EVOLUTION OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

The most important factor in temple architecture is its spiritual, philosophical & metaphysical
content. Its artistic treatment becomes secondary. They wanted to create an environment
which was away from mundane material world into a very spiritual realm.

The temple architecture was treated more like a craft rather than art. It was combined efforts
of many & nobody knows names of their designers. Every mason was specialized in his field &
contributed to an entire structure.

Indian temples usually had linear, axial arrangement & was a coordinated effect of various
integral parts such as main shrine which was called Garbhagriha (womb house), assembly halls
Sabhamandapa, porch Ardhamandapa, ambulatory passage all around the sanctum
Pradakshina path, passage joining sanctum to assembly Antarala & the main body of temple
was called as Vimana which was set within the rectangular courtyard.

Amazingly this planning is similar to ancient greek temples which also had this linear, axial hall
comprising of pronaos, naos & cella.

This similarity exists because in both the cases structures were designed as dwelling place of
god & not meant for the congregational masses like churches where the huge assembly hall of
nave is without any columns unlike sabhamandapa which is columnar.

Hindu philosophy is influenced by Aryan outlook, fierce rites of non Aryans (Dravidians) & mild
doctrines of Buddhism.

Hinduism in its creedal form was known as vedic brahminism as Brahmins (priests0 gained all
control over religious rites & ruling kings who became great patrons of temple architecture
were also Brahmins.

God was in its 3 form manifestation one a god of preservation Vishnu in the center with god of
creation Brahma & god of destruction Shiva on his either side complete the picture.

Based on it 2 orders of architecture evolved in India. One dedicated to Vishnu is called Indo
Aryan style which is practiced in greater part of India while as Shaivaite temples based on
Dravidian style are more concentrated in south of India & are found in 1/5th part of the
country. Amalgamation of the above mentioned 2 styles is seen in chalukyan architecture of
Deccan.

Temples were of 2 types either stone cut or rock cut. Work never got done at site of temple,
but in quarry nearby from which they used to extract the required stone. So first the rough
mass of stone was acquired from living rock. Then it was cut to required size & hammer
dressed. Even carving used to take place there itself & just assembling these stones in precise
manner happened on site.

Since craftsmen were constantly in the shadows of great mountains they tried to recreate the
same grandiose feeling of mountains in their temples & also a great play of light & shade is
highlighting element so Indian temples are more of mass than delicacy & element of interest is
created with great light & shade effect on their carved surfaces.

Lot of theories are associated with Shikharas which is a tower over garbhagriha. One is form
derived from the existing huts of northern & central India at that time which had tall conical
roof. The second theory is that the form is derived from conical outline of three tiered umbrella
over stupa while third deduction is that since many a times temples are called as Rathas
meaning chariots which were taken out during ceremonial processions carrying images of
deities had conical wooden roof covering it from which developed tapering spires of temples
called as shikhara.

