rather harsh niche growing on
ledges of chalky cliffs and even on nearly vertical rocky surfaces where no other
plant can take a foothold (Nieuwhof, 1969). Related Brassica species have produced
the Chinese cabbage, turnip, rutabaga, and oil-seed rape (Phillips and Rix, 1993).
A detailed classification of cabbages as documented by Chiang et al. (1993) is
presented below.
(a) Brassica oleracea (2n = 18, diploid); European origin
subsp. (var.) capitata, White cabbage; heads formed by infolding of
subgroup alba leaves-externally green, internally white.
subsp. (var.) capitata, Red cabbage; internally white and red.
subgroup rubra
subsp. (var.) capitata, Savoy cabbage foliage highly wrinkled or
subgroup sabauda savoyed, green.
Cabbage 81
subsp. (var.) botrytis, Cauliflower; a tight flower, generally white, some

subgroup cauliflora purple.
subsp. (var.) botrytis, Broccoli; not as tight, more bud-like individually,
subgroup cymosa (italica) blue-green in color.
subsp. (var.) gemmifera Brussels sprouts; elongated stem, miniature
heads (sprouts) in leaf axils.
subsp. (var.) acephala, Kale, collards, curly kale; dwarf type, highly
subgroup laciniata curled foliage.
subsp. (var.) acephala, Smooth-leafed kale; a smooth rossette type.
subgroup plana
subsp. (var.) acephala, Thousand-head kale; tall-growing form, produ-
subgroup millecapitata cing whorls of young shoots high above the soil.
subsp. (var.) acephala, Tree kale; tall (>2 m).
subgroup palmifolia
subsp. (var.) acephala, Marrow-stem kale; long, thickened stems,
subgroup medullosa occassionaly curled.
subsp. (var.) gongylodes, Kohlrabi; thickened stems 2–7 cm above soil level
subgroup caulo-rapa forming an above-ground tuber-like structure.
(b) Brassica campestris (rapa) (2n = 20, diploid); Chinese origin
subsp. (var.) chinensis Bok choy, Chinese mustard, pak-choi, celery
mustard; resembles cos lettuce.
subsp. (var.) pekinensis Pe-tsai, chinese cabbage, celery cabbage;
resembles swiss chard.
subsp. (var.) ruvo Broccoli-raab, rapa, rapine, turnip broccoli;
grown for greens, unopened flower buds and
stems.
(c) Brassica napus (rapa)
subsp. (var.) rapifera Turnip; similar to rutabaga; flesh white or
(2n = 20) yellow.
subsp. (var.) Rutabaga; swollen hypocotyl, flesh yellow.
napobrassica (2n = 38)
Other species of the Cruciferae (Brassicaceae) used as vegetables include the
radish and Chinese radish (Raphanus sativus) and horseradish (Armoracia
rusticana).
2.1. Botany and Phenology of Brassica Crops

The development of Brassica crops passes through several stages (Fig. 4.1) as
described by Feller et al. (1995). Germination (beginning of seed imbibitions, radicle
emerged from seed, hypocotyl with cotyledons breaking through seed coat,
emergence: cotyledons break through soil surface). Leaf development (cotyledons

completely unfolded; growing point or true leaf initial becomes visible, true leaf
unfolded). Development of harvestable vegetative plant parts (heads begin to form:
the two youngest leaves do not unfold, typical size, form and firmness of heads
reached). Inflorescence emergence (main shoot inside head begins to elongate, first
individual flowers of main inflorescence visible (still closed), first individual flowers
of secondary inflorescences visible (still closed), first flower petals visible; flowers
still closed). Flowering (first flowers open, flowering finishing: majority of petals
fallen or dry). Development of fruit (first fruits formed, fruits have reached typical
size). Ripening of fruit and seed (beginning of ripening: Fully ripe: seeds on the
whole plant of typical color and hard). Senescence (leaves and shoots beginning to
discolour, 50% of leaves yellow or dead, plants dead).
Fig. 4.1: Cabbage phonological stages (Feller et al., 1995).

Cabbage 83
2.1.1. Flower and fruit development

The flower differentiates by the successive development of four sepals, six stamens,
two carpels and four petals (Dixon and Wallace, 1986). Flower opening starts in
the afternoon. Usually the flowers become fully expanding during the following
morning. Pollination of the flowers is by insects, particularly bees, collecting pollen
and nectar, which is secreted by four nectaries situated between bases of the short
stamens and the ovary (Fig. 4.2). The flowers are borne in racemes on the main
stem and its axillary branches. The inflorescences may attain lengths of 1–2 m.
Fig. 4.2: Generalized structure of the flower and half-flower of Brassica (Dickson and Wallace,
1986).
After fertilization, the endosperm develops rapidly, while embryo growth does
not start for some days. The embryo is generally still small 2 weeks after pollination,
and fills most of the seed coat after 3–5 weeks. Nutrient reserves for germination
are stored in the cotyledons, which are folded together with the embryo radicle
lying between them (Dickson and Wallace, 1986). The fruits of cabbage crops are
glabrous siliquae (pods), 4–5 mm wide and 40–100 mm long, with two rows of seeds
lying along the edges of the replus. One silique contains 10–30 seeds. Three to 4
weeks after the opening of a flower, the silique reaches its full length and diameter
and getting mature.
2.1.2. Flower induction

In contrast to cauliflower and broccoli, flower induction in cabbage and Brussels
sprouts is not required for commercial crop production other than for seed
production. The induction of flowering in cabbage (Brassica oleracea) is brought
about by relatively low temperatures, in a process called vernalization. Anyway,
the temperatures are effective only if the plants are past what is called the juvenile
period. During the juvenile period, assimilates are used preferentially for leaf growth
rather than for apical meristem growth. Thus under conditions of limited resources,
leaf growth would be prolonged at the expense of meristem development. From a

practical standpoint, the existence of a juvenile period permits the plant to grow to
an adequate size before it can be induced to flower.
Optimum vernalizing temperatures of cabbage range from 4 to 10°C, although
there are cultivar differences in the temperatures. Plant age and size when inducing
temperatures are applied, play important roles in determining the rate and
effectiveness of the flower induction. Transplant age had a significant effect on the
total yield of broccoli heads (Grabowska et al., 2007). It was higher for plants
cultivated from 4, 6 and 8-week old transplants as compared with plants obtained
from 10-week old transplants. On the other hand, significantly higher yield was
demonstrated in plants cultivated from transplants stored in cold rooms (2°C) for
one and two weeks than in plants cultivated from non-stored transplants.
2.1.3. Head and curd development of cabbage, cauliflower and

broccoli
Head and curd formation and development of cabbage crops is a complicated and
very sensitive process, highly influenced by specific climatic conditions and
production practices, as well as individual crop characteristics.
Cabbage is characterized by slow development during the first half of the growing
period, which may be 50 days for early maturing and up to 100 for autumn-sown,
late maturing varieties (establishment and vegetative periods). During the following
periods (yield formation and ripening periods) the plant doubles its weight
approximately every 9 days over a total period of 50 days.
In cabbage, head formation starts, followed by a sudden decrease in the rate of
leaf-unfolding. The assemblage of layers of leaves over the growing point requires
the maintenance of a short stem during the heading period. As the heading begins,
leaves become broader and sessile, and more erect to their posture. The inward
curvature of the leaf edges combine with their upright position leads finally to the
formation of the head (Wien, 1997). Rate of leaf production continues at a high rate
in spite of the increasing confinement by previously formed foliage. As more leaves
form, and these starts to expand, the head gains in weight and firmness, until it
reaches a density acceptable for harvesting (Wien, 1997).
Earliness of head formation, namely the duration of the period to attain the
target head weight from transplanting, was highly correlated with the leaf position
at which head formation started (LPH): the lower LPH value, the earlier head
formation (Tanaka et al., 2008). Depending on variety, the head can be pointed or
round, green or red, smooth or crinkled. If the head is not harvested on time, further
expansion of the inner leaves, and resumption of stem growth result in the splitting
of the head.
Head size is closely related to the amount of space available to each plant. As
spacing increases the heads become larger, increasing to a maximum that is
Cabbage 85
characteristic for that cultivar. Head size is also directly influenced by availability
of major nutrients to the plant. For satisfactory yields there must be adequate
levels of N, particularly during the early head formation stage, and P and K during
the earlier stage of outer leaf expansion. Presumably, any stress factor which results
in poor plant growth would also bring about reduced final head size. Drought during
frame development and the earliest stages of head development may influence
yield by reducing frame size and restricting growth in outermost head leaves
(Radovich et al., 2005).
Year, planting date and cultivar significantly affected the majority of head traits.
The most variable traits among cultivars was head volume, which was affected by
planting date in all cultivars (Kleinhenz and Wszelaki, 2003; Wszelaki and
Kleinhenz, 2003). Cabbage crop maturity varies markedly with change in plant
spacing. This may be a further indication that the level of resources available to
each plant dictates the rate of growth and maturity.
Thermal conditions, water supply and sunlight during vegetative growth,
especially at the stages of curd formation, significantly shape the course of
cauliflower yield (Cebula et al., 2005). Low temperature stimulates curd induction
at the end of a juvenile phase and further development of the curd, stalk, flower
and seed proceed sequentially at rates determined by prevailing temperatures
(Aditya and Fortdham, 1995). The formation of curds in cauliflower, and heads in
broccoli is primarily influenced by temperature. A cauliflower is a plant typical for
moderate climate and shows negative reaction to high temperatures. If these occur
at the phase of curd formation, they delay generative growth, often decreasing
yield quality (Cebula et al., 2005). Cauliflower plants can remain vegetative when
grown at high temperatures. In addition, plants which have initiated curds can be
made to revert to the vegetative state by transfer to higher temperatures (Anthony
et al., 1996). However, the occurrence of high temperatures directly prior to
harvesting, accelerates curd growth, thus increasing yield accumulation. A range
of optimum, base and maximum temperatures for curd initiation in different
cultivars have been suggested (Grevsen and Olesen, 1994). According to Wien (1997)
the highest temperature capable of bringing about curd formation varies from about
160C in some cultivars, to nearly 30°C in others. If cauliflower plants are grown at
temperatures consistently greater than 25°C, annual varieties can remain
completely vegetative without curd development. At temperatures lower than the
optimum, leaf area development could be curtailed, leading to buttoning, or the
production of ricey curds.
Light conditions during vernalization are not important as long as optimum
temperatures were used. However, if the night temperature was raised from 12°C
to 22°C at a reduced light intensity of 2.5 klux, curd formation was delayed and
leaf number was increased (Wien, 1997). This may imply that adequate carbohydrate
levels must be present in the plant to permit the differentiation of curds. Only
with a combination of temperatures and other conditions permitting uninterrupted
growth of the plant can sufficient leaf area form to allow the production of
marketable curds.
One of main problems of cauliflower production is the long maturity period which
covers a period of several weeks. Efforts to shorten harvest duration have focused
both on the improvement of plant uniformity through modification of production
practices, and through techniques that would synchronize curd initiation and
growth. An approach has been to reduce plant-to-plant variation in curd initiation
by using cold temperatures treatments. Subjecting cauliflower transplants to cold
storage (2 weeks at 2–5°C) caused a remarkable shorting of the harvest period
compared to untreated transplants. Best results were obtained with plants that
had produced 10-15 leaves and leaf initials at the start of the cold treatment, and
so presumably were still in the juvenile stage. Though cold stress has negatively
affected the relative growth rate of cauliflower seedlings (RGR), to the well matured
seedlings the adverse effects were less severe (Kuci et al., 2012).
2.2. Cytology
The cabbage, Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata is an important species of the genus
Brassica (tribe Brassiceae). Brassica oleracea is a diploid, 2n = 2x = 18, with
C genome. The molecular genetic maps constructed for Brassica indicated that
within a species there is almost complete colinearity, except for small inversions
that differ among some B. oleracea morphotypes. The diploid species B. rapa (2n =
2x = 20, A genome) and B. oleracea (2n = 2x = 18, C genome) have close evolutionary
relationship between them which indicates that deletions and insertions may have
occurred after divergence of the two species.
3. GENETICS OF DIFFERENT CHARACTERS