Stages of evolution of temples

1. Fire alters – since Aryan were fire worshippers & used to perform sacrificial rites out in
the open to propitiate gods which were in the form of forces of nature like rain god
varun, fire god agni, wind god pawan & so on. It consisted of stepped square form with
fire burning in it.
2. In second phase which is seen in 2nd century temple no. 17 at Sanchi & Dashavatara
temple at Deogarh near Jhansi, both being north Indian nagara style temple is
emergence of small, dark, square sanctum called garbhagriha with columned porch as a
way of approach. This temple is free standing stone structure with flat roof & greek
severity which is reflected in its lion & bell shaped capitals of columns.
3. The third stage which is evident in early chalukyan temple by the name of Ladkhan
which is a shaivaite shrine at Aihole in Dharwar is temple plan reminiscent of vihara or
monastery where central courtyard was converted into columned assembly hall with
Nandi mandapa which is mount of Shiva in the center & at one end of assembly hall is
the small, dark garbhagriha with shivalingam instead of Buddha facing you. The
assembly hall is 16 pillared with external pillars having lot of jail work admitting light in
otherwise dark interior. The approach is from the porch which is supported on columns
& is not so elaborate. Temple got constructed in 5 th century & is second oldest in Aihole.
The square tower over Nandi mandapa on otherwise flat roof with double layers of
heavy moulded roof line was addition to suit the latter taste.
4. The next stage comprises of Durga temple at Aihole which got constructed a century
after Ladkhan & has very definite apsidal form reminding of chaitya with beautiful
 chalukyan sculptures on all wall surfaces. In addition to elaborate porch there is
completely enclosed sabhamandapa & garbhagriha with pradakshina path all around in
form of alternate mass in form of upright stones & voids on its exterior façade. The
tapering pyramidal roof with repeatation of chaitya window motif as mode of
decoration is later addition. Both roof moulding & plinth have double level heavy
moulding running continuously.
5. The next stage is Malegatti shivalaya which is a marvelous piece of Deccani architecture
with perfect blend of north Indian & south Indian feature is located near Aihole. The
first time the separate chambers have developed in a strong linear fashion starting with
garbhagriha, a passage between garbhagriha & sabhamandapa called antarala & then
ardhamandapa. Also vertical development is happening with tallest spire over main
sanctum showing its maximum sacred nature & thus giving it an elevated status, then
little less high flat roof over assembly & still lower roof over porch. The above the
sanctum the roof has dome & same form in smaller scale is in the front façade of
assembly. This top feature is very much a south Indian temple character & is called as
stupica. It is a beautiful piece of Deccani architecture. A shaivaite shrine where external
walls have become solidified with half columns or pilasters projecting out framing
panels forming frames for display of sculptures. The sculptural carved walls are beautiful
to look at.
6. The rock cut shaivaite Kailasha temple at Ellora which was conceived & supervised
during Rashtrakuta dynasty in Ellora at 8 th century is considered a manmade wonder as
the whole temple got excavated out of a single piece of living rock. It’s a monolithic
monument. Generally architecture is creating structure with addition of elements which
is aesthetically pleasing whereas in case of Kailasha it is created by subtracting
elements. Tonnes & tones of living rock has been excavated to create this beautiful
piece of sculpture. It is a total complex of temple enclosed within the mountain. No
more temple is an isolated identity but it is a total coordinated complex comprising of
various parts spaced in a strong linear axis. Accentuating entrance is very high entrance
door or gopurum in front of which you feel dwarf & it kind of psychologically prepares
you that you are entering into a very holy shrine. Guarding the entrance are these 2 life
size elephants with victory towers on either side with trident symbol of shiva on top of
them. The total rectangular courtyard is 280’X 160’ in size & has nandimandapa at the
beginning. Then there are 2 flights of steps taking you on higher level of sacredness
which comprises of assembly hall, garbhagriha & five subsidiery shrines all around with
a continuous pradakshina path. This central feature is supported on very high 20’ high
plinth where the central band comprises of rows of elephants. On all sides there are
many more sculptures & cells giving an enclosed look to the complex.
Chalukyan temple architecture

Aihole was the capital of the early Chalukyan dynasty (450 A.D. – 650A.D.). It is the picturesque
village on the banks of the Malaprabha river & is famous as the cradle of Hindu temple
architecture. We have already studied Ladkhan temple, Durga temple & Malegatti shivalaya
which forms important stages in the development of the evolution of stone built Hindu
Brahmanical shrines. At Aihole, the Hindu structural temple took the introductory form. Aihole
is the temple town comprising of totally 70 temples built in span of 2 centuries. These early
temples have flat or slightely sloping roofs, sometimes surmounted by a small upper storey or
tower (shikhara) which was subsequently added. Unlike the contemporary Gupta shrines which
were being built in central & northern India, those at Aihole have a pillared assembly hall in
front of the sanctuary. From Aihole the focus then shifts to Pattadakal from 680A.D. – 746A.D.
which also faces Malaprabha river & is fine example of Chalukyan architecture. Four temples
like Papanath, Jambulinga, Kadasiddheshvara & Kashivishvanatha are Indo-Aryan style while
Sangameshvara, Virupaksha, Mallikarjuna & Galaganatha are Dravidian temples. The Pttadakal
temples provide a striking illustration of the coexistence of different building styles & artistic
traditions derived from different regions of India. The large scale of architecture, the complex
elevations & spatial treatments & the rich ornamentation represent the climax of the early
Chalukyan phase.