Specific genes responsible for specific characters in vegetable brassicas were
described as following in details by Dickson and Wallace (1986) and King (1990).
Cabbage head shape: The desirable cabbage head shape in commerce has
changed from pointed, flat or round to almost exclusively round. Pointed head is
dominant to round. Many genetic factors, however, influence head shape.
Heading versus non-heading: A distinguishing character of cabbage is the
development of several wrapper leaves surrounding the terminal bud. As these
leaves develop, the head will become solid and develop a head or heart. Heading is
recessive to non-heading. The F1 between a non-heading or raceme type and a
heading cabbage will be intermediate. Depending how wide the cross is, two genes
(n1 and n2) or more are involved in heading.
Head leaves: In a cross between lines with few and those with many wrapper
leaves, few are dominant. There are modifying factors. The number of head leaves
is also confounded by whether the cabbage is an early or late maturing type, the
early maturing types having fewer leaves.
Cabbage 87
Size of head: Head size is a quantitative trait and may be related to hybrid
vigor, but not necessarily as open pollinated lines can be just as large. Cabbage is
responsive to day length, and in northern latitudes the cabbages can become very
large. Likewise, the further south or the shorter the day length, as in winter, the
smaller the head is. Agronomic issues such as crop spacing and row spacing confound
head size. Dense cropping naturally results in smaller heads.
Plant height: There is a major gene ‘T’ for plant height. Most cultivars are
recessive in this respect. Again there are, however, genetic modifiers. A long stem
is an undesirable characteristic as the plant may fall over from the weight of the
head. For machine harvesting, however, the stem should not be too short and it is
important that the head stands upright. Generally, in B. oleracea, tall is dominant
to short, but plant height involves several genes acting additively.
Frame size: Older cultivars generally had large frames and basal leaves. In
adapting cabbage to mechanized harvesting and in the effort to develop high-yielding
cultivars, the trend has been towards smaller frames. The compact fresh market
cultivars generally have smaller frames than processing types. An adequate frame
is needed, however, for photosynthesis, but expression is also influenced by factors
such as season, spacing and fertility. Adequate water and nutrition early in the
plant establishment and development will result in a larger frame, which also may
cause the plant to develop tip burn if water is withheld or is in short supply during
maturity.
Head splitting: Three genes control head splitting, and these act additively
with partial dominance for early splitting. To evaluate cultivars for splitting, they
must be allowed to grow to full maturity. Long-cored cultivars usually split at the
top of the head, while short-cored cultivars tend to split at the base.
Storability: Late, slow growing cultivars are most suitable for storing. Dry
matter of the better storage types is higher (9–10%) than that of standard and
early cultivars (6–7%). The best storing cultivars usually have finely veined leaves.
Eating quality is usually inferior because the leaves are tougher and harder.
Heat tolerance: Cauliflower is heat susceptible, but not to the same extreme
degree as broccoli. If the temperature is high, then the curd may develop bracts
which make it unmarketable. The curd may also turn purple if exposed to the sun;
this may be due to development of small purple buds, which are similar to the
small white velvety buds which develop in some curds and is called ‘ricey’. Growing
the plants under hotter than ideal conditions will allow for selection for heat
tolerance. Solidity of the curd is also desirable, and continued selection for this
trait is required as soft curded plants will bolt more readily and have a selective
advantage. Solid tends to be recessive, although it is a quantitative factor, and
there may be more than one genetic route to solidity, so that crosses of two solid
curds do not necessarily mean the hybrid will be solid.
Curd color: The most desired color in cauliflower is a white or cream curd. In
many cauliflowers, if the curd is exposed to the sun, it will turn brownish yellow;
this is especially so for the snowball type. Cauliflowers are protected from the sun,
either by wrapping the leaves over the head and tying them, or by developing
plants with long leaves, which protect the curd from exposure. The other alternative
is to breed persistent whiteness into the plant. Colors such as bright green (due to
two genes), orange, purple, and yellow or golden are also available. The purple
color can be due to precociously developed flower buds that have developed on the
curd and can assume the purple pigmentation of the buds. The degree of color is
quantitative, however, and is influenced by the whiteness of the normal white
curd parent.
The characters inherited quantitatively are head size, head weight, head maturity
and inner core length which are additive with higher heritability. The other
quantitative characters controlled by partial dominance, overdominance and
epistasis include dry matter, plant height, frame size, head splitting, number of
wrapper leaves, head diameter and axillary heading.
3.1. Breeding Objectives

Breeding of vegetable brassica crops is a highly complex process. The basic genetics
of Brassica oleracea is not as well advanced as, for example, tomato. However, the
availability of homozygous genotypes in a wide range of material make it a favorable
target for ‘molecular- aided breeding’, as well as more basic genetic studies of
mechanisms such as self-incompatibility (King, 1990).
Currently, breeding objectives can be addressed in terms of crop improvement
and product improvement. The main criteria for crop improvement are yield, disease
resistance or abiotic stress, uniformity and continuity of cropping. Breeding for
appearance, commercial quality, shelf life, taste, and nutritional value is part of
product improvement (Monteiro and Lunn, 1999).
The most important cabbage breeder’s objective is crop uniformity. The final
objective is to have a single harvested field of uniform quality. Appearance is another
important trait. Growers are looking for high commercial quality, including
adequate size and shape, good color, firmness, and appearance to have the produces
easily accepted by the trade.
Disease resistance is also a very important cole crops breeding objective. Sources
of resistance to important diseases e.g., clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae), black
rot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris), fusarium yellows (Fusarium
oxysporum f. conglutinans) and downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica) are
identified, but have not widely transferred into commercial varieties yet (Monteiro
and Lunn, 1999).
Actually, pest resistance is much less important. The relative delay of breeding
for pests and disease resistance may be explained by the low destructive effect of
Cabbage 89
pathogens in brassicas and the need to incorporate the resistance genes into a
high number of crop types. There is no disease that is a serious limitation to brassica
growing in large areas and the most destructive disease, for example clubroot, can
either be controlled with chemicals or kept below the threshold of economic damage
with relevant growing practices.
4. BREEDING METHODS
Cabbage is basically cross-pollinating species predominantly by bees and flies due
to the presence of sporophytic self-incompatibility resulting in heterozygous
populations. The breeding procedures applicable for developing improved open
pollinated varieties are different population improvement schemes like, mass
selection, family breeding, recurrent selection; hybridization followed by selection
in segregating generations, backcrossing and heterosis breeding. In cabbage, selfing
can be practiced even upto 3-4 generations without much inbreeding depression
however, inbreeding depression depends on the genotype. Selfing is done by bud
pollination one to two days prior to anthesis.
4.1. Heterosis Breeding

Production of F1 hybrids is a key means towards the development of cultivars for
modern vegetable production. In all the cole crops, F1 hybrids have been found
advantageous for earliness, high early and total yield, better curd/head quality
with respect to compactness and colour, uniform maturity, resistance to insect
pest, diseases and unfavourable weather conditions. Pronounced heterosis is
manifested in cabbage for many economic characters like, early maturity, head
size, plant frame, marketable yield, etc. Cabbage hybrids tolerant to high
temperature have totally changed the scenario of cabbage cultivation in tropical
and sub-tropical parts of the world. At present, In India share of hybrids in cabbage
in the total area under the crop is about 85 percent and all the hybrid seeds are
imported (Swarup, 2005).
Hybrid seed production is high technology and a cost intensive venture (da Silva
Dias, 2010). Successful seed production of hybrids requires much effort to select
not only for horticultural characteristics, but also for horticultural combining
ability and for simultaneous flowering of the parents. Developing cabbage inbred
lines that have all possible desirable horticultural (head solidity, head size, short
core, leaf color, etc.) and disease resistance characteristics, plus homozygosity for a
single self-incompatibility gene, is an essential step in developing hybrid cabbage
cultivars.
Inbred brassicas, as with most other out-crossing crops, tend to lose vigor and,
although a single cross will restore vigor in the F1, the seed production on the
inbred parents may be uneconomically low. For this reason, whether hybrid
production involves self-incompatibility or male sterility, three-way crosses are
often used (Dixon, 2007). If self-incompatibility is used, and if both parents are
self-incompatible, then seed from both parents can be harvested.
Alternatively, an open pollinated line can be used as the pollen parent and seed
only saved from the self-incompatible line. Where the original hybrid is self-
incompatible, then it can be used as a male or female line together with a self-
incompatible line, and again all the seed may be harvested (Dixon, 2007).
4.2. Pollination Control Mechanisms for Developing Hybrids
4.2.1. Male sterility