Pattadakal temple complex site plan (self study)

Comparitive analysis between Indoaryan temple architecture & Dravidian temple

architecture.

Indoaryan temple architecture is typical north Indian temple architecture, mostly Vaishanavaite
temples. Shrine itself is main structure unlike temple complexes of south. Roof over main shrine
had verticality to it & is called as shikhara. Topmost part of shikhara has coconut finial, below it
was holy pot of water called kalasha & below was lotus moulding amalaka. Shikhara is round in
plan & has curvilinear profile with massing submassing developed on both its sides,

While as typical south Indian temple is shaivaite, Dravidian temple which is a city by itself along
with main shrine there are subsidery shrines, sabhamandapa, nandi shrine, residence for
Brahmins, dharmashalas for pilgrims, pillared corridors as viewing galleries, high entrance
gateways gopurums all enclosed within many a protective courtyard surrounded by compound
wall as means of protection. The roof is pyramidal with topmost dome called as stupica. Roof is
square in plan & pyramidal & though it had tiers it doesn’t give you the feeling of verticality but
it is more horizontal. This pyramidal roof is decorated with sculptural motifs of cells, chaitya
window, vertical columns etc. Temple plan is sometimes reminiscent of chaitya & viharas.

Dravidian temple architecture

Religion was the main happening in south of India. It was a great force, one find certain
consistency & continuity of temple design over a period of 1000 years as one dynasty followed
other, temple architecture went on becoming more elaborate.

In Pallava dynasty development of shikhara & sabhamandapa happened while in next Chola
dynasty shikhara rose to the great heights plus entrance gateways gopurums were in budding
stage. In next Pandyas dynasty gopurum became the main feature & towered over everything
& temple plan became so elaborate that temples of Minakshi & Rameshwaram are cities by
themselves. Hoysalas came next & little deteriotion in the temple architecture started with lot
of surface decoration overshadowing purity of previous temples.

Rathas at Mahabalipuram near Madras got built during Pallavas time. Also the first dressed
stone temple was constructed directly on sea shore at Mahabalipuram which is called as shore
temple. It is in granite & is extensively carved. But due to constant sun, sand & wind all figures
have become blurred & it has soft melted look. All sculptural work has elongated grace which is
characteristic of Pallavas.

The main shrine faces the sea so all the sailors of the approaching ships can pay their homage
as soon as they touch the shore. It is a shaivaite shrine. Its courtyard contains series of seated
bulls which is nandi, a mount of shiva. Various elements are beautifully interlocked like main
shrine, subsidery shrine, nandimandapa, pradakshina path & courtyard. Pallavas were originally
Buddhists but later converted to Hinduism. They really flourished in 7 th century, during reign of
king Narsimhavamana who was also a great wrestler mammala & hence the capital city is called
as Mammalapuram also. It is a great sea port. Great work of architecture happened from 7 th to
8th century. Pallavas are considered to be great builders as they constructed first dressed stone
temples.

Their major contribution was Rathas or chariots in stone which is a stone replica of original
wooden construction. Rathas are vehicles of god. They all happen in line from north to south,
like a big loaf of bread when cut into slices.

Only one ratha which is Sahadevas ratha is off center on the north. There is smallest ratha
which is Draupadis ratha on the north which is a simple, square dark cell garbhagriha with
conical pyramidal roof like that of the thatched hut. Next in line is Arjunas ratha which is again a
square dark cell but more complex in elevation. It is based on typical Buddhist vihara & has 3
tiered pyramidal roof. 2 Lower tiers have diminishing square plan & has miniature cells &
chaitya arch decoration with small vertical columns. The topmost tier is round domical cupola
called stupica.

The third in a row is oblong ratha called Bhimas ratha which is based on Buddhist chaitya & has
similar barrel vaulted roof to it & front chaitya window arch decoration.

The fourth is Dharmarajas ratha which is bigger replica of Arjunas ratha with an additional
fourth storey giving it more height than Arjunas ratha. The roof has same pyramidal form &
topped with stupica.