The use of male-sterile plants has become an important technique in heterosis
breeding to simplify and reduce the cost of seed production. Heterosis is used often
in the breeding of cruciferous crops, with male-sterile lines providing a useful system
for hybrid seed production. For example, various male sterile types isolated from
Brassica napus, Brassica oleracea, and Brassica campestris (syn. Brassica rapa)
are now widely applied in agricultural production (Huang et al., 2009).
A considerable number of dominant male sterility genes have been found. Some
have been used to a limited extent employing asexual propagation to multiply the
sterile lines for hybrid seed production (Dixon, 2007). The prime future method for
hybrid production is likely to be via cytoplasmic male sterility. Anyway, the
mechanism underlying male sterility is not yet clear, although considerable
advances have recently been made in understanding male sterility at the molecular
biology level (Huang et al., 2009).
The nectar gland of the male sterile plant is almost identical to normal fertile
plants, and the flowers open as in fertile plants. This resulted in a good seed set.
Also, no linkage of the male sterility gene to undesirable genes for heading or other
economic characters was found. So the male sterile line has high value not only in
seed production but also for commercial vegetable production (Fang et al., 1997).
Anyway, male-sterile plants had the problem of pale or white cotyledons and also
pale yellow leaves during development, accentuated at low temperatures.
4.2.2. Self-incompatibility
Since cabbage sticky pollen is not windblown, cabbage flowers must be cross-
pollinated by insects. Depending on the cultivar, a few to most plants are self-
incompatible. Self-incompatibility prevents self-fertilization, as well as fertilization
in crosses between plants of identical genotypes and in crosses between plants of
near identical genotypes when dominance or co-dominance conditions the identical
expression of incompatibility specificity. The incompatibility specificity of brassicas
are controlled by one locus, called the S gene (Dixon, 2007). Most cultivars available
in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) presently are F1 hybrids bred using the
self-incompatibility system (Kim and Lee, 2012).
Cabbage 91
The level of self-incompatibility can be assessed by the number of seed produced

after a self or cross-pollination. Bud pollination to overcome self-incompatibility is
accomplished by opening the bud and transferring pollen from an open flower of
the same plant (Dixon and Wallace, 1986). 3–4 days before the flower has opened
the style and stigma are fully receptive and the self-incompatibility factor has not
yet developed, therefore self-fertilization is possible and self-incompatibility can
be bypassed.
There are two other methods now widely used to overcome the self-incompatibility
(Dixon, 2007). The first involves spraying 3–4% sodium chloride solution on to the
open flower. It is then left for 20–30 min, the excess salt solution is removed by
blowing it off the flower or blotting with a damp cloth or paper towel, and then self-
pollination can occur. The salt removes the inhibitor from the stigma, permitting
self-pollination.
A second and more efficient method, if many plants are involved, is to self-
pollinate the open flowers, and then place the plants in a closed unit or room into
which 5% carbon dioxide can be admitted. Then the self-incompatibility factor is
overcome and this allows the production of seed following self-pollination.
4.3. Biotechnological Innovations
4.3.1. Micro-propagation and haploid culture

There are several applications of biotechnology in cabbage and other Brassica
vegetables which includes micro-propagation of inbred/ self-incompatible / male
sterile lines for further use in hybrid seed production. Homozygous lines through
haploid culture followed by diploidization of the haploids by colchicine treatment
have been developed for onward use in breeding and hybrid seed production.
4.3.2. Somatic hybridization

Somatic hybridization by protoplast fusion is effective in producing cybrids in
interspecific crosses using Brassica oleracea and other Brassica species. Cytoplasmic
male-sterility found in Japanese radish by Ogura (1968) conditioned by the
interaction between homozygous recessive nuclear genes ms and the S-cytoplasm
was successfully introduced in cabbage. Unfortunately, all the B. oleracea genotypes
that are introduced into radish cytoplasm, exhibited mild to severe yellowing
(chlorosis) of young leaves when seedlings are grown at 12°C or below (Bannerot
et al., 1977). However, two cabbage lines also showing mild chlorosis, a problem
that is eliminated through protoplast fusion when radish chloroplasts are replaced
with Brassica chloroplasts (Kagami et al., 1990 and Robertson et al., 1987).
Cytoplasmic male-sterile radish protoplasts were transferred into cabbage by
protoplast fusion. Fusion was induced, by dextran treatment, between radish
protoplasts and iodoacetamide-treated red cabbage protoplasts (Kameya et al.,
1989). Hirata et al. (2004) obtained cytoplasmic male-sterile (CMS) lines by artificial
chimaera synthesis between red cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) and
Komatsuna (B. campestris), and by intergeneric protoplast fusion between radish
(Raphanus sativus) and cabbage (B. oleracea). Two types of different CMS lines
stably maintain the radish CMS-specific orf138 and the surrounding structure in
the mitochondria, although parental materials in both CMS lines are normal plants.
RFLP and PCR analyses support the existence of stoichiometric shifts in
mitochondrial (mt) and chloroplast (ct) genomes or genes. RFLPs in the 2 CMS
lines were very similar to those in ‘Ogura’ CMS radish (‘Kosena’ and ‘MS Gensuke’).
4.3.3. Molecular markers

Different molecular markers have been found useful in studying genetic variability
and tagging of specific gene in a new genetic background. Liu et al. (2003) reported
that the dominant male-sterility gene, located on chromosomes 1 and 8, was
observed to be linked to RFLP marker pBN11. The genetic distance between the
RFLP marker pBN11 and the dominant male sterility gene in the 2 backcross
cabbage populations was 5.189 and 1.787 cM, respectively. Transcript profiling of
a spontaneous dominant male sterile mutant (Ms-cd1) in cabbage during flower
bud development leads to the suppressed expression of a number of genes including
BoPMEI1, a gene likely involved in the degradation of pectin (Lou et al., 2007).
5. AGRONOMY OF THE CROP
5.1. Climate and Soil

Cabbage is a cool season crop. The minimum temperature for seed germination is
5°C with an optimum germination temperature of 27°C, an optimum range of 7 to
27°C and a maximum germination temperature of 37°C. The optimum temperature
range for cabbage production is 15 to 20°C. Above 25°C, growth stops. Optimum
growth occurs at a mean daily temperature of about 17°C with daily mean
maximum of 24°C and minimum of 10°C. The minimum temperature is 0°C
(freezing), but cold hardened plants can tolerate temperatures as low as –10°C.
Most varieties can withstand a short period of frost of –6°C, some down to –l0°C.
Long periods (30 to 60 days) of –5°C are harmful. The degree of tolerance depends
on how fast frost or freezing conditions occur and on the conditions that exist prior
to their occurrence.
Cauliflower and broccoli will not stand temperatures as high or low as cabbage.
High temperatures delay maturity and increase vegetative growth (number of
leaves) and cool temperatures hasten maturity and may induce “bolting’’. Young
hardened plants can withstand –5 to –10°C. An optimum growth rate occurs at
15°C to 22°C and growth stops above 30°C. Fluctuating temperatures may induce
some cauliflower cultivars which are heading to revert back to the vegetative phase
which results in poor quality curds (bract formation). Kale is the hardiest of all
Cabbage 93
cole crops. It can withstand temperatures of –10 to –15°C, while kohlrabi is the
most sensitive to cold temperatures. A week at 10ºC will cause the plant to bolt.
For high production the crop requires a humid climate. High temperatures and
low moisture can cause small plants which give low yield. Mean relative humidity
should be in the range of 60 to 90 percent. Cole crops require a regular water
supply of 25 mm per week during the growing season. Shortage of water is
detrimental for head development. Cole crops require soils that can provide
continuous water throughout the season. Well drained, sandy loam soils are suited
to early varieties, loamy and clay loam soils are suited to late ones. Late cultivars
are somewhat tolerant of poor drainage. Well drained soils can be rotated closely
since clubroot is easier to control.
Cabbages can be grown on a wide range of soils, but the crop is sensitive to soil
acidity. The optimum pH is six to 6.5. Cabbage is a heavy user of nitrogen and
potassium and requires frequent side-dressing. Generally, the heavier loam soils
are more suited to cabbage production. Under high rainfall conditions, sandy or
sandy loam soils are preferable because of improved drainage. Cabbage is moderately
sensitive to soil salinity. Yield decrease due to increased soil salinity.
5.2. Land Preparation, Sowing and Transplanting
5.2.1. Direct seeding

Planting can be by direct seeding, or by transplanting from open field beds and
from cold frames which are used to protect the crop from cold during germination
and early plant development (FAO water development and management unit, 2012).
When direct seeding, 550 to 850 grams per hectare are required since seed is
generally planted at twice the final spacing. Direct seeding is usually done two to
three weeks earlier than transplanting for the same harvest date. Direct seeded
cabbages are planted 5 to 8 cm apart, at 0.6 to 1.2 cm depth. Plantings can be
either precision-seeded to the desired stand or over seeded and thinned to the
desired stand after emergence.
Direct seeding of cabbage requires precision seeder to place single seeds at the
desired plant spacing. Soil temperatures must be above 5°C to ensure germination
of the seed; otherwise, seed will be lost to rotting and damping off, resulting in
poor, uneven stands. The optimal range for germination is between 7°C and 35°C.
5.2.2. Seed enhancement

Since seeds of Brassica crops are very small, their germination can be negatively
affected by the adverse soil and weather conditions. To reduce these risks several
practices are developed for seed enhancement. The objective of ‘seed enhancement’
is to improve germination and seedling growth, and raise the efficiency of seed
delivery and associated materials at the time of sowing. Enhancement covers three
areas: pre-sowing hydration (priming), seed coating and seed conditioning.
5.2.3. Seed priming

Priming is a controlled hydration process followed by re-drying that allows the
metabolic activities of germination to commence but not reach the stage of radicle
emergence (Dixon, 2007). When seeds are rehydrated after priming, the germination
rate is increased and, in some cases, the temperature range for continued
germination may be expanded. Two forms of priming treatments are available,
either osmotic or matric. In the former, seeds are incubated in solutions of either
low molecular weight inorganic salts such as potassium nitrate, sodium chloride
or potassium phosphate or high molecular weight, non-penetrating solutes such
as PEG at a water potential that is low enough to inhibit germination. This
technique has been applied successfully to several vegetable Brassica crops. In
particular, it will increase seedling vigor in cold, moist soils.
5.2.4. Seed coating

Seed coating is used to allow mechanical sowing in precise patterns. This achieves
uniformity of plant spacing and provides carriers for plant protection agents (Dixon,
2007). Seeds may be both pelleted and film coated. Pelleting is defined as the
deposition of a layer of inert material that transforms the original shape and size
of the seed. The shape is changed to spherical with increased weight and improved
opportunities for precision placement. Film coating retains the original shape and
size of the seed with minimal increase in weight. Since Brassica seeds are naturally
spherical, film coating is more frequently used. Coatings may contain polymers,
pesticides, biological agents such as bacteria, colored markers or dyes and other
additives.
5.2.5. Seed conditioning

Harvested seed is seldom pure and contains undesirable materials including poor
quality seed that needs to be removed. Seed conditioning has two objectives (Dixon,
2007):
1. Removal of contaminants such as other crop or weed seeds and inert materials
which results in pure samples of the desired cultivar; and
2. Elimination of poor quality seed that may be immature, damaged or of an
undesirable size.
Conditioning is usually carried out with a series of automated grading stages
controlled by microprocessors. Further improvement is achieved by exploiting
specific physical characteristics such as seed color.
5.2.6. Seedling production

Use of high quality planting materials is critical for the success of cabbage crop
production. In general, a “good” vegetable transplant should be stocky, green, and
pest-free with a well-developed root system. High quality transplants are defined
Cabbage 95
generally as those with; no infections of diseases or pests, ability to survive in

unfavorable environments after transplanting, good morphology suitable for
planting, well developed root system (or higher root to shoot ratio), and no visual
defect such as chlorosis or necrosis (Kubota et al., 2012).
In the past, cabbage transplants were either grown in flats or ground beds.
Currently, growers are using various types of containers, primarily plug trays for
seedling production. With this system, each transplant grows in an individual cell
so there is less competition among plants and greater uniformity. Meantime, plug
transplants establish better in the field because roots are not damaged in pulling.
The plug trays are either foam or plastic made. For organic nursery, biodegradable
containers are available on the market (Nicola et al., 2010). These containers are
composed by biodegradable polymers. Organic commercial substrates are composed
of peat and other products allowed by organic farming regulation.
The growing media or soilless mix is generally made up of a combination of peat,
vermiculite and horticultural perlite. Media containing coarser-textured (long-
fibred) peat provide better drainage and aeration, therefore promoting better root
development. Some soilless mixes contain fertilizer (nutrient charge), which must
be considered when designing a fertility program for transplants. Anyway, a lower-
nutrient charge in the media will allow more control over growth. It is easier to
add the fertilizer required than to try to remove what previously was been added.
The trays are filled with pre moistened growing media, which is slightly
compressed or to make a uniform surface for the seed. The seeds should be placed
few millimetres deep. If seeded too shallow, cole crops will tend to push up out of
the cell. Seed must be covered after seeding. Vermiculite is preferred because it is
easy to apply evenly, allows good aeration, does not support algae growth and does
not allow root growth between cells. After that the trays are thoroughly watered,
before being placed in the germination chamber.
Quality of transplants affects the stand establishment after transplanting to
the final production. In general, transplants are desired to have well balanced
shoot and root development. Young seedlings growing at high planting densities
may have extended stems or too large shoot mass relative to roots. Spindly tender
plants are more vulnerable to mechanical damage during handling and
transplanting.
The growth rate of transplants could be regulated by controlling the concentration
of nitrogen and other nutrients in the substrate. Transplant quality can be improved
by applying higher concentrations of fertilizer less frequently (referred to as pulse
feeding, Garton et al., 1994), resulting in thicker stem diameters. Reducing nutrient
supply just before transplanting can be used to slow down the growth rate during
the hardening stage. As long as the transplants are not completely starved of the
major nutrients by this procedure, there should be little problem with the
resumption of growth after transplanting (Wien, 1997).
On the other hand, excessive hardening should be avoided as it may exhaust the
plant’s energy reserves (Garton et al., 1994). Overly hardened or under-fertilized
transplants may not establish quickly, which can lead to delayed maturity and
reduced yields. Insufficiently hardened or over-fertilized plants may succumb to
disease or abiotic stresses. Hence, the “ideal” technique for growing transplants
would be to raise the plant from start to finish by slow, steady, uninterrupted
growth and with minimal stress.
Excessive cold, transplant stress, inadequate fertility or other sources of stress
in early stages can cause cole crops to go to seed without heading. Transplants
with thick stems are likely to head prematurely or button.
The age strongly influences the seedlings’ subsequent performance in the field.
Although putting the largest seedlings possible might appear advantageous in terms
of getting the crop off to a quick start, larger seedlings are also more prone to
transplanting shock (Waterer et al., 2004). Generally speaking, relatively young
transplants provided with adequate growing space in nursery went on to produce
the best stand and fastest crop development. The added stress associated with
transplanting plants larger-than-optimal appeared to substantially delay crop
development.
The optimum age of cabbage transplants range from 4 to 7 weeks (Table 4.1)
(Bodnar and Garton, 1996; Vavrina, 1998). It is depended on the crop, the cell size
to be used and conditions during the grow-out period (Waterer, 2004). Though the
current modern cultivars, improved production systems, and technical expertise
might enable to produce high yields regardless of transplant age, because older
seedlings are more costly to produce and difficult to handle, the use of relatively
young transplants is strongly favored for commercial production.
Table 4.1: Scheduling transplants of various cell sizes, for cabbage crops.
Crop Number of cells per tray Transplant age and production details
Early cole crops 72 or 98 Direct-seed in tray; aim for 5-to 6-week-old
field-ready plant.
Mid-season to 128 to 200 Direct-seed in tray; aim for 4-to 5-week-old
late cole crops field-ready plant.
Adopted from Bodnar and Garton (1996)
5.2.7. Transplanting
Prior to field setting, transplants should be exposed to full outdoor sun or reduced
temperature and watering for 5 to 7 days. This ‘hardening’ process helps greenhouse-
grown transplants develop a thicker leaf cuticle to reduce water stress and also
helps accumulate food reserves for starting the new root system after field setting
(Seaman, 2012). Anyway, over matured or stressed transplants usually resume
Cabbage 97
growth slowly and rarely achieve full yields. Cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower
plants may go to seed prematurely or “button” if subjected to cool temperatures or
excessive transplant stress during the growing period.
To transplant, set plants deep enough to completely cover the media of the plug
and firm the soil around the plants to minimize water loss from the plug. Apply
water using the transplanter or irrigate immediately after transplanting, especially
if the soil is somewhat dry. High temperatures or strong drying winds at the time
of transplanting contribute to delayed recovery from transplanting stress and
increased mortality. If possible, avoid planting under such conditions or be prepared
to irrigate immediately.
The planting distances are subject of the individual species, planting time and
cultivar characteristics and market demands. An optimum production can be
reached with a plant density in the range of 30000 to 40000 plants/ha. An indication
of planting distances is presented in Table 4.2. The compact hybrids may be grown
at closer spacing than the older traditional cultivars. Generally speaking, the
spacing depends on the crop, the cultivar, the fertility program, the size of the crop
desired for market and the desired maturity date.
Table 4.2: Recommended planting distances of some species of cole crops.
Plant spacing
Distance between rows (cm) Distance between plants (cm)
Cabbage, early 60–75 30–40
Cabbage, late 75–90 30–70
Cauliflower 60–90 35–50
Broccoli 60–90 30–40
Brussels sprouts 75–90 30–45
http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/nr/agrifoods/crops/veg_pdfs/cole_crops.pdf
The length of the total growing period for cabbage crops varies between 90 (spring-
sown) and 200 (autumn-sown) days, depending on climate, variety and planting
date. The earliest maturity possible for cauliflower is approximately 50 to 55 days
from transplanting, and for broccoli and cabbage, it is between 60 and 65 days.
5.3. Plant Nutrition

The original wild progenitors of cultivated brassicas were capable of surviving in
inhospitable arid conditions with minimal availability of nutrients. In contrast,
cultivated brassicas are very responsive to increasing supplies of nutrients,
particularly nitrogen and water (Dixon, 2007). Still, excessive quantities of fertilizers
in efforts to boost yields, causes problems because physiologically the Brassicas
are not very efficient in their use of such resources.
Reliable and repeatable analyses that measure nutrient reserves present in

soil are very important for proper definition of nutrient demands of brassicas.
Nitrogen is the most important nutrient. It has very pronounced effects
promoting the growth, yield and quality of vegetable brassicas within the limits of
crop need. Anyway, excessive quantities reduce yield and quality, increases
susceptibility to pathogen invasion and leads to physiological disorders and delays
in maturity.
Depending on soil type, soil pH and crop sensitivity, trace element deficiencies
can develop and cause significant crop losses. Deficiencies of trace elements have
substantial effects on the yield, quality and storability of Brassica crops. So, for
example, cauliflower and swede are susceptible to boron deficiency, especially
when grown on light soils with pH values >6.5. Hollow stems and interveinal
chlorosis due to boron deficiency are common symptoms of Brassicas (Chatterjee
and Dube, 2004). Accumulation of hydrogen peroxide and thiobarbituric
acid reactive substances content in both leaves and roots under deficient and
excess boron supply suggested oxidative damage due to excessive production of
reactive oxygen species. Altered boron nutrition induced the oxidative stress as
well as water stress, which together caused the oxidative damage in leaves and
roots of Brassica seedlings more so under boron toxicity (Pandey and Archana,
2012).
Copper and manganese deficiency is encountered less frequently, but may develop
on soils with high organic matter content. Cauliflower crops are especially prone
to molybdenum deficiency, causing typical whip-tailing symptoms of the foliage
with reduced lamina and a prominent main vein. This condition is associated with
acidic soils; hence the soil should be maintained at pH 6.5–7.5.
The recommended rates of main nutrients for cabbage crops are 120–160 kg/ha
N, 50–100 kg/ha P2O5, and 180–200 kg/ha K2O (Haifa Group, 2012). The higher
demands are during the head formation. Table 4.3 shows the amount of nutrients
absorbed from the soil for each crop, together with estimates of the amounts removed
in produce. Total uptake figures give a relative estimate of the overall nutrient
requirements of a crop, although crops also vary in the efficiency with which they
can absorb nutrients from the soil. Product removal values indicate the minimum
amount of nutrients which must be replenished with fertilizers if soil fertility is
not to decline.
A more appropriate estimation of nutrient demands and nutritional status of