The slightely off centered Sahadeva’s ratha is again based on chaitya form.

These all rathas are in rough granite & surrounding it are larger than life size elephants, bulls &
lions carved out of same stone. They have beautiful carvings of elongated figures.

Rathas are earlier known examples of Dravidian style of temple architecture which originated in
south.

Chola dynasty (900 A.D. TO 1150A.D.)

Pallavas were defeated by Cholas in 897 A.D. They also won the city of Madurai from Pandyas in
10th century. Their territory extended to shrilanka, Sumatra. In Chola dynasty Vimana rose to
great heights. Chola king Raj rajeshwar after his victories built famous Brihadeshwar temple at
Tanjore. The temple reveals the superb architectural achievements of Cholas. Brihadeshwar
temple is a shaivaite shrine with 190’ high vimana i.e. shikhara, columned sabhamandapa,
nandi shrine, extensive courtyard with entrance gateway called gopurum. Square vimana has
equisite & complex decorative work on its tiers of pyramids. The topmost stupica weighs 80
tonnes & they specially constructed earth ramp to take this mighty piece of stone to the height
of 190’ above ground level. Hence Tanjore temple is considered to be most ambitious
achievement of Indian builders. Bronze was Cholas structural medium. The most famous
sculpture is the dancing Nataraja. Large bronze deities were installed in temples for worship &
treated almost like living kings. The forms were bedecked with flowers, clothes ornaments so
that they were hidden from devotees view.

Pandyas dynasty (1100 to 1350 A.D.)

The Pandyas recaptured their capital Madurai from Cholas. Upto this time builders have applied
best of their craftsmanship to the most sacred part the shikhara on top of garbhagriha. But
Pandyas gave more importance to gateways of the temple. There were 2 main reasons.

To give added importance to old temples which were considered sanctified. & second reason
was to make it like protective fortress for protection & defense in case of emergency.
Entrance gopurums were most striking feature of the temples. Typical gopurum is the building
oblong in plan, rising up into a tapering tower with an entrance on longer side. The summit is
flat with the gable ends & barrel vaults like Buddhist chaitya window. They may be even 15
storey high. Their gigantic scale makes a normal human being feel very dwarf as if paying
homage to the supreme being one should feel ones limitations.

TEMPLE AT SHRIRANGAM

In its final stage 7 courtyards developed & with each courtyard & an enclosing wall &
increasingly high entrance gateway gopurum. The temple developed its full form during Pandya
dynasty with main shrine, sabhamandapa, enclosing walls, great courtyards with increasing
gopurums, hall of 1000 columns, numorous other shrines related with colonnaded corridors,
porches, halls, dwellings for Brahmins, dharmashalas for pilgrims, bazaars, granaries for
storage, tanks & wells. From Pandyas time there developed a tendency in south India to create
an impression by sheer magnitude rather than refinement or elegance of design.

TEMPLE OF MADURAI (self study)

HOYSALA PERIOD (MIDDLE OF 13TH CENTURY)

Hoysalas rose to power in Mysore around the same time when Pandyas superseded to Cholas.
Hoysalas created a series of temples in Halebid, Belur, Somnathpur. These temples appear as
low piles of filigree carvings where surface texture dominate & obscure the architectural form.
Their rococo ornamentation is diametrically opposite to elegant graceful pallava temple.

VIJAYNAGAR, HAMPI (self study)

INDOARYAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Indoaryan work is mainly found in northern India. Its chief characteristic is the shikhara which
differs from the southern vimana. It is curvilinear with vertical accentuation & no horizontal
emphasis. The shikhara is crowned with the amalaka, kalasha & coconut finial instead of
stupica. From the original simple offsets, as the craftsmen became more skilled, an elaborate
multiplicity of offsets & submasses developed. The highest such development is seen in the
temples of Khajuraho. The general effect however is of one storey or one single mass. Unlike
Dravidian work, there is no plan development of courtyards. The temple itself is the chief
feature in plan. The shikhara was of greatest importance. One of the earliest examples is the
ancient temple at Pattadakal side by side with the Dravidian work.