cabbage crops can be done through tissue analyses. Table 4.4 presents the critical
concentrations of the main nutrient elements on the plant tissues of cabbage crops,
based on plant age (days). Anyway, critical N concentration and tissue analysis
should not be the sole crop diagnostic tool that is used because of the errors that
are possible (Westerveld et al., 2003).
Cabbage 99
Table 4.3: The nutrient uptake (kg/ha) of cole crops.
SNS, P and K index (kg/ha)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Nitrogen (N)—all soil types
Brussels sprouts 330 300 270 230 180 80 0
Head cabbage 325 290 260 220 170 70 0
Cauliflower, summer/autumn 290 260 235 210 170 80 0
Calabrese 235 200 165 135 80 0 0
Phosphate (P2O5)
Brussels sprout and cabbage 200 150 100 50 0 0 0
Cauliflower and calabrese 200 150 100 50 0 0 0
Potash (K2O)
Brussels sprout and cabbage 300 250 200 60 0 0 0
Cauliflower and calabrese 275 225 175 35 0 0 0
Adopted from DEFRA (2010)
Table 4.4: Recommended concentration of the main nutrient elements in the plant tissue of
cole crops.
Crop Nutrients Plant age (days)

40 80 120 160
Summer cabbage N 5.2 3.5 – –
P 0.59 0.48 0.39 0.32
K 4.3 2.8 1.9 -
Winter cabbage N 4.5 4.0 – –
P 0.47 0.49 0.52 0.54
K 4.3 2.8 1.9 –
Cauliflower N 5.6 4.4 3.6 –
P 0.59 0.48 0.39 0.32
K 4.0 3.4 2.8 –
Brussels sprouts N 3.8 3.2 2.8 2.0
P 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.24
K 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.2
Turnips N 5.2 3.5 – –
P 0.59 0.48 0.39 0.32
K 4.0 3.4 2.8 –
Swedes N 3.8 3.2 2.8 2.0
P 0.50 0.48 0.46 –
K 4.0 3.4 2.8 –
Radish N 4.7 – – –
P 0.51 – – –
K 3.0 – – –
Adopted from Wood (1996)
5.3.1. Fertilization methods

Nowadays, fertilizers are applied to almost every crop that is commercially grown.
Availability of sufficient nutrients in proper proportions is necessary to obtain high
yield and good quality crops. Nutrient imbalance could lead to low yield and
deterioration of product quality such as those associated with physiological disorders
in plants (Inthichack, 2012).
It is important that fertilizers are applied with due regard to the nutrient reserves
in the soil and the demands that each growing Brassica crop imposes. This requires
practical knowledge of the structure and texture of the soil type and previous
cropping history of each field, its current nutrient status as determined by soil
analysis and the likely response to added resources (Dixon, 2007). Altering the pH
or using nutrient sprays might also sometime need.
Traditionally, Brassica crops have received part of their nutrient requirement

by means of top dressing applications. Applications of granular fertilizer that are
broadcast and then incorporated in the traditional manner initially only enrich a
very small volume of soil surrounding the fertilizer granule. With direct-drilled
crops in particular, there is therefore a delay before the seedling roots grow into a
zone of nutrient-enriched soil. This delay can lead to short-term nutrient deficiencies
resulting in poor early growth that may diminish the final yield and increase the
time taken to reach maturity (Dixon, 2007).
Traditionally, this problem has been minimized by retaining high residual levels
of potassium and phosphate in the soils and applying excess nitrogen rates during
cropping that were beyond the requirement for optimal yields. An alternative is to
use small volumes of liquid ‘starter’ fertilizer applied close to the transplant, making
it readily available to the roots emerging from the propagation module. This
technique increases the rate of the early growth phases of crops and is ultimately
expressed in additional yield. Such benefits have been achieved even where the
soil has a high residual nutrient status or where ample fertilizer has been applied
as broadcast granules (Costigan, 1998). Starter fertilizers usually contain
phosphates of ammonia since both ions become strongly adsorbed to soil particles,
resulting in little change to the soil pH.
The presence of excess ammonium can be deleterious, in reducing potassium

absorption that will adversely affect the early growth of seedlings. Hence, inclusion
of potassium in starter fertilizers is also beneficial. There can, however, be seedling
damage where the form of potassium also releases chloride ions, thereby raising
the pH (Dixon, 2007).
As a principle, the fertilization should supply the daily uptake of the main
nutrients from a cole crop. The daily uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
is presented in Table 4.5.
Cabbage 101
Table 4.5: Daily uptake of main nutrient elements from cole crops.
Growth stage Requirement nutrients

N P2O5 K2O
———— kg/ha/day ————
Planting - 45 days 1.013 1.14 1.08
46–70 days 3.33 1.36 3.73
71–harvest 0.74 0.32 0.84
Source: Haifa Group (2012)
5.3.2. Foliar application of nutrients

The fact that plants can absorb a number of fertilizer elements through their leaves
has been known for some time. Foliar application is beneficial if soil nutrient levels
are low or if nutrients are unavailable to the plants and the plants are showing a
deficiency. They are often effective in rapidly correcting micronutrient deficiencies.
Foliar nutrients are also expected to cure a variety of plant problems, many of
which may be unrelated to nutrition, such as reducing stress, aiding in healing
frost or hail damaged plants or increasing plant resistance to various stresses and
pests.
Foliar application of sulfur, magnesium, calcium and micronutrients (based on
a soil test) may help alleviate deficiencies. An application of water-soluble boron
can be used when a deficiency occurs. However, foliar nutrient sprays should be
applied only if there is a real need for them and only in quantities recommended
for foliar application. Application of excessive amounts can cause fertilizer burn
and/or toxicity problems.
The effectiveness of applying macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium to plant leaves is questionable. It is virtually impossible for greens (waxy
leaved cabbage, collards and kale) to absorb enough N, P or K through their leaves
to meet their nutritional requirements; furthermore, it is unlikely that they could
absorb sufficient amounts of macronutrients to correct major deficiencies (Strang
et al., 1997). Although nitrogen may be absorbed within 24 hours after application,
up to four days are required for potassium uptake and seven to 15 days for
phosphorus to be absorbed from foliar application. If proper fertilizer management
of soil-applied nutrients is used, supplementation by foliar fertilization is not usually
required (Strang et al., 1997).
5.3.3. Nutrient deficiency symptoms

Acid or alkaline soils often lead to nutrient deficiencies due to the immobilization
of the nutrients. Some soils are naturally low in specific nutrients due to the
composition of the parent material. The excessive, or unbalanced, use of fertilizer
may also cause some nutrients to become unavailable to the plants. Nutrient
imbalances in the soil and plant tissues lead to toxicity and deficiency syndromes
that impair growth, resulting in stress disorders and the development of off-flavors
in harvested produce.
In a large field the symptom of any deficiency usually occurs in spots so plant
growth should be compared between areas. The first symptom is usually a slowdown
of growth which may go undetected. Sometimes soil characteristics, crop
characteristics and cultural practices can give clues when a problem is seen. The
main nutrient deficiency symptoms of cabbage crops are listed below (Strang et al.,
1997).
I. Slow plant growth with slow developing visual symptoms. Leaf shape is normal.
A. Entire plant is involved.
1. Generally dark green, stunted plant with dark purple on leaves, leaf
veins and stems. Some yellowing on older leaves in severe cases.
Phosphorus deficiency.
2. Pale green or yellowish stunted plant with woody stem and tough leaves.
Gradual dying of older leaves. Bright purpling on stems and leaves in
some plants. Usually only seen when soils are wet and cold. Nitrogen
deficiency.
B. Older leaves showing symptoms with progressively milder symptoms on
younger leaves.
1. Yellowing of leaf margins, moving inward in large blotches, followed
rapidly by death of yellow tissue. Affects oldest leaves first and upper
part of plant may be normal in appearance. Potassium deficiency.
2. Yellowing in intervenal areas with veins remaining green. May be blotchy
or in stripes but leaf stays yellow without necrosis for some time. Oldest
leaves are affected most and often puckered. Sometimes magnesium
deficiency occurs when excessive applications of potassium have been
made. Magnesium deficiency.
3. Plants stunted with a purplish cast to the older leaves. Deficiency
symptoms frequently occur during cold weather when temperatures are
below 50ºF. Phosphorus deficiency.
II. Rapidly developing symptoms with yellowing of younger leaves, deformed leaves,
or death of terminal buds or older plant parts.
A. Leaf shape normal.
1. Chlorosis most severe on young leaves, severe stunting of plant.
(a) Young leaves uniformly golden yellow. Usually on alkaline or over
limed soils. Iron deficiency.
(b) Young leaves with severe yellowing but green veins. Plant growth
may be stunted. Usually on alkaline or over limed soils. Manganese
deficiency.
Cabbage 103
2. Chlorosis over most of plant, moderate to slight stunting.

(a) Leaves with alternate yellow and green stripes, yellow blotch at base
of leaf, some white or necrotic spots. Zinc deficiency.
B. Young leaves deformed.
1. Symptoms on leaves only.
(a) Twisting of young leaves with chlorotic spots on older leaves. Zinc
deficiency.
(b) Younger leaves progressively more strap-like and brittle, usually with
slight to moderate chlorosis. Molybdenum deficiency.
(c) Young leaves deformed, cupped with some chlorosis and terminal
bud death. Boron deficiency.
(d) Young leaves suddenly water soaked turning black rapidly. Calcium
deficiency.
(e) Margins of young leaves cupped downward; brown to black preceded
by water soaking. Calcium deficiency.
2. Death or abnormalities on plant parts other than the leaf blades.
(a) Cracking or blistering of petioles or midribs, sometimes turning black
and hard. Boron deficiency.
(b) Water soaked areas on stems, storage organs followed by red or brown
color then turning black and hard. Internal discoloration of the stem
may occur. Boron deficiency.
(c) Tips of leaves in heads turn brown then black (Tipburn). Calcium
deficiency.
5.4. Weed and Water Management

Cabbage has been classified as intermediately susceptible to water stress, with the
most critical irrigation period occurred during the last 3 to 4 weeks before harvest
(Smittle et al., 1994). Efficient water management is a prerequisite to successive
cabbage production. Water requirements vary from 380 to 500 mm depending on
climate and length of growing season (FAO water development and management
unit, 2012). The response to water supply increases with development of the crop.
The crop transpiration increases during the crop growing period with a peak toward
the end of the season. During the slow development in the vegetative period, the
crop yield is little affected by water deficit. Once rapid growth during yield formation
period is reached, the yield depressing effect of limited water supply becomes
increasingly pronounced until the end of the growing period (FAO water
development and management unit, 2012).
Cabbage crops have an extensive, shallow root system. Water uptake may be
limited by the amount of roots in a particular soil layer and enhanced root growth
can reduce drought stress (Kage et al., 2004). The majority of the roots are found in
the top 0.4 to 0.5 m of the soil with a rapid decrease in root density with depth.
Normally 100 percent of the water is extracted from this layer. Under conditions
when ETm = 5 to 6 mm/day, the rate of water uptake by the crop starts to reduce
when the available soil water has been depleted by about 35 percent (FAO water
development and management unit, 2012).
Matching the irrigation applications to evapo-transpiration (ET) rate and
physiological requirements of specific species is crucial for successive production.
In cauliflower, for example, water is needed throughout the crop life, but is most
effective at the onset of curd formation. Cabbage is intermediately susceptible to
water stress, with the head formation stage more sensitive than the preceding
growth periods (Smittle, 1994). Critical periods for water stress are in the 3–4
weeks before harvest.
The frequency of irrigation depends on the total supply of available moisture
reached by the roots and the rate of water use. As a general rule, do not wait until
vegetables show signs of wilting or develop color or texture changes that
indicate they are not growing rapidly (Maynard and Hochmuth, 2007). Depending
on climate, crop development and soil type, the frequency of irrigation varies
between 3 and 12 days. If available water supply is limited, early irrigations should
not be practiced unless these can be continued until the end of the crop growing
period. Water savings should preferably be made in the beginning of the crop
growing period.
Furrow, sprinkler and trickle irrigation are used. The total and marketable
cabbage yields were highest with irrigation applications when the soil water tension
at 10 cm was <25 kPa. This irrigation regime also required more water, but had a
water-use efficiency rate similar to that of cabbage irrigated at soil water tensions
of 50 and 75 kPa (Smittle et al., 1994).
Until very recently, the agronomist’s view of the relationship between crops and
weeds was dominated by the desire to find the most effective herbicide with which
to kill a competitor plant. This philosophy has changed radically over the past
decade. Reducing or eliminating the use of herbicides demands new attitudes to
weed control using wider ranges of methods that prevent competition from weeds
(Dixon, 1997). This encompasses the strategy of ‘integrated crop management’
(ICM), which links all other aspects of crop husbandry. This strategy defines the
optimum timing for weed removal to prevent yield loss rather than stopping intense
competition.
The period when Brassica crops are establishing is especially crucial in preventing
the development of weed competition. Weed removal becomes essential once
competition between the individual crop plants and weed species commences after
planting or drilling (Dixon, 2007). Provided weeds are removed before this critical
time, usually by a single weeding operation (using either mechanical or herbicidal
Cabbage 105
methods), then yield and quality losses are prevented. This requires the use of
herbicides applied pre or post planting, or mechanical methods to remove the
developing competition.
Cultural weed control aims to optimize sowing or planting dates, seed rates or
transplant densities, spacing layouts, soil fertility, irrigation practices and cultivar
selection to achieve rapidity of crop growth which is able to out compete weeds for
resources. The aim should be to ensure either that the crop plants emerge first or
that transplants can establish ahead of weed development and close their canopy
over the weeds, thereby smothering them.
Chemical management of weeds includes the use of herbicides. Herbicides may
be selective or non-selective in their mode of action. Selective herbicides destroy
specific plant species and may thus be used to eliminate them from populations of
other species. Probably the most widely used selective herbicide for Brassica crops
is trifluralin. Non-selective herbicides such as glyphosate and paraquat will destroy
all green tissues that they come into contact with. Thus they are used, for example,
to destroy weeds that germinate in stale seedbeds prior to drilling or transplanting
the cash crop.
Herbicides can also be classified according to the timing of their application in
relation to crop growth stage. These are broadly the pre-emergence and post-
emergence categories. Those with pre-emergence characteristics are applied prior
to or after sowing the seeds of Brassica crops and prior to their emergence. Post-
emergence herbicides are applied once the crop has emerged, to destroy competing
weed species.
Integrated crop management (ICM) identifies the weed problems through regular
crop inspections. In turn, this is combined with preventative, cultural, mechanical,
biological and chemical control methods in a compatible manner to solve the
problem.
6. MANAGEMENT OF DISORDERS, DISEASES AND PESTS
6.1. Physiological Disorder
6.1.1. Internal tipburn

It is a nonpathogenic internal disorder that is associated with the death of leaf
tissue, usually along the leaf margins in the interior of the head. At first the tissue
turns tan or light brown, but later may appear to be dark brown or even black. The
affected tissue loses moisture and takes on a papery appearance. The extent of the
symptoms may vary from a narrow band along the leaf margin(s) of one or a few
leaves to a rather extensive zone involving a number of leaves. If an affected head
is harvested at an early state of maturation, little evidence of the disorder may be
observed. For this reason, fresh market cabbage does not as often show visible
symptoms of tipburn as do more-mature processing cabbage heads. Affected tissue

may be invaded by secondary pathogens (i.e., bacterial soft rot), which can cause
further breakdown.
The disorder can be caused by a lack of Ca in the soil, but usually tipburn results
from the plant’s inability to move sufficient Ca to the young, actively growing,
inner head leaves at a critical point in their development (Wien, 1997; Strang,
et al., 1997). In a normal daily cycle, Ca moves with the transpiration stream to the
outside leafy parts of the plant that are actively transpiring on sunny days.
At night, especially when dew forms, transpiration by the leaves is reduced, and
water movement generated by the roots (root pressure flow) is directed to the inner
part of the head. On warm, dry nights the outer leaves continue to transpire,
however, and the Ca is diverted away from the head. Once Ca is fixed by the outer
leaves, it cannot be translocated to the interior of the head. An increased K/Ca
ratio caused K concentration to increase but Ca and Mg gradually decreased. The
increase in K with K/Ca ratio affects plant growth and promotes tip burn
(Inthichack, 2012).
Other stress factors besides prolonged nocturnal transpiration may also induce
tipburn. Drought, water logging of the soil, root pruning, and similar stresses on
the root system impair the plant’s ability to absorb and translocate Ca to the young
leaves within the head.
Tipburn initiation is influenced by plant growth rate because the plant has a
high demand for Ca during periods of rapid growth. High fertility, especially
nitrogen, promotes rapid growth and, consequently, tipburn development. Well-
drained soils with good structure encourage root growth and water and nutrient
uptake.
Control measures
(i) Maintenance of uniform soil moisture by supplementary irrigation during
times of moisture stress.
(ii) Three sprays of 0.25–0.50% CaCl2 solution along with a sticker 20, 35 and 50
days after transplanting.
(iii) Development of resistant varieties.
6.1.2. Black petiole or black midrib

It is an internal disorder of cabbage that has been occasionally noted. As heads
approach maturity, the dorsal side of the internal leaf petioles or midribs turns
dark gray or black at or near the point where the midrib attaches to the core. It is
believed that this disorder is associated with potassium (K)-phosphorus (P)
imbalance and results when the K level in the soil is low and the P concentration
high. High rates of nitrogen may contribute to the problem. Probably, as in the
case with tipburn, black petiole is a complex physiological disorder in which
Cabbage 107
environmental conditions play an important role in symptom expression. Variety

evaluation trials have shown that there are differences in degree of susceptibility
between varieties. Black petiole tends to become more evident when cabbage has
been stored for a period of time.
Control measures
(ii) Judicious application of potassium and phosphatic fertilizer.
6.1.3. Pepper spot or black speck

It is seen as clusters of small black spots <1 mm diameter. It occurs with varying
severity on the outer leaves of the head, but often can be seen deep in the center of
the head. It usually becomes visible only after cabbage has been stored under cool
conditions for a period of time. Lesions are discrete, dark brown or black spots, up
to 2 mm in diameter. The lesion margin is short and often has a narrow, yellow
halo. Larger lesions up to 1 cm in diameter may also occur. Lesions may coalesce
resulting in large, dead areas. Very tiny specks occur on heart leaves. Development
of individual specks, randomly distributed over the leaf, begins at the stomata on
either side of the leaf. Necrotic breakdown of the guard cells is followed by a
darkening and collapse of the adjacent leaf cells.
This disease appears to be more severe on tender, lush crops and on crops grown
during warm weather. Although the cause is unknown, high rates of fertilizer,
cultural conditions promoting vigorous growth, and temperature fluctuations have
been reported to increase plant susceptibility. High rates of potassium in the soil
have been shown to significantly reduce the severity of the disease. Varieties differ
in degree of susceptibility, and some commercial varieties have an acceptable level
of tolerance.
Control measures
(i) Reduction in the rate of fertilizer use.
(ii) Judicious application of potassium and nitrogenous fertilizer.
6.1.4. Necrotic spot

It is another lesion similar to pepper spot. Necrotic spot affects parenchyma cells;
the epidermal cells appear unaffected. The result is small, sunken oval spots when
they occur on the leaf. Necrotic spot is frequently seen on the outer side of the
midrib or in the core, but it also can occur on the leaf blade. The disorder usually
develops during storage, with no visible signs at harvest. There are differences in
susceptibility among varieties. In susceptible varieties, necrotic spot becomes worse
in CA storage than in refrigerated storage.
6.1.5. Internal browning