1. Earliest phase is seen in Orissa whose ancient name was Kalinga.

2. Next phase is seen in Khajuraho in Central India.
3. Rajputana which is adjacent to central India has some of the Indo Aryan work.
 4. Gujarat & Kathiawar temples are rich in architectural remains.
5. Deccan is the southern example of Indo Aryan style
6. Vrindavan near Mathura

Some of the purest & typical examples are to be found in Orissa at Bhuvaneshwar, Puri &
Konark. The oldest is the temple of Parshurameshwar at Bhuvaneshwar. In this early
characteristics are evident showing a similarity with that at pattadakal. In succeeding temples
we note a development & elaboration of shikhara. The highest development is the Lingaraja
temple at Bhuvaneshwar about the beginning of 12 th century.

In the earliest example shikhara is stunted & heavy. Later proportions & curves were more
refined (in lingaraja temple). Lingaraja temple shikhara was 180’ high & every stone is carved
with a pattern. In Orissan temple amalaka moulding is very heavy & is more part of shikhara.
Later its proportion was reduced & it became a part of finial.

Plan development in Orissa

Originally temple consisted of shrine chamber & porch or Jagmohan. Later on mandapas were
added in front. There were different kinds of mandapas. Sabhamandapa, Nritya or
Natamandapa which was a hall of dancing & Bhojmandapa which is the dining hall came later.

The downward trend is seen in the famous temple of Jagannath at Puri approx. 1100A.D.
Workmanship & carving are inferior & so also the proportion & forms. The plan is an exception
to general Indo Aryan work having a double courtyard with entrance gate. The temple itself is
of usual Orissan type. Its most famous though.

One exception to down ward trend is the sun temple at Konark approx 1250A.D. which is also
known as black pagoda. The roof over the porch is corbelled.

Another fine & important group is at Khajuraho near Gwalior dating from 950 to 1050 A.D.
There are totally 30 temples altogether occupying a site more than a square mile near Jhansi
constructed in span of 100 years in reign of Chandela Raja. Some Shaivaite, some Vaishnavaite
instead of being contained in customary enclosing wall, each one stands on high & solid
masornry terrace comprising of broad platform. None of them have large size, largest one being
over 100’ in length but very elegant in proportions, graceful contours & rich surface treatment.
On ground it looks like Latin cross with its long axis from east to west with sole entrance from
east at the foot of the cross. This shape was divided into 3 main parts namely cella or
Garbhagriha, assembly hall or mandapa & entrance portico or ardhamandapa. Supplementing
these are antarala or vestibule to cella & in more developed version the transepts or
mahamandapa together with processional passage around the cella. The volume or mass of
temple moves in upward direction with its great height same way like aspiring height of Gothic
cathedral. From high basement storey, walls & openings of interior compartments with
grouping of roofs forming shikhara with pronounced vertical projections producing vertically
inclined & wel disposed passages of light & shade. A rich & diverse series of mouldings lightens
the substantial proportions of plinth.

The chief among them is Khandariya Mahadev & is characteristic of Indo Aryan work. The
balcony like projections in shikhara are noteworthy for their play of light & shade & the fine
effect of columns cut off by parapets. Floral & sculptural pattern add richness to temple.

Vaishnava or Indo Aryan work was characterized by aspiring or rising feeling symbolic of joy of
living. The vertical shikhara is the indication of it. While Shaivaite or Dravidian work was
subdued & reposeful indicative of sacrifice & death.

Rajputana & central India had temple development of Indo Aryan style from 8th to 11th century.

Gujarat & the west (941 to1311A.D.) Most prolific & richest development in temple planning
happened during the rule of Solanki dynasty. Many of the finest buildings are in ruins now.
Most of the temples are in marble encrusted with gems & precious stones. General structural
scheme is of cella & mandapa with exurberance of sculptures. The finest temples are Tejpala
temple at mount Abu & Surya temple at Modhera in Gujrat.

Deccan–The temple of Ambernath, in Thana district is the finest example of 11 th century. It is

Hemandpanthi with heavy proportions but uninteresting architectural treatement, scarcity of
figure sculptures on their exterior. Due to rising Islam, real spirit of temple planning is totally
missing.