The condition is usually apparent as necrosis of the leaf tissues between the growing
point and the exterior of the sprout button. In longitudinal section the necrosis
varies in appearance from a pink patch to a brownish band. Affected sprouts or
head show no external symptoms, and, therefore, are marketed in the normal way.
The severity of the symptoms, both in number of sprouts affected and the degree of
browning, varies, within the same variety, between crops growing in adjacent fields
and between seasons (Faulkner and Johnson, 1963). The ‘internal breakdown’ of
cabbage was more frequent in large heads and was promoted by excessive manuring
with nitrogen, but was not affected by the addition of trace elements. It to be most
severe in conditions of poor drainage and calcium deficiency as well as increased
by early planting, late harvesting, and that susceptibility varied between varieties.
In addition affected cabbage showed a higher level of N, P, and K, but a lower level
of Ca than in normal cabbage. Commonly, no pathogen could be associated with
the disorder.
Control measures
(i) Provision of good drainage in the field.
(ii) Three sprays of 0.25–0.50% CaCl2 solution along with a sticker 20, 35 and 50
days after transplanting.
(iii) Avoidance of excessive application of nitrogenous fertilizer.
6.1.6. Cabbage splitting

It is mainly a problem with early cabbage. A problem can develop when moisture
stress is followed by heavy rain. The rapid growth rate associated with rain, high
temperatures and high fertility cause the splitting. Proper irrigation may help
prevent splitting and there are significant differences between cultivars in their
susceptibility to this problem. Splitting may also be partially avoided by deep
cultivation to break some of the plant roots.
Control measures
(ii) Use of split resistant cultivars.
6.1.7. Blindness
In this disorder, the plants are lacking in terminal buds and curds and only large,
dark green, thick and leathery leaves develop in these plants which is caused due
to (i) mechanical or insect injury of the terminal bud and (iii) exposure of the
seedlings to very low temperature.
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Control measures
(i) Careful handling of the plants and good protection against insects.
(ii) Avoidance of very low temperature exposure to the seedlings.
6.2. Diseases
Successfully avoiding disease problems in cabbage crops requires careful attention
to good management practices. A detailed prescription of cabbage diseases is
provided by Strang et al. (1997).
6.2.1. Damping off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia ,Phytophthora, Fusarium,

Sclerotium, Botrytis, Sclerotinia)
It is very destructive fungal disease in nursery beds, especially during early season.
In pre-emergence damping off, the growing points are killed in the initial stages of
seed germination before they come out through the soil. In post-emergence damping
off, the seedlings topple over the ground due to collar rotting and rapid shrinking
of the cortical tissue of the hypocotyls.
Control measures
(i) Hot water treatment of seeds at 50oC for 30 minutes.
(ii) Treat the seeds with Thiram/Captan @ 3.0g /kg of seeds.
(iii) Drenching the nursery beds 7 days before sowing with Thiram/ Captan or
any copper fungicide @ 3g/l of water.
(iv) Cover the beds with transparent polythene sheets before sowing and left to
open sun for at least 10 days, known as soil solarization.
(v) Spraying the young seedlings with 0.2% Blitox or carbendazim (1g) +
mancozeb (2g).
(vi) Provision of proper drainage to the beds.
(vii) Remove the affected seedlings from beds as soon as the symptoms are visible.
(viii) Avoid flooding the beds to check spread of the disease.
6.2.2. Downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica)

This fungal disease can infect all cruciferous plants including crops and weeds,
although there is some host specificity among different strains of the fungus. Leaf
spots are sunken gray-white areas that may appear angular due to growth
restriction by the leaf veins. Leaf tissue around the spots turns yellow, and fuzzy
gray fungal growth can be seen on the underside of the leaf spot.
The fungus moves through the plant systemically, resulting in dark colored leaf
petioles and black or brown streaks in the veins of broccoli heads. On mature cabbage
heads and cauliflower curds, the infection may occur as dark sunken spots. Infected
crops are more susceptible to rot through secondary fungi or bacteria. The downy
mildew fungus can survive in soils and plant debris, and is spread by wind, rain
and possibly by seed.
Control measures
(i) Hot water treatment of seeds at 50° for 30 minutes.
(ii) Crop rotation excluding cruciferous crops.
(iii) Spraying the crop with 0.25% mancozeb, metalaxyl-mancozeb (0.25%)and
cymoxanil-mancozeb (0.25%) with a sticker at weekly intervals.
6.2.3. Yellowing (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans)

It is a serious fungal disease where the fungi attacks the seedlings through the
rootlets. Yellowing starts from the lower leaves and progress towards the upper
leaves very fast, leaves drop prematurely and the plants remain stunted.
Control measures
(i) Application of adequate organic matter in the soil.
(ii) Application of lime to raise the soil pH to 7.2.
(iii) Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride @ 5g/kg of seeds.
(iv) Treatment of the seeds with 3 g Thiram/Captan/kg of seeds.
(v) Spraying the crop with 0.1% carbendazim at 10 days interval
6.2.4. Black spot (Alternaria brassicae, Alternaria brassicicola)

It is primarily a seed borne fungal disease. These fungi survive in seed and in
infected plant debris. Leaf spots are gray to black, round and often have concentric
rings within them. As leaf spots mature, the tissue becomes dry, brittle and often
falls out, resulting in a ‘shot hole’ appearance of the leaf. In many cases, several
spots grow together resulting in large dead areas of the leaf. Dark brown irregular
sunken areas can also form on broccoli and cauliflower heads. Abundant spores
are formed within leaf spots in response high humidity or moisture on the foliage.
These are spread through the field through wind, rain or irrigation. Lesions on
cabbage heads can continue to grow in storage and may serve as an entry for
secondary rot organisms.
The management of that disease should be done through; planting high quality
clean seed, remove infected plants, promote good air movement in the field and
avoid overhead irrigation, use of long rotations between crucifers and control weeds,
as well as the use fungicides when necessary.
Control measures
(i) Treatment of the seeds with Thiram/Captan @ 3.0 g/kg of seeds.
Cabbage 111
(ii) Spraying the crop with copper oxychloride (0.3%) or mancozeb (0.25%)/
chlorothalonil (0.2%) or difenconazole (0.5 g/l) or propiconazole (1 ml/l) at 10
days interval.
6.2.5. Black leg (Phoma lingam)

Cabbage and Chinese cabbage are susceptible to black leg, whereas cauliflower
and broccoli are considered moderately susceptible. This fungus is transmitted
on infected seed, and occasionally through airborne spores. Once in a field it
survives three years on crop debris and moves from plant to plant by splashing
rain or irrigation. Infection starts on young seedlings as a bluish black discoloration
on the stem. This lesion grows into a sunken brown lesion with a purple black
border. Small black spots may be seen in the center of the lesion. These are spore
producing structures and release a coil of pinkish spores in wet conditions. The
stem lesion extends into the soil and may cause discoloration and death of plant
roots. The lesion eventually girdles the entire stem, causing the plant to wilt and
lodge.
Control measures
(i) Treatment of the seeds with Thiram/Captan @ 3.0 g/kg of seeds.
(ii) Crucifers should not be planted adjacent to or downwind from fields that
were planted in crucifers the previous year.
(iii) Spraying the crop with copper oxychloride (0.3%) or mancozeb (0.25%)/
chlorothalonil (0.2%) or difenconazole (0.5 g/l) or propiconazole (1 ml/l) at 10
days interval.
6.2.6. Club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae)

It is a serious disease that occurs worldwide. The infection process begins when
the resting spores germinate and enter the plants through root hairs or wounds.
The fungus then increases and infects other roots cells, stimulating cell growth
and division. Eventually the roots form large club-like masses that crack, dispersing
the spores into the soil. The development of this disease is favored by warm
temperatures, high soil moisture and acid pH.
The initial symptoms of club root are difficult to detect. Later symptoms include
pale yellow leaves and a tendency to wilt during hot, sunny days. Young plants
may be killed by the disease within a short time after infection, whereas
older plants may survive but fail to produce marketable heads. Club root is
transmitted by infected transplants, equipment, windblown dust and irrigation.
Club root can be managed by maintaining soil pH at 7.3 or above by additions of
lime. Avoid planting any cruciferous plant in the same fields for long time periods.
The resting spores can survive in the soil for many years, so the effect of rotation is
not great.
Control measures
(i) Solarization of the field during summer by ploughing and covering with
transparent polythene film.
(ii) Use of plant transplants that are disease-free, and do not move equipment
used in diseased fields to clean fields.
(iii) Liming the soil to raise the soil pH (7.2) as the disease appears more in
acidic soil condition.
(iv) Treat the seed bed with 1% formalehyde.
(v) Soil treatment with Thiram @ 3 g/kg of seeds.
(vi) Seedling root treatment with 4% calomel (mercurous chloride) before
transplanting.
6.2.7. Black rot (Xanthomonous campestris pv. campestris)

This seed borne bacteria infects the plants in the nursery as well as in the main
field. The infected plants become stunted, cotyledonary leaves turn yellow to black
and drop prematurely which results in killing of the seedlings. In the main field,
first sign of the disease appears near the leaf margin, characterized by chlorosis
which progress towards the centre of leaf blades in V–shaped lesions. In the affected
portion, veins and veinlets turn brown and finally black. In severe cases leaves
wither, curds become discolored and subsequently soft rot may set in.
Control measures
(i) Seed treatment with hot water at 50–52°C for 30 minutes followed by a dip
in 0.01% streptocycline solution for 30 minutes.
(ii) Spraying the crop with 0.01% streptocycline or Agrimycin-100 at
transplanting and curd initiation stage.
(iii) Crop rotation excluding cruciferous crops.
(iv) Spraying of copper oxychloride (0.3%) + Streptomycin sulphate (100 ppm)
for management of Black rot. Micronutrient (B+ Mo) spray is also
beneficial.
6.2.8. Soft rot (Erwinia Carotovora)

This bacterial rot occurs after the occurrence of black rot or after mechanical injury
to the matured curd. Water soaked patches appear on the upper surface of the
curd which expands and cover the whole curd. The water soaked portion turns to
light brown and ultimately dark brown within a week. Sticker and spreader need
to be added with spray mixture for spraying on cabbage and cauliflower.
Control measures
(i) Spraying of copper oxychloride (0.3%) + Streptomycin sulphate (100 ppm)
for management of soft rot.
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6.3. Insect Pests

All of cabbage crops are subject to attack by several kinds of insects throughout
the growing season. Similar insects attack cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower,
although some pest species may have certain crop preferences. Major pests that
occur annually in most production region are the diamondback moth, imported
cabbage worm, and cabbage looper (Eastman et al., 2005). They cause losses in
broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower via damage to the plant by reducing yield, lowering
quality, or contaminating the product, making it unsaleable. Because many of these
pests are much more difficult to control as large larvae, controls will always be
most effective when directed toward small larvae. A detailed prescription of cabbage
insects is provided by Strang et al. (1997) and Besin (2012).
6.3.1. Cabbage borer (Hellula undalis)

The caterpillars after hatching mine into the leaves along the side veins and make
it a white papery structure filled with their excreta and later they bore into the
curd. The crop loss potentiality is very high in heavily infested crops.
Control measures
(i) Collection and destruction of larvae at early invading population by wire
devices is one of the best ways to reduce the destructive form at later stage of
crop.
(ii) Application of DDVP @ 0.75 ml/l may control the pest.
6.3.2. Diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella)

Eggs of this insect are small, yellowish-white and somewhat football-shaped.
Larvae are small, yellowish-green, spindle shaped, and have a forked tail. The
pupae are found in a gauze-like cocoon attached to leaves or stems of the cabbage
plant. The moth has a small, slender, grayish-brown body with folded wings.
The wings of the male form three yellow diamond-shaped spots where they
meet. The caterpillars feed on lower side of the leaves producing typical
whitish patches and later they bore small holes in the leaves giving a shot-hole
appearance all over. Though their severity of infestation is very low in the Bengal
basin however, this pest appears as major and destructive form in south Indian
conditions.
Control measures
(i) Picking and destruction of the larvae at the early stages of the crop.
(ii) Growing mustard as a trap crop in the field.
(iii) Spraying the crop with 1.25 ml profenophos or 1.0 ml cypermethrin per litre
of water.
6.3.3. Aphid (Lipaphis erysimi)

The aphid species attack all the cruciferous crops during seedling as well as later
stage of crop growth. These aphids infest the undersides of leaves and suck sap.
Infested plants may show signs of curling, wrinkling, or cupping of the leaves.
Severe infestation reduces the vigour of the crop due to their continuous sucking.
Control measures
(i) Encourage population growth of lady bird beetles and hover fly in the field.
(ii) Spray with neem pesticides along with sticker to control the pests.
7. HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT

In cabbage, harvest maturity comes when the head is fully developed so that it
feels firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below
the bottom leaves with a sharp knife. The outer leaves are trimmed, usually
removing 3–6, together with any diseased, damaged or necrotic leaves. Any heads
that are soft, immature, diseased or damaged by caterpillars should be discarded
at harvest (Thompson, 2003). Delaying harvest at peak maturity will increase the
risk of head splitting, particularly after late season rainfall. This will drastically
reduce marketability and storability. Heads of cabbage can withstand some frost,
although fairly large differences in frost hardiness occur between the varieties.
Frozen tissues generally have a water soaked appearance, but if not damaged the
tissues will look normal again after thawing. On the other hand, damaged tissues
often show brown discolorations. The youngest leaves are particularly sensitive to
frost, so that the center of the head may be damaged by frost and turn brown,
while outwardly the head looks healthy.
Excessive transpiration is the greatest source of postharvest damage to quality.
The rate of water loss rises with increasing temperature and is exacerbated by
decreasing relative humidity and atmospheric pressure. After harvest, changes to
carbohydrate, organic acid and secondary metabolite content take place and these
affect product quality. Probably the release of ethylene from tissues has the most
critical effect on quality. Ethylene is involved in the acceleration of ripening and
consequent senescence of tissues. For leafy or flower crops (cabbage, Chinese
cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli), the presence of even small amounts of ethylene
will accelerate senescence and increase deterioration.
Modified atmosphere packaging by the use of plastic films with known
permeability to gases, is increasingly used for cabbage crops storage. As a
consequence of the respiration of the produce, there is an increase in CO2 and a
decrease in O2. The packaging films used may form a protective barrier and reduce
the supply of oxygen, assumed that modified atmospheres suppress microbial growth
and in that way extend shelf life (Ibrahim et al., 2005). Cabbage is most satisfactorily
stored at about 0–1ºC and 95% to 100% relative humidity. In these conditions,
Cabbage 115
cabbages may be stored for as long as seven months (Thompson, 2003). Cabbages
that are destined for storage are trimmed of their outer leaves, while careful
handling is of importance to prevent injuring the wrapper leaves. Controlled
atmospheres of 2.5% to 5% oxygen and 2.5% to 5% carbon dioxide may extend the
storage life by several months. Avoid storing cabbage with any product that emits
ethylene such as apples or pears as this can cause premature yellowing and
abscission of leaves.
8. SEED PRODUCTION
The isolation of seed plants for cabbage seed production is very important as cabbage
varieties not only cross easily with one another but with the sub-species of B.
oleracea. For the purpose of isolation in the seed production, crucifers are divided
into two groups.
• Cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol, Brussel’s sprout
• Radish, mustard, Chinese cabbage, turnip
Varieties in each of these groups will cross readily with any other variety of the
same kind of vegetables and any variety of any crop in the first group will cross
easily with any other crop in that group. Natural crosses may also occur between
the vegetables of the second group, but such crosses do not occur as readily as in
the 1st group. However, for the production of stock seed 1600 m and for certified
seed 1000 m isolation is recommended. Being a biennial, the cabbage requires two
seasons to produce seed. In the first season the heads are produced, and in the
following season seed production follows. Cabbage seed can be produced either by
the head-to-seed method or by seed-to-seed method. The seed crop can be left in
situ or the plants along with heads are harvested and re-transplanted during
December at the beginning of winter. In situ methods (seed to seed method) is
usually followed for certified seed production and the latter (head to seed method)
for nucleus seed production. Seed yield parameters for each head size were greater
for plants left in situ than replanted ones and also increased with head size; in situ
plants with large heads yielded 54.76 g of seeds/plant. Seed quality (in terms of
seedling vigour and percentages of normal and abnormal seedlings and dead seeds)
was also better for seeds from in situ plants and generally improved with increasing
head size. In the in situ method, the crop is allowed to over-winter and produces
seed in their original position, that is, where they are first planted in the seedling
stage. In head to seed method, either the mature plants after the formation of
heads are uprooted and after removing the outer whorls of leaves the plants are
immediately reset in a well-prepared new field or the heads are harvested in the
beginning of snowfall and stored at 0–2°C before planting the cut stumps in a
greenhouse or open field during spring-summer for the production of seed stalks.
Careful and rigorous rouging on a plant basis is essential, particularly for the
production of foundation seeds and seeds of the parental lines of the commercial
hybrids. Plants with off-types foliage depending on the leaf size should be removed
before they form head, to reduce any possibility of unwanted cross-pollination.

Harvesting should be done when the pods turn brown and harvesting of seeds 55
to 60 days after anthesis is the best. The seed yield depends on prevailing
temperature during the growing season, cool temperature during flowering and
seed development results in higher seed yield. Seed yield varies from 500 to 800 kg
per hectare.
9. VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS

Cabbage is mainly sold fresh or as processed canned product. Consumers generally
prefer fresh green cabbage, when available, to stored cabbage. Processed products
include those that are treated in vinegar, or fermented such as sauerkraut or kimchi.
Fresh cut or lightly processed products include coleslaw and ready-to-eat salad
mixes that contain shredded cabbage.
CLASSIFICATION OF CABBAGE
White cabbage, the cabbage of commerce Savoy cabbage
Red cabbage Flowering in cabbage

Cabbage 117
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2. ORIGIN, EVOLUTION, GENETIC VARIATION AND CLASSIFICATION

subsp. (var.) botrytis, Cauliflower; a tight flower, generally white, some

2.1. Botany and Phenology of Brassica Crops

emergence: cotyledons break through soil surface). Leaf development (cotyledons

Fig. 4.1: Cabbage phonological stages (Feller et al., 1995).

2.1.1. Flower and fruit development

2.1.2. Flower induction

leaf growth would be prolonged at the expense of meristem development. From a

2.1.3. Head and curd development of cabbage, cauliflower and

3. GENETICS OF DIFFERENT CHARACTERS

3.1. Breeding Objectives

4.1. Heterosis Breeding

4.2. Pollination Control Mechanisms for Developing Hybrids

4.2.1. Male sterility

The level of self-incompatibility can be assessed by the number of seed produced

4.3. Biotechnological Innovations

4.3.1. Micro-propagation and haploid culture

4.3.2. Somatic hybridization

4.3.3. Molecular markers

5. AGRONOMY OF THE CROP

5.1. Climate and Soil

5.2. Land Preparation, Sowing and Transplanting

5.2.1. Direct seeding

5.2.2. Seed enhancement

5.2.3. Seed priming

5.2.4. Seed coating

5.2.5. Seed conditioning

5.2.6. Seedling production

generally as those with; no infections of diseases or pests, ability to survive in

Adopted from Bodnar and Garton (1996)

Table 4.2: Recommended planting distances of some species of cole crops.

5.3. Plant Nutrition

Reliable and repeatable analyses that measure nutrient reserves present in

A more appropriate estimation of nutrient demands and nutritional status of

Table 4.3: The nutrient uptake (kg/ha) of cole crops.

SNS, P and K index (kg/ha)

Crop Nutrients Plant age (days)

5.3.1. Fertilization methods

Traditionally, Brassica crops have received part of their nutrient requirement

The presence of excess ammonium can be deleterious, in reducing potassium

Growth stage Requirement nutrients

Source: Haifa Group (2012)

5.3.2. Foliar application of nutrients

5.3.3. Nutrient deficiency symptoms

2. Chlorosis over most of plant, moderate to slight stunting.

5.4. Weed and Water Management

6. MANAGEMENT OF DISORDERS, DISEASES AND PESTS

6.1. Physiological Disorder

6.1.1. Internal tipburn

symptoms of tipburn as do more-mature processing cabbage heads. Affected tissue

6.1.2. Black petiole or black midrib

environmental conditions play an important role in symptom expression. Variety

6.1.3. Pepper spot or black speck

6.1.4. Necrotic spot

6.1.5. Internal browning

6.1.6. Cabbage splitting

6.2.1. Damping off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia ,Phytophthora, Fusarium,

6.2.2. Downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica)

6.2.3. Yellowing (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans)