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Dr M K Ansari (Confident learning)
YouTube Link: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCFdw5r0uIdNjR6t0HAIQAUg
Chapter#03: Structural Geology ...............................................................................................................................11

Contents
Chapter#1: The Planet Earth .......................................................................................................................................6 Strike and Dips from Maps ....................................................................................................................................11
Conversion of Latitude (in Degree) to Kilometre: ...................................................................................................6 Some Definition ................................................................................................................................................11
Planetary Science: ...................................................................................................................................................6 Important Geometrical Terms ...........................................................................................................................11
Earthquake: .............................................................................................................................................................6 Find Strike and Dip of a Planes, Given Three Points .......................................................................................12
Radioactivity: ..........................................................................................................................................................6 Thickness of a Dipping Layer .................................................................................................................................12
Dating: ................................................................................................................................................................6 Vertical Depth of a Dipping/Inclined Layer ...........................................................................................................12
Half Life: .............................................................................................................................................................6 True Dip and Apparent Dip ...................................................................................................................................13
Average Atomic Weight: ....................................................................................................................................6 True Dip from two Apparent Dip ..........................................................................................................................13
Isotope Geochemistry: ............................................................................................................................................6 Fault Related .........................................................................................................................................................13
Relative Fractionation .........................................................................................................................................7 Fold Related ..........................................................................................................................................................13
Isotope Fraction factor ........................................................................................................................................7 Plotting Planes and Lines on the Stereonet. ......................................................................................................13
Relative Enrichment Factor (Δ) ..........................................................................................................................7 Mohr Circle............................................................................................................................................................14
Isochron Equation ...............................................................................................................................................7 One Dimensional Strain Analysis ..........................................................................................................................14
Radioactive Dating Methods ...................................................................................................................................7 Chapter:#04 Palaeontology ......................................................................................................................................15
Isostasy/Plate Tectonics ..........................................................................................................................................8 Chapter:#05 Stratigraphy ..........................................................................................................................................15
Airy–Heiskanen Model of Isostasy – Proof ........................................................................................................8 Chapter:#06 Mineralogy ...........................................................................................................................................15
Pratt–Hayford Model of Isostasy – Proof ...........................................................................................................8 Basic Concept ...................................................................................................................................................15
Chapter#02: Geomorphology .....................................................................................................................................9 Lattice ...............................................................................................................................................................15
River Hydraulics ......................................................................................................................................................9 Symmetry ..........................................................................................................................................................15
Discharge (Q) = A*v = w*d*v............................................................................................................................9 Space lattices .....................................................................................................................................................15
Channel gradient or channel bed slope (s) = dz/dx .............................................................................................9 Unit Cells ..........................................................................................................................................................15
Reynold’s Number (Re) = ( * v * D)/  ............................................................................................................9 Relation between Lattice Parameter and Radius of Anion and Cation .............................................................15
Froude Number (F) = v/ (g*d) ..........................................................................................................................9 Coordination Number (CN) ..............................................................................................................................15

Radius Ratio (RR) .............................................................................................................................................16
Flint’s law (s) = Ks * A- .....................................................................................................................................9
Pauling's Rules ..................................................................................................................................................16
Stream/River Concavity Index (SCI) = Area bet. A-B and profile (shown in figure)/0.5 ..................................9
Axial Ratios ......................................................................................................................................................16
Strahler Stream Order .........................................................................................................................................9
Intercepts of Crystal Faces (Weiss Parameters) ................................................................................................16
Drainage Density (DD) = 𝟏𝒊𝑳𝑨 .........................................................................................................................10
Euler’s Theorem................................................................................................................................................17
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) = 𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒊 + 𝟏 .....................................................................................................................10
Miller Indices ....................................................................................................................................................17
Stream Numbers................................................................................................................................................10
Miller Bravais Indices (for Hexagonal System)................................................................................................17
Stream Length ...................................................................................................................................................10
Crystal Symmetry in a nut shell ........................................................................................................................18
Basin Areas .......................................................................................................................................................10
Graphical Representation of Mineral Composition ..........................................................................................18
Form Factor (Rf) = 𝑨𝒃𝑳𝟐..................................................................................................................................10
Relation between interplanar spacing and Miller indices .................................................................................19
Stream Sinuosity Index (S) = 𝑺𝑳𝑳 ....................................................................................................................10
Angle between two planes (Angle between two direction) ..............................................................................19
Weathering Indices ...........................................................................................................................................10
Zone axis angle .................................................................................................................................................19
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Relationship between direction and Plane ........................................................................................................20 Unit Weight:......................................................................................................................................................30

Bragg's Law ......................................................................................................................................................20 Bulk Unit Weight (Moist Unit Weight): ...........................................................................................................30
Electrostatic Bond Structure (EBS) ..................................................................................................................20 Dry Unit Weight: ..............................................................................................................................................30
Packing Density ................................................................................................................................................20 Unit Weight of Solid: ........................................................................................................................................30
Packing Density for PCC (Primitive Cubic Centre) .........................................................................................20 Saturated Unit or Bulk Unit weight: .................................................................................................................30
Packing Density for BCC (Body Cubic Central) .............................................................................................20 Submerged Unit Weight: ..................................................................................................................................30
Packing Density for FCC (Face Cubic Central) ...............................................................................................20 Interconversion between Density and Unit Weight: .........................................................................................30
Refractive Index ................................................................................................................................................20 Specific gravity of a substance: ........................................................................................................................30
Snell's Law ........................................................................................................................................................20 Degree of saturation of soil sample: .................................................................................................................30
Double Refraction .............................................................................................................................................21 Air Content: ......................................................................................................................................................30
Chapter:#07 Igneous Petrology ................................................................................................................................22 Relation between Dry Unit Weight with void ratio and porosity: ....................................................................30
Basic Concept ...................................................................................................................................................22 Relation between Sat. Unit Weight, G, void ratio and porosity: .......................................................................31
Crystallization ...................................................................................................................................................23 Relation between Moisture content and Dry Density: ......................................................................................31
Heat needed for melting rock = Sp. Heat (solidus temp-given temp.) + heat of fusion....................................24 Particle Size Distribution Graph/Curve ............................................................................................................31
Thermodynamics...............................................................................................................................................24 Atterberg Limits or Consistency Limits: ..........................................................................................................32
Chapter:#08 Metamorphic Petrology .......................................................................................................................26 #11.2 Rock Mechanism .........................................................................................................................................32
Chapter:#09 Sedimentology .....................................................................................................................................26 Factor of Safety .................................................................................................................................................32
Chapter:#10 Economic Geology ................................................................................................................................26 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) .......................................................................................................................32
Tonnage Factor: ........................................................................................................................................................26 Point Load Test ➔ Calculations and Formula ..................................................................................................33
Basic Principles of Ore Reserve Calculation ....................................................................................................26 Unconfined Compression Test: Axial strain: .........................................................................................................34
Chemical Constituent of Coal ...........................................................................................................................28 Brazilian Test .........................................................................................................................................................35
Petroleum .............................................................................................................................................................28 Triaxial Compression Test in Rock.........................................................................................................................36
API Gravity of Crude oil...................................................................................................................................28 Mohr Circle............................................................................................................................................................36
Using API gravity to calculate barrels of crude oil per metric ton ...................................................................28 Parameters for Rock Mass Classification .............................................................................................................36
Shrinkage volume Factor (SVF) .......................................................................................................................28 Common rock mass classification systems .......................................................................................................37
Formation volume Factor (FVF) .......................................................................................................................28 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) \ ..............................................................................................................................37
Archies Formula................................................................................................................................................29 Rock Quality Index (Q-System) .......................................................................................................................37
Chapter:#11 Applied Geology→ Engineering Geology .............................................................................................29 GEOLOGICAL STRENGTH INDEX..............................................................................................................38
#11.1 Soil Mechanism ...........................................................................................................................................29 Los Angeles Abrasion Value ............................................................................................................................38
Key Points .........................................................................................................................................................29 Time rate Consolidation, Settlement ....................................................................................................................39
Water Content or Moisture Content or Moisture Ratio (WC): .........................................................................29 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF THE ROCKS AND SOIL...........................................................................39
Bulk Density (Bulk mass density) of a soil sample: .........................................................................................29 #11.3 Ground Water .............................................................................................................................................39
Dry Density (Dry mass density) of a soil sample: ............................................................................................29 Capillary Zone ..................................................................................................................................................39
Particle Density of a soil sample: ......................................................................................................................29 Calculating Soil Porosity ..................................................................................................................................39
Saturated Density: .............................................................................................................................................29 Void Ratio .........................................................................................................................................................39
Submerged Density (Buoyant density): ............................................................................................................29 Porosity in Fracture (Rocks) .............................................................................................................................39
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Darcy Law (Hydraulic Conductivity) ...............................................................................................................39 Wyllie – Time average equation ...........................................................................................................................46
Hydraulic Conductivity) ...................................................................................................................................40 Potential and Time Varying Fields.............................................................................................................................46
Darcy Velocity (Specific Discharge) ................................................................................................................40 Maxwell equation based on Ampere’s Law is given below: .................................................................................46
Transmissivity (T) .............................................................................................................................................40 Gravity Methods .......................................................................................................................................................46
Storativity or Storage Coefficient (S) ...............................................................................................................40 Unit of Gravity .......................................................................................................................................................46
Specific Storage (Storativity) (Ss) ....................................................................................................................40 Reference Spheroid...............................................................................................................................................46
Specific Retention (Sr) .....................................................................................................................................41 Geoid .....................................................................................................................................................................47
Specific Yield (Sy) ...........................................................................................................................................41 Gravity Instruments ..............................................................................................................................................47
Volumteric Water Content ................................................................................................................................41 Absolute Gravity Measurements ......................................................................................................................47
Relation between Specific Retention (Sr), Specific Yield (Sy) ......................................................................41 Relative Gravity Measurements .......................................................................................................................47
and Volumteric Water Content .........................................................................................................................41 Gravity Reduction/Correction ...............................................................................................................................47
Froude Number (F) = v/(g*d) .........................................................................................................................41 Magnetic Methods ....................................................................................................................................................47
Leakage Factor ..................................................................................................................................................41 Magnetic Units: .....................................................................................................................................................47
Ghyben–Herzberg relation ................................................................................................................................41 Key Points:.............................................................................................................................................................47
Water Flow in Confined Aquifer ......................................................................................................................42 Magnetic Declination ........................................................................................................................................48
Theiss Equilibrium {Confined Aquifer} ...........................................................................................................42 Magnetic Inclination .........................................................................................................................................48
Theim Equilibrium {Confined Aquifer} ...........................................................................................................42 Curie temperature ............................................................................................................................................49
Water Flow in Unconfined Aquifer ..................................................................................................................42 Instrument for Measuring Magnetism .............................................................................................................49
Flow Equation for Confined Aquifer ................................................................................................................42 Electrical Methods ....................................................................................................................................................49
UNCONFINED FLOW (WATER-TABLE AQUIFERS) ................................................................................42 Key Points:.............................................................................................................................................................49
BOUSSINESQ EQUATION: HOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC UNCONFINED AQUIFER, DUPUIT Reflection Coefficient............................................................................................................................................49
ASSUMPTIONS ...............................................................................................................................................43
Resistivity Method:  = (2V/I) * (1/Geometric Factor) ....................................................................................49
AQUIFERS WITH VERTICAL ACCRETION TO FLOW ............................................................................43
Geometric Factor (Kg) ...........................................................................................................................................49
Change in Groundwater Storage .......................................................................................................................43
Current Penetration ..............................................................................................................................................50
Remote Sensing ........................................................................................................................................................43
Skin Depth .............................................................................................................................................................50
Earthquake Seismology .............................................................................................................................................45
Factors Impacting Conductivity and Chargeability ...............................................................................................50
P waves .................................................................................................................................................................45
Factors Impacting Conductivity ............................................................................................................................50
S- Waves ................................................................................................................................................................45
Pore-space and Pore-water Properties .............................................................................................................50
Rayleigh Waves .....................................................................................................................................................45
Electromagnetic (EM) Methods ................................................................................................................................51
Love Waves ...........................................................................................................................................................45
Skin Depth .............................................................................................................................................................51
Ground Roll ...........................................................................................................................................................45
Key Points:.............................................................................................................................................................51
Poisson Ratio: ........................................................................................................................................................45
Types of EM System ..............................................................................................................................................51
P and S Waves, phases reflection .........................................................................................................................45
Magneto telluric Methods (MT) Methods ............................................................................................................51
Gardner's Equation ...............................................................................................................................................45
Telluric Method (Faraday’s Law of Induction ...................................................................................................51
Inverse Gardner equation from density in g/cc ................................................................................................46
Very Low Frequency (VLF) Method ...................................................................................................................51
Min. Distance from the Epicenter of a near Surface Earthquake .........................................................................46
Seismic Methods .......................................................................................................................................................51
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➔ Reflection and Refraction for Two-homogenous Layer Case ...............................................................52

➔ Number of folds (n) of a common mid-point (CMP) or common depth point (CDP) reflection profile
52
Geophysical signal processing...................................................................................................................................52
Geophysical Well Logging .........................................................................................................................................52
Radioactive Methods ................................................................................................................................................54
Principal of Radioactive.....................................................................................................................................54
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Chapter#1: The Planet Earth Also, D* = D0 + N(t) (eλt − 1)
Conversion of Latitude (in Degree) to Kilometre: Where;
➔ Latitude: 1 degree = 110.574 Km  111 Km

D* = number of atoms of the radiogenic daughter isotope in the sample (i.e., total number of
➔ Longitude: 1 degree = 111.320*cos(latitude) Km
daughter nuclei at time “t”
D0 = number of atoms of the daughter isotope in the original or initial composition,
Planetary Science:
Half Life:
𝐺𝑀
𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = √  direct formula to calculate the number of radioactive atoms left
𝑅
𝟏
Where; M = mass of the Sun; R = distance between Sun and Planet and G= gravitational constant = ∗ 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 {N/N0 = (1/2) (t/t1/2)}
𝟐𝒏
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣𝑜 𝑟𝑜
Where; n = number of half-lives elapsed
Where; m = mass of the plant 𝑣𝑜 = rotational velocity and 𝑟𝑜 =
➔ The Titius–Bode law (sometimes termed just Bode's law) is a formulaic prediction of spacing
 Also,
between planets in any given solar system. t1/2 = ln2/ = 0.693/
𝑎 = [0.4 + 0.3 ∗ (2𝑛 )]
Where; t1/2 = half-life; = decay constant
Where; a = semi-major axis and n = -, 0, 1, 2 etc…
 Also,
Earthquake:
t1/2 = mean life * ln2
➔ As a Richter scale is logarithmic, an increase of 1 unit in the scale leads to 10-fold increase in the
amplitude. so,  = 1/mean life
Average Atomic Weight:

So, Value of Amplitude = 10(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒)
Atomic Weight = (% abundance isotope 1/100) × (mass of isotope 1) +(% abundance isotope 2/100) ×
Radioactivity:
(mass of isotope 2) + ……
Dating:
Isotope Geochemistry:
➔ The mathematical expression that relates radioactive decay to geologic time
ishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometric_dating - cite_note-Faure-14 Isotopes of an elements have same atomic number but different atomic masses
N(t) = Noe-λt (or, P = De-λt) Stable isotopes are not involved in any natural radioactive decay process.
Radioactive isotopes undergo spontaneous radioactive decay process.
Where t = is age of the sample, Radiogenic isotopes are stable products of radioactive decay.
Fractionation refers to the change in an isotope ratio that arises as a result of a chemical or physical
N(t) (or P) = number of atoms of the parent isotope in the sample at time t (the present),
process. Occurs during:
No (or D) = number of atoms of the parent isotope in the sample at time t=0 1. isotopic exchange reactions in which the isotopes are
λ = is the decay constant of the parent isotope, equal to the inverse of the radioactive half-life of the 2. redistributed among different molecules containing that element
parent isotope times the natural logarithm of 2 3. unidirectional or incomplete reactions
4. physical processes like evaporation/condensation, melting/crystallization, adsorption/desorption,
Notes: To calculate the age, it is assumed that the system is closed (neither parent nor daughter isotopes
diffusion
have been lost from system)
Characteristics of a useful stable isotope system:
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1. large relative mass difference between stable isotopes (Dm/m) Relative Enrichment Factor (Δ)
2. abundance of “rare” isotope is high (0.1-1%)
Δa-b = a - b
3. element forms variety of compounds in natural system
Also, in terms of fractional factor
Relative Fractionation
Δa-b = 1000*Inαa-b
sample = {(Rsample/Rstandard)-1} * 1000 (‰)
Isochron Equation
Isotope Fraction factor
To establish the condition that both parent and daughter abundances should be relative to the initial
➔ The isotope fractionation factor is defined as
background, a stable isotope S of the daughter element can be chosen and divided into all portions of this
Ra equation; thus,
 ba =
Rb
Where; This equation has the form y = b + xm, which is that of a straight line on x–y coordinates. The slope m is
equal to (eλt − 1), and the intercept is equal to (D/S)0. This term is called the initial ratio. The slope is
RA, RB are the isotope ratios in two phases a and b (e.g., carbonate and water, or water vapor and water)
proportional to the geologic age of the system.
For example, consider: H2O(l)  H2O(v) at 25°C
Radioactive Dating Methods
𝑅𝑙
𝛼𝑣𝑙 (𝑂) = ➔ Uranium–lead dating method
𝑅𝑣
Uranium decays to lead via a series of alpha (and beta) decays, in which 238U with daughter nuclides
The differences in isotope ratios are relatively small and are expressed as parts per thousand (per mil)
undergo total eight alpha and six beta decays whereas 235U with daughters only experience seven
deviations from a standard.
alpha and four beta decays.
Now as per Relative fractionation, we can correlate fraction factor with relative fractionation. ➔ Samarium–neodymium dating method
a = {(Ra/Rstandard)-1} * 1000 (‰) Samarium has five naturally occurring isotopes, and neodymium has seven. The two elements are
joined in a parent–daughter relationship by the alpha decay of parent 147Sm to radiogenic daughter
Ra = {(a/1000)+1}*Rstandard)
143Nd with a half-life of 1.06×1011 years and by the alpha decay of 146Sm (an almost-extinct nuclide
b = {(Rb/Rstandard)-1} * 1000 (‰) with a half-life of 1.08×108 years) to produce 142Nd.
➔ Potassium–argon dating method
Rb = {(b/1000)+1}*Rstandard)
➔ Rubidium–strontium dating method
87Sr/86Sr < 0.706 belongs to mantle and for >0.706 belongs to crust
𝛿𝑎 +1000 ➔ Uranium–thorium dating method
So, 𝛼𝑎𝑏 =
𝛿𝑏 +1000
➔ Other methods:
If  > 0, this means that the sample is enriched in the heavy isotope relative to a standard. ➔ Argon–argon (Ar–Ar)
➔ Iodine–xenon (I–Xe)
If  < 0, this means that the sample is depleted in the heavy isotope relative to a standard.
➔ Lanthanum–barium (La–Ba)
A  106 ➔ Lead–lead (Pb–Pb)
1000ln  = a
b 2
+B
T ➔ Lutetium–hafnium (Lu–Hf)
The fractionation factor is a function of temperature:
➔ Potassium–calcium (K–Ca)
where A and B are constants.
➔ Rhenium–osmium (Re–Os)
➔ Uranium–uranium (U–U)
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➔ Krypton–krypton (Kr–Kr)
➔ Beryllium (10Be–9Be)
Isostasy/Plate Tectonics
Airy–Heiskanen Model of Isostasy – Proof
➔ For the simplified picture shown (the depth of the mountain belt roots (b1) is calculated as follows:
h1⋅ρ1 = h2⋅ρ2 = h3⋅ρ3 = ... hn⋅ρn
Where; b1 = thickness of the mountain root; h1 is the height of the mountain above MSL; m is the
density of the mantle and c is the density of the crust.
➔ Also, formula for anti-root (in case of ocean)

𝑧(𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌𝑤)
𝑎=
(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑐 )
Where a = anti-root; z= depth of ocean and w is the density of the water.
Pratt–Hayford Model of Isostasy – Proof

➔ For the simplified model shown the new density is given by:
𝑐
𝜌1 = 𝜌𝑐 ∗
ℎ1 + 𝑐
Where h1 is the height of the mountain; c the thickness of the crust and c is the density of the crust (ca.
2,750 kgm−3).
➔ Also, formula for ocean)
(𝑐 ∗ 𝜌𝑐 ) − (𝑧 ∗ 𝜌𝑤 )
𝜌𝑧 =
𝑐−𝑧
Where; z = density of crust below oceans; c the thickness of the crust; z= depth of ocean; c is the
density of the crust; and w is the density of the water.
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Chapter#02: Geomorphology Froude Number (F) = v/ (g*d)
River Hydraulics ➔ Where; v = mean flow velocity; d = depth of water flowing in an open channel and g = acceleration
due to gravity.
➔ Open channel flow is the fluid flow through a channel that has free water.
Condition:
➔ Closed conduit flow also known as flow in pipe in which there is no free water surface.
F <1, Subcritical flow ➔ deep slow flow with low energy → mean flow vel. < wave vel.
➔ Steady flow is a flow in which flow velocity (v) and flow depth (d) remain constant with time ➔
F = 1, Critical flow ➔ mean flow vel. = wave vel.
dv/dt=0 and d(d)/dt=0.
F >1, Supercritical flow ➔ shallow, fast flow with high energy → mean flow vel. > wave vel.
➔ Unsteady flow is a flow in which flow velocity (v) and flow depth (d) vary with time. ➔ dv/dt0 and
d(d)/dt0. Flint’s law (s) = Ks * A-
➔ Uniform flow is a flow in which flow velocity (v) and flow depth (d) remain constant with respect to Where; ks = channel steepness index;  = concavity index
downstream distance (x). ➔ dv/dx=0 and d(d)/dx=0.
Stream/River Concavity Index (SCI) = Area bet. A-B and profile (shown in figure)/0.5
➔ Non-Uniform flow is a flow in which flow velocity (v) and flow depth (d) vary downstream along the
channel. ➔ dv/dx0 and d(d)/dx0.
➔ Key Point to remember:
1. If a fluid flow is steady, it cannot be non-uniform. Because fluid flow velocity can be eother
constant with time or vary and cannot show both simultaneously.
2. If fluid flow is unsteady, then it cannot be uniform.
3. Thus two possibilities
▪ Steady and uniform fluid flow
▪ Unsteady and non-uniform flow
➔ Gilbert Law:
Maximum particles which streams are able to move are proportioned to the sixth powers of their
velocities {Transportation Power  (Velocity6)}
Discharge (Q) = A*v = w*d*v

Strahler Stream Order
➔ Where; A = cross sectional area of channel; v= mean flow velocity; w = width of open channel and
d= mean channel depth ➔ In the application of the Strahler stream order to hydrology, each segment of a stream or river within
a river network is treated as a node in a tree, with the next segment downstream as its parent.
Channel gradient or channel bed slope (s) = dz/dx
➔ When two first-order streams come together, they form a second-order stream.
➔ Where; z = elevation and x = distance along the channel. ➔ When two second-order streams come together, they form a third-order stream.
➔ If angle of tilt () pf the channel bed with respect to horizontal is given then s= tan
Reynold’s Number (Re) = ( * v * D)/ 
➔ Where;  = density of fluid; v = flow velocity of fluid; D = diameter of pipe (or depth of flow) in
channel and  = molecular viscosity of fluid (Pa-s)
➔ Condition: Re < 500, Laminar flow; Re = (500-2000), laminar and turbulent flow and Re > 2000,
turbulent flow
➔ Streams of lower order joining a higher order stream do not change the order of the higher stream.
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➔ Thus, if a first-order stream joins a second-order stream, it remains a second-order stream. It is not ➔ R.E. Horton: “The cumulative lengths of stream segments of successive orders tend to form a
until a second-order stream combines with another second-order stream that it becomes a third-order geometric series beginning with mean length of the 1st order segments and increasing according to a
stream constant length ratio.”
1st order stream frequency = (No. of 1st order streams or rivers)/Basin Area
2nd order stream frequency = (No. of 2nd order streams or rivers)/Basin Area
∑𝒊𝟏 𝑳
Drainage Density (DD) =
𝑨
➔ Where; ∑𝒊𝟏 𝑳 = summation of all the stream lengths from order 1st to the highest order ith
L = length of the stream and A = area of the drainage basin
𝒏𝒊 Basin Areas
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) =
𝒏𝒊+𝟏
➔ Horton:” The mean basin areas of successive stream orders tend to form a geometric series beginning
➔ Associated with the Strahler numbers of a tree are bifurcation ratios, numbers describing how close with mean area of the first-order basins and increasing according to a constant area ratio.” •
to balance a tree is.
➔ Where; ni = no. of stream in a given order “i" and ni+1 = no. of streams in the next higher order
Example; Rb = S2/S3 ; Rb = S4/S5 etc.
Stream Numbers
➔ R.E. Horton: “The numbers of stream segments of successively lower orders in a given basin tend to
form a geometric series, beginning with a single segment of the highest order and increasing according
to a constant bifurcation ratio.”
Usually, the discharge of a stream increases with increasing drainage area.
Eg. Bifurcation ratio is 3, the trunk segment is the sixth order, and the number of segments will be
1, 3, 9, 27, 81 and 243.
𝑨𝒃
Form Factor (Rf) =
𝑳𝟐
➔ Parameter which measures the elongation of a basin.

➔ Where; L = length of the stream and A = area of the drainage basin
𝑺𝑳
Stream Sinuosity Index (S) =
𝑳
➔ The total numbers of stream segments of the entire drainage basin should be ➔ Parameter which measures the elongation of a basin.
➔ Where; SL = Actual length covered by the stream and L = shortest distance between start and end
point.
➔ For rivers, the conventional classes of sinuosity, SI, are:
Stream Length SI <1.05: almost straight; 1.05 ≤ SI <1.25: winding; 1.25 ≤ SI <1.50: twisty; 1.50 ≤ SI: meandering
➔ The 1st order stream segments have the shortest length, and the segments become longer as order Weathering Indices
increases. • The mean length of stream segments increases by a length ratio (R1) with each increase ➔ The most frequently used weathering indices are: Weathering Index of Parker (WIP), Chemical Index
in stream order. of Alteration (CIA), Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW), Vogt’s Residual Index (V), and
Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) as shown in below Table 1).
P a g e 10 | 54
➔ They are sensitive even to minor geochemical changes such as hydrothermal alterations along fault reference plane (map) is read relative to a compass direction (north, south, east, west) in units of
lines, and groundwater level fluctuations. degrees.
Orientation relative to the vertical is described simply as the angle measured from the horizontal plane
to the plane or line of interest, this measurement being made in a vertical plane. This angle ranges
from 0° to 90°.
Important Geometrical Terms
Azimuth: a compass direction measured in degrees clockwise from north with north=0, east=90,
south=180, and west=270.
Bearing: the compass direction of a line, in quadrant format.
Cross section: representation of a geometry on a plane perpendicular to the earth’s surface.
Strike: the trend (compass direction) of the horizontal line in a geological plane (i.e. bedding, fault,
joint, axial plane, etc.). By convention the compass direction of the strike is always assigned to a
north quadrant, therefore, the azimuth possibilities are 0-90 and 270-360. Note that 360 azimuth is
the same strike as 0.
Trace: the line formed by the intersection of two non-parallel surfaces.
Chapter#03: Structural Geology
Trend: azimuth direction of a line in map view.
Strike and Dips from Maps
Apparent dip: dip (incline) of a plane in a vertical plane that is not perpendicular to the strike. The
➔ Strike → also known as structure contours, formed by connecting two or more points on geological apparent dip is always less than the true dip.
surface (bed) that are at same elevation. True dip: the inclination of a plane measured in a vertical plane trending perpendicular to strike.
➔ Dip of the bed = tan(dip angle) = contour interval/contour spacing
Dip direction: trend of the dip line; always perpendicular to strike.
➔ Standard conventions to be used to report strike → N30ºW or 300º
➔ Standard conventions to be used to report dip and dip direction → 40ºNE or N40ºE or 40/040º Inclination: angle that the trace of a geometric element (line or plane) makes with the horizontal
➔ Structure contours are lines of equal elevation, just like topographic contours, except they are drawn measured in a vertical plane. The maximum angle is 90 degrees (vertical). The angle of inclination
on the surface of a geologic structure instead of on the land surface of a plane is termed dip, for a line it is referred to as the plunge.
Some Definition Lineation: general term for a geological feature that is best represented by a line (mineral lineation,
stretched pebbles, fold hinge, etc.)
Geological structures are represented by one or more lines or planes.
Pitch: the angle between a line and the strike of the plane that contains the line. Pitch is synonymous
A line can be defined in three-dimensional space by its angle with three orthogonal axes. A plane can with rake.
be represented by its normal, which itself is a line. Maps contain two horizontal references: Latitude
Rake: angle measured between a line and the strike of the plane that contains the line. The quadrant
and Longitude (N-S, E-W) and third reference axis is a vertical line.
of the end of the strike line from which the measurement is made must be included as part of the
Geologists typically orient structures with reference to the horizontal (strike, bearing, trace, trend) and rake angle unless the rake angle = 90 (i.e. 40NE for a 40 degree rake angle measured from the
the vertical (dip, plunge, inclination). northeast end of the strike).
Specifying the orientation or attitude relative to the horizontal and vertical references will specify Plunge: angle of inclination of a line measured in a vertical plane.
completely the three-dimensional orientation of a line or plane. Orientation within the horizontal
Plunge direction: trend of a plunging line.
P a g e 11 | 54
Thickness of a Dipping Layer
land surface being level

➔ Thickness (bc) = ab * sin
Where; ab = breadth of the outcrop, bc = required thickness
and Dip angle = 
land surface being sloping in the opposite direction of

the dip of the layer
➔ Thickness (bc) = ab * sin(+i)
Recall that any three points determine a plane. If you have three points on a plane, you can find the Where; ab = breadth of the outcrop,
bc = required thickness, Dip angle = ,
plane. In a geologic application, the three points can be outcrops, elevations encountered in
Dip/slope of the land surface = i
drilling, and so on.
1. The key to the problem is to recall that linear interpolation always works between two points in land surface being sloping in the same direction of the
a plane. If we have three points whose elevations are known, we can find the elevations of any dip of the layer
➔ Thickness (bc) = ab * sin(-i)
points on the lines between them.
Where; ab = breadth of the outcrop, bc = required
2. Once we have one or more pairs of points at the same elevations, we can draw structure contours.
thickness, Dip angle = , Dip/slope of land surface = i
If your construction determines a number of contours, they MUST be parallel and equally
spaced. Vertical Depth of a Dipping/Inclined Layer
3. You may find that if there's one short contour that just nicks a corner of the triangle, it's not
quite parallel to the others. This is almost always due to construction errors, which are magnified Depth of an inclined surface, land surface being level
by the small size of the construction. Don't put much emphasis on that contour, and never, ever ➔ Thickness (bc) = ab * tan
base any important conclusion on it. Where; ab = surface length, bc = depth of the layer, Dip
angle/Dip of the layer = 
Find Strike and Dip of a Planes, Given Three Points
and tan () = bc/ab, So, bc = ab * tan ()
1. Find the dip and strike of this layer from the Depth of an inclined surface, ground/land surface in
three elevations. opposite direction
2. Interpolate elevations along the legs of the ➔ Thickness (bc) = ab*sin(i)+ad* tan ()
triangle. Where; ab = surface length, bc = depth of the layer,
3. Locate the structure contours. The strike is the Dip angle/Dip of the layer = 
azimuth of the contours. You don't need a Dip (slope) of the land surface = i
complete set of contours - just enough to get ad = ab * cos(i)
Depth of an inclined surface, ground/land surface slope
strike and Dip.
in same direction
4. Determine the dip either by drawing a cross-
➔ Thickness (bc) = ad * tan () - ab*sin(i)
section or by trigonometry.
Where; ab = surface length, bc = depth of the layer
Dip angle/Dip of the layer = 
Dip (slope) of the land surface = i
ad = ab * cos(i)
P a g e 12 | 54
True Dip and Apparent Dip Fold Related
The line that generates the cylinder is parallel to the fold axis.
All planes tangent to the cylinder are tangent along a line parallel to the fold axis.
All planes tangent to the cylinder are parallel to the fold axis.
Therefore, any two planes tangent to the cylinder intersect in a line parallel to the fold axis.
All parallel cross-sections of the cylinder are identical.
Strike and dip measurements on a cylindrical fold define planes parallel to the fold axis. Any two of
True Dip from two Apparent Dip these planes intersect in a line parallel to the fold axis.
➔ This point allows us to find the trend and plunge of a fold axis given two strike and dip
tan(𝜃 − 𝜃1 ) = csc(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) [(cot 𝛼1 ) ∗ (tan 𝛼2 ) − cos(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )]
measurements.
Where;  = true dip ➔ We get best results in the fairly common case of a fold where the limbs or sides of the fold are
fairly planar and the hinge is sharply bent.
(θ-θ1) = angle between true dip and apparent dip direction
➔ If we project the attitudes of the limbs of the fold, we find they intersect along a line parallel to
(θ1- θ2) = angle between two apparent dips the fold axis.
Fault Related 1. From the strike and dip of the fold limbs, plot
➔ Dip of the fault plane = tan-1(throw/heave) the fold axis and find its trend and plunge.
➔ Hade of the fault plane = 90º - {tan-1(throw/heave)} = tan-1(heave/throw)
2. Plot structure contours for both limbs.
➔ Dip slip of the fault = (throw)2 + (heave)2
➔ As per the figure below, we have followed observation
3. Find the trend and plunge of the intersection.
1. Net Slip of the fault = ( Dip Slip)2 + (Strike Slip)2 The intersection line is parallel to the fold axis.
2. Dip Slip = ( Heave)2 + (Vertical Throw)2
3. Horizontal Throw = ( Strike Slip)2 + (Heave)2 4. So,
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙/

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒
Plotting Planes and Lines on the Stereonet.
A plane intersects the lower hemisphere as a great circle.

A vertical plane plots as a straight line diameter on the stereonet. A horizontal plane is the
primitive.
In many situations it is more convenient to plot the pole of a plane rather than the great circle. The
pole represents the line that is perpendicular to the plane. Since the intersection of a line with the
➔ Net Slip of the fault = ( Dip Slip)2 + (Strike Slip)2
lower hemisphere is a point, the pole will always plot as a point, and will always have an attitude
measured as a plunge and bearing.
P a g e 13 | 54
➔ To plot the pole, find the point along the east-west line where the great circle
representation of the plane crosses. From this point count 90E toward the center- this is
the pole point. Note that the dip angle of the plane and the plunge of the pole are always
complementary angles.
➔ NOTE: pole to horizontal plane lie at the center of the stereonet and pole to a vertical
plane lie on the primitive. So, poles to the planes with gentler dips will plot close to the
center and poles to planes with steeper dips will plot close to primitive.
A linear structure element will always intersect the lower hemisphere at a point, so, like the pole to
a plane, you will always plot linear data as a point.
➔ To plot a linear attitude, rotate the bearing of the structure until it is parallel to either the north-
south or east-west line (it makes no difference). From the primitive, count toward the center the
number of degrees equal to the plunge. Plot the point at this position.
➔ Note that a line with a plunge of 0E will plot as two points on the primitive at each end of the
bearing line. A plunge of 90E always plots at the center of the net. One Dimensional Strain Analysis
➔ Also, gently plunging lines will plot close to primitive and steeply plunging lines will plot close
• Elongation (e) = (Lf-Li)/Li where; Li and Lf is initial and final length respectively
to enter.
• Stretch (s) = (Lf/Li) = 1+e
Mohr Circle • Quadratic Elongation = (Lf/Li)2 = (1+e)2
• True strain (Natural Elongation or Hencky strain): logarithmic strain ε, also called, true strain
𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎𝑛 =  ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 or Hencky strain.
2 2
𝐿𝑓
𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = ln
𝜏= ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝐿𝑖
2 2
(𝐿𝑓 ) −(𝐿𝑖 )2
Shear stress for failure • Green Strain =
2(𝐿𝑖 )2
2
𝜏 = 𝜎0 + 𝜎𝑛 ∗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 (𝐿𝑓 ) −(𝐿𝑖 )2
• Almansi Strain =
2(𝐿𝑓 )2
Beyrlee’s law (Byerlee's friction law)
•
➔ a fold axis given two strike and dip measurements.
➔ We get best results in the fairly common case of a fold where the limbs or sides of the fold are
fairly planar and the hinge is sharply bent.
If we project the attitudes of the limbs of the fold, we
P a g e 14 | 54
Chapter:#04 Palaeontology
Chapter:#05 Stratigraphy
Space lattices
Chapter:#06 Mineralogy ➔ Crystals, of course, are made up of 3-dimensional arrays of atoms. Such 3-dimensional arrays are
Basic Concept called space lattices.
Lattice Unit Cells

➔ The "lengths" of the various crystallographic axes are defined on the basis of the unit cell. When
➔ The symmetry observed in crystals as exhibited by their crystal faces is due to the ordered internal
arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure. This arrangement of atoms in crystals is called a lattice. arrays of atoms or molecules are laid out in a space lattice, we define a group of such atoms as the
unit cell. This unit cell contains all the necessary points on the lattice that can be translated to repeat
Symmetry
itself in an infinite array. In other words, the unit cell defines the basic building blocks of the
➔ In 2-dimensions a plane lattice consists of an orderly array of points. The array is defined by the crystal, and the entire crystal is made up of repeatedly translated unit cells.
spacing between points and the directions (or angles) between the points. Thus, the array can be
Relation between Lattice Parameter and Radius of Anion and Cation
reproduced by specifying the distance and angle to move from point to point. This is referred to as
➔ For Body Centred Cubic Unit Cell:
translational symmetry.
1. In the example here, the array is reproduced by moving down a distance “a” and moving to the √3
𝑟+ + 𝑟− = ∗𝑎
right a distance “b”. The angle between the two directions of translation in this case is 90o. 2
Where; r+ = radius of cation; r- = radius of anion and a = unit cell edge length (lattice parameter.
➔ For Face Centred Cubic Unit Cell:
𝑎√2
𝑟+ + 𝑟− =
2
+ -
Where; r = radius of cation; r = radius of anion and a = unit cell edge length (lattice parameter.
Coordination Number (CN)
➔ The arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure not only depends on the charge on the ion and type
2. In the example to the right, the translation distances “a” and “b” are not equal and the translation angle of bonding between atoms, but also on the size of the atoms or ions.
is not 90o. ➔ In any given molecule or crystal structure each atom or ion will be surrounded by other atoms or
ions. The number of ions or atoms that immediately surround an atom or ion of interest is called
the coordination number (CN). The coordination number depends on the relative size of the atoms
or ions
P a g e 15 | 54
Radius Ratio (RR) 1. Shared edges, and particularly faces of two anion polyhedra in a crystal structure decreases
its stability.
➔ To see what happens when one of the involved ions or atoms becomes smaller, we need to examine
➔ Rule 4
the relative sizes of the atoms. The relative sizes are indicated by the radius ratio of the
1. In a crystal structure containing several cations, those of high valency and small
coordinating atoms or ions.
coordination number tend not to share polyhedral elements.
➔ In crystal structures we usually look at cations surrounded by anions, so the
➔ Rule 5, The Principle of Parsimony
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅𝑥/𝑅𝑧
1. The number of different kinds of constituents in a crystal tends to be small.
where Rx is the radius of the cation, and Rz is the radius of the surrounding anions. Since the
anions are usually the larger ions, this results in decreasing values of Rx/Rz as the size of the cation Axial Ratios
decreases. ➔ Axial ratios are defined as the relative lengths of the crystallographic axes. They are normally
➔ The table here summarizes the cation to anion radius ratios, Rx/Rz, for various coordination
taken as relative to the length of the b crystallographic axis. Thus, an axial ratio is defined as
numbers and gives the name of the coordination polyhedron for each coordination number. follows:
Axial Ratio = a/b : b/b : c/b
where a is the actual length of a crystallographic axis, b, is the actual length of the b crystallographic
axis, and c is the actual length of the c crystallographic axis.
1. For Triclinic, Monoclinic, and Orthorhombic crystals, where the lengths of the three axes are
different, this reduces to
a/b: 1 : c/b (this is usually shortened to a : 1 : c)
2. For Tetragonal crystals where the length of the a and b axes are equal, this reduces to
1: 1 : c/b (this is usually shorted to 1 : c)
➔ Note: 3. For Isometric crystals where the length of the a, b, and c axes are equal this becomes
1. These general relationships of coordination only apply if the bonding is dominantly ionic. 1 : 1 : 1 (this is usually shorted to 1)
2. In covalent structures the atoms overlap because they share electrons. 4. For Hexagonal crystals where there are three equal length axes (a1, a2, and a3) perpendicular to
3. It should also be noted that 5-, 7-, 9-, and 10-fold coordination are also possible in complex the c axis this becomes:
structures. 1 : 1 : 1: c/a (usually shortened to 1 : c)
Pauling's Rules Intercepts of Crystal Faces (Weiss Parameters)
➔ Rule 1 ➔ Crystal faces can be defined by their intercepts on the crystallographic axes. For non-hexagonal
1. Around every cation, a coordination polyhedron of anions forms, in which the cation-anion crystals, there are three cases.
distance is determined by the radius sums and the coordination number is determined by the 1. A crystal face intersects only one of the crystallographic axes.
radius ratio. ▪ As an example, the top crystal face shown here intersects the c axis but does not intersect the a
➔ Rule 2, The Electrostatic Valency Principle or b axes. If we assume that the face intercepts the c axis at a distance of 1 unit length, then
1. An ionic structure will be stable to the extent that the sum of the strengths of the electrostatic the intercepts, called
bonds that reach an ion equal the charge on that ion. Weiss Parameters, are:
2. In order to understand this rule, we must first define electrostatic valency (ev) as;
𝑒. 𝑣 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝐶. 𝑁.
➔ Rule 3
P a g e 16 | 54
Euler’s Theorem
F+S = E+2 Where; F = face; S= solid; and E = edge
Miller Indices
Miller index using axial intercept: -
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
(h k l) = ( )
𝒊𝒂 𝒊𝒃 𝒊𝒄
∞a, ∞b, 1c
Where; a, b and c = cell parameter and ia, ib and ic are axial intercept.
➔ A crystal face intersects two of the crystallographic axes.
▪ As an example, the darker crystal face shown here intersects the a and b axes, but not the c ➔ Step to estimate Miller Index for a crystal face is found by
axis. Assuming the face intercepts the a and c axes at 1 unit cell length on each, the parameters 1. first determining the parameters
for this face are: 2. second inverting the parameters, and
3. third clearing the fractions.
▪ For example, if the face has the parameters 1 a, 1 b, ∞c
▪ inverting the parameters would be 1/1, 1/1, 1/∞
▪ this would become 1, 1, 0
▪ the Miller Index is written inside parentheses with no commas - thus (110)
➔ Note:
1. The face on the back of the crystal that cuts the negative “a” axis has the parameters (-1a, ∞b, ∞c).
1a, 1b, ∞c
2. So, its Miller Index is (1̅00). Note how the negative intercept is indicated by putting a minus sign
➔ A crystal face that intersects all 3 axes.
above the index and known as bar. This would be read "minus one, one, one".
▪ In this example the darker face is assumed to intersect the a, b, and c crystallographic axes at
3. To refer to a general face that intersects all three crystallographic axes where the parameters
one unit length on each. Thus, the parameters in this example would be:
are not known, we use the notation (hkl).
▪ For a face that intersects the b and c axes with general or unknown intercepts the notation
would be (0kl)
▪ For a face intersecting the a and c axis, but parallel to b the notation would be (h0l), and
▪ Similarly, for a face intersecting the a and b axes, but parallel to c we would use the notation
(hk0).
4. This Miller Index notation applies very well to crystals in the Triclinic, Monoclinic,
Orthorhombic, Tetragonal, and Isometric systems, but requires some modification to be
1a, 1b, 1c
applied to the Hexagonal crystal system.
➔ Note:
1. Two very important points about intercepts of faces: Miller Bravais Indices (for Hexagonal System)
2. The intercepts or parameters are relative values, and do not indicate any actual cutting lengths. ➔ Since the hexagonal system has three "a" axes perpendicular to the "c" axis, both the parameters
3. Since they are relative, a face can be moved parallel to itself without changing its relative intercepts of a face and the Miller Index notation must be modified. The modified parameters and Miller
or parameters. Indices must reflect the presence of an additional axis. This modified notation is referred to as
➔ Because one does usually not know the dimensions of the unit cell, it is difficult to know what number Miller-Bravais Indices, with the general notation (hkil)
to give the intercept of a face, unless one face is chosen arbitrarily to have intercepts of 1. Thus, the
convention is to assign the largest face that intersects all 3 crystallographic axes the parameters - 1a,
1b, 1c. This face is called the unit face.
P a g e 17 | 54
➔ To see how this works, let's look at the dark shaded face in the hexagonal crystal shown here. This Graphical Representation of Mineral Composition
face intersects the positive a1 axis at 1 unit length, the negative a3 axis at 1 unit length, and does ➔ For simple compositional variation it is often convenient to visualize the compositions in some kind
not intersect the a2 or c axes. This face thus has the parameters: of graphical form.
1. 1a1, ∞a2, -1a3, ∞c
➔ Most chemical analyses of oxide and silicate minerals are reported in weight % oxide components. In
2. Inverting and clearing fractions gives the Miller-Bravais Index: weight percent because the classical technique of chemical analyses was once gravimetric, and in oxide
3. (100) components because it is difficult to obtain concentrations of Oxygen, so in oxides and silicates it is
➔ An important rule to remember in applying this notation in the hexagonal system, is that whatever
assumed that there is enough Oxygen to balance the cationic charges.
indices are determined for h, k, and i,
Graphical Representation of 2 Component (Mineral Composition)
h+k+i=0
➔ If the composition of a mineral can be expressed with 2 components, then a linear scale can be used as
➔ For a similar hexagonal crystal, this time with the shaded face cutting all three axes, we would find
a graphical representation of composition. For example, chemical analysis of the mineral kyanite
for the shaded face in the diagram that the parameters are shows that it is composed of about 36 weight % SiO2 and 64 weight % Al2O3.
1. 1a1, 1a2, -1/2 a3, ∞c ➔ We can plot this on a linear scale as shown here in the upper diagram. Note that in this two-component
2. Inverting these intercepts gives: compositional diagram 0% plots at the same point as 100 %.
3. 1/1, 1/1, -2/1, 1/∞ ➔ 1, 1, -2, 0 ➔ We could divide each of these weight percentages by the molecular weight of each of the oxides and
4. resulting in a Miller-Bravais Index = (112̅0) recalculate in the analysis in terms of molecular %. But the chemical formula of Kyanite - Al2SiO5 -
Crystal Symmetry in a nut shell tells us that kyanite is made up of 1Al2O3 + 1SiO2. So in molecular percent 50% of kyanite is Al2O3
and 50% is SiO2, as shown in the lower diagram below.
ρ and  (Angle
Miller
Condition corresponding to Miller Remark
Indices
Index
face is parallel to the “a”

h=0 (0kl)  = 0º or 180º
crystallographic axis
face is parallel to the “b”

k=0 (h0l)  = 90º or 270º
➔ Similarly, olivine can be thought of as a mixture of forsterite, Fo (Mg2SiO4) and fayalite, Fa (Fe2SiO4).
face is parallel to the “c”
l=0 (hk0) ρ = 90º If these are the only two components involved, then note again that 100% Fo corresponds to 0% Fa,
and vice versa.
➔ An olivine solid solution that has 50% of the Mg+2 ions replaced by Fe+2 ions would be said to have a
face is perpendicular to the “c”
h&k=0 (00l) ρ = 90º composition Fo50 or Fa50. Note that it could be expressed either way, because both ways indicate the
same composition.
face is perpendicular to the “b” ➔ The chemical formula for such a composition would be written as MgFeSiO4. Similarly, for an olivine
h&l=0 (0k0) ρ = 90º ;  = 90º or 180º
crystallographic axis composition where 20% of the Fe+2 ions are replaced by Mg+2 ions, the composition could be expressed
as Fa20 or Fo80.
face is perpendicular to the “a”
k&l=0 (h00l) ρ = 90º ;  = 90º or 27º
P a g e 18 | 54
2. MgSiO3 (enstatite) can also be written as 1MgO + 1SiO2, and plots 50% of the way between MgO
and SiO2.
3. CaMgSi2O6 (diopside) can also be written as 1CaO + 1MgO +2SiO2. There are a total of 4
molecules, with 1/4 as CaO, 1/4 as MgO, and 2/4 as SiO2. So diopside plots at 25%CaO, 25%MgO,
and 50%SiO2.
Relation between interplanar spacing and Miller indices
Graphical Representation of 3 Component (Mineral Composition) ➔ The parallel set of atomic planes causes diffraction of the x-ray’s waves at the same angle. Such set of
planes are described by Miler indices (hkl) and the perpendicular distance between (hkl) plane is
(Triangular Graph)
denoted by dhkl. It is a function of h, k, l and the unit cell parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and given by
➔ If there are three components that need to be plotted, a triangular graph can be used. Such a graph for below equation:
the three components MgO, CaO, SiO2 is shown below. 1
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
2 2 2
√ℎ 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
➔ This is the general formula and is applicable to the primitive lattice of orthorhombic, tetragonal and
cubic systems.
1. Orthorhombic system: a ≠ b ≠ c
1
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
2 2 2
√ℎ 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
2. Tetragonal system: a = b ≠ c
1
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
2 2 2
√ℎ +2 𝑘 + 𝑙 2
𝑎 𝑐
3. Cubic system: a = b = c
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙2
2
➔ Each of the corners of the triangular graph represent 100% of the component plotted at that corner, and
Angle between two planes (Angle between two direction)
0% of the other two components.
➔ Lines parallel to the sides of the triangle in this case are marked off in 10% increments, so that the ➔ For Cubic System (h1, k1, l1 and (h2, K2, l2)
horizontals lines represent the % of CaO starting from 0% at the bottom to 100% at the CaO corner. ℎ1 ℎ2 + 𝑘1 𝑘 + 𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ =
➔ Lines parallel to the SiO2 - CaO side of the triangle represent the %MgO starting from 0% at the SiO2 (√ℎ1 2 + 𝑘1 2 + 𝑙1 2 ) ∗ (√ℎ2 2 + 𝑘2 2 + 𝑙2 2 )
- CaO join to 100% MgO at the MgO corner.
➔ Lines parallel to the MgO - CaO side of the diagram represent the % SiO2. Zone axis angle
➔ Note that the composition 33%MgO, 33%CaO, 33%SiO2 plots at the exact center of the triangle.
➔ Plane (h, k, l) and (p, q, r)
➔ Minerals that only contain 2 of the three components plot along the sides of the triangle, with the scale
being similar to the 2-component graphs discussed above. So, for example if we are using molecular
percentages,
1. CaSiO3 (wollastonite) which can also be written as 1CaO + 1SiO2, plots 50% of the way between
CaO and SiO2.
P a g e 19 | 54
Packing Density for PCC (Primitive Cubic Centre)

Packing Density for BCC (Body Cubic Central)
Packing Density for FCC (Face Cubic Central)
Refractive Index
➔ Refractive index, of a material or substance is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum, c,
to the speed of light in a material through which it passes, v. n = c/v
Note:
1. Materials whose refractive index not depend on the direction that the light travels are called
isotropic materials.
▪ In these materials the velocity of light does not depend on the direction that the light
Relationship between direction and Plane travels. Isotropic materials have a single, constant refractive index for each wavelength.
➔ When plane is perpendicular to direction; i.e. (h k l) perpendicular to (u v w)
▪ Minerals that crystallize in the isometric system, by virtue of their symmetry, are
isotropic.
Then; h=u; k =v and l=2
▪ Similarly, glass, gases, most liquids and amorphous solids are isotropic.
➔ When plane is parallel to direction; i.e (h k l) is parallel to (u v w) 2. Materials whose refractive index does depend on the direction that the light travels are
Then; hu + kv + lw= 0 called anisotropic materials.
▪ These types of materials will have a range of refractive indices between two extreme
Bragg's Law
values for each wavelength.
➔ Defined as nλ = 2d sin θ ▪ Anisotropic materials can be further divided into two subclasses. Minerals that
Where; n = positive integer; θ= angle between crystal plane and diffracted beam; λ= wavelength; and crystallize in the tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems (as well as some plastics) are
d = spacing between crystal lattice planes. uniaxial and are characterized by 2 extreme refractive indices for each wavelength.
Electrostatic Bond Structure (EBS) ▪ Minerals that crystallize in the triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic crystal systems
are biaxial and are characterized by 3 refractive indices, one of which is intermediate
Defined as
between the other two.
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐸𝐵𝑆 = 3. Air, since it is a gas, is isotropic. The refractive index of air is usually taken as 1.0, although
𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
its true value is 1.0003.
Snell's Law
Packing Density
➔ When light strikes an interface between two substances with different refractive indices, two things
𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = occur. An incident ray of light striking the interface at an angle, i, measured between a line
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒
perpendicular to the interface and the propagation direction of the incident ray, will be reflected off
Where; n = effective number of cations.
the interface at the same angle, i. In other words, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
➔ If the second substance is transparent to light, then a ray of light will enter the substance with different
refractive index, and will be refracted, or bent, at an angle r, the angle of refraction. The angle of
refraction is dependent on the angle of incidence and the refractive index of the materials on either side
of the interface according to Snell's Law:
sin(i)/sin(r) = nr/ni = v1/v2
P a g e 20 | 54
Total internal Reflection Birefringence of a Minerals

➔ There is also an angle, ic, called the critical angle for total internal reflection where the refracted ➔ It is defined as;
ray travels along the interface between the two substances. This occurs when the angle r = 90o, and
𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑦 (𝑛𝑠 )– 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑦 (𝑛𝑓 )
i=ic, In this case, applying Snell's law:
sin(i)/sin(r) = nr/nc ➔ sinic = nr/nc Or;
Double Refraction 𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 – 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
➔ All anisotropic minerals exhibit the phenomenon of double refraction. What happens is that when Or;
unpolarized light enters the crystal from below, it is broken into two polarized rays that vibrate 1 1
𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = –
perpendicular to each other within the crystal. 𝑣𝑒𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑦
o One ray, labeled ‘o’, follows Snell's Law, and is called the ordinary ray, or o-ray (). It has a Uniaxial Minerals
vibration direction that is perpendicular to the plane containing the c-axis and the path of the ray.
➔ For intermediate refractive Index:
o The other ray, labeled ‘e’, does not follow Snell's Law, and is therefore referred to as the
extraordinary ray, or e-ray (). The e ray is polarized with light vibrating within the plane 𝜔
𝜖′ =
containing the c-axis and the propagation path of the ray. 𝜔2
√1 + ( − 1) cos 2 𝜃
𝜀2
o Note→ wave vibrating in the higher refractive index direction, refer as the slow wave, and
the wave vibrating in the lower refractive index direction, as the fast wave. where; θ = angle between plane which cuts the ellipsoid and c-axis.
Uniaxial Minerals Biaxial Minerals
➔ Uniaxial minerals are a class of anisotropic minerals that include all minerals that crystallize in the ➔ For intermediate refractive Index:
tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems. They are called uniaxial because they have a single optic 1
𝑛′ =
axis. Light traveling along the direction of this single optic axis exhibits the same properties as
sin2 𝜌 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 sin2 𝜌 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜌
isotropic materials in the sense that the polarization direction of the light is not changed by passage √ + +
𝑛𝛼 2 𝑛𝛽2 𝑛𝛾 2
through the crystal.
➔ Uniaxial minerals can be further divided into two classes. where;  = angle between X plane n’ plane and ρ = angle between z plane n’ plane
If ω > ε ➔ mineral is said have a negative optic sign or is uniaxial negative.
If ω  ε ➔ mineral is said to have a positive optic sign or is uniaxial positive.
➔ For Optical angle:
➔ The absolute birefringence of a uniaxial minerals is defined as | ω - ε | (the absolute value of the
difference between the extreme refractive indices). 𝛼 (𝛾 − 𝛽)(𝛾 + 𝛽)
cos 𝑣𝑧 = √
Biaxial Minerals 𝛽 (𝛾 − 𝛼)(𝛾 + 𝛼)
➔ All minerals that crystallize in the orthorhombic, monoclinic, or triclinic crystal systems are ➔ False Optic axis:
biaxial. Biaxial crystals have 2 optic axes, and this distinguishes biaxial crystals from uniaxial
sin 𝐸 = 𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑉
crystals. Like uniaxial crystals, biaxial crystals have refractive indices that vary between two
extremes, but also have a unique intermediate refractive index. ➔ The Mallard Constant (Method): Using an acute bisectrix figure, the distance between the
➔ Biaxial refractive indices are as follows: melatopes (2D) is proportional to 2V. This distance increases as the refractive index of the mineral
o The smallest refractive index is given the symbol α (or X).  increases. The value of 2V (or V) can be determined using the equation:
o The intermediate refractive index is given the symbol β (or Y).
Sin V = D/K. 
o The largest refractive index is given the symbol γ (or Z)
P a g e 21 | 54
Where K is known as Mallard’s constant, and is a function of the numerical aperture of the For example, 100 g of water is about 5.551 mol of water.
objective lens used. 𝒘𝒕 %
𝑶𝒓, 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 =
➔ Tobi’s method: Requires knowledge of the numerical aperture (NA) of the lens used, and the value 𝒎𝒐𝒍. 𝒘𝒕%
of . The distance between the 2 melatopes (2D) is then measured, and 2V can be read directly off 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒕. =
𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒐𝒏
of the graph.
➔ Numerical Aperture:
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝛽 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
The molar mass of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, but also on the distribution
Retardation (Δ) of isotopes of each chemical element present in it.
➔ If the time required for the slow ray to pass through the crystal is ts and the time required for the  For example, the mass of one mole of calcium-40 is 39.96259098±0.00000022 grams, whereas the
fast ray to pass through the crystal is Tf, then the distance traveled by the fast wave as it waits for mass of one mole of calcium-42 is 41.95861801±0.00000027 grams, and of one mole of calcium
the slow wave to emerge from the crystal is c(Ts - Tf), where C is the velocity of light in air. This with the normal isotopic mix is 40.078±0.004 grams.
is the path difference between the two waves is known as Retardation and given by below formula; Molar concentration (Molarity)
𝛥 = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑡 ∗ (𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑓 )
➔ The molar concentration, also called molarity, of a solution of some substance is the number of
moles per unit of volume of the final solution. In the SI its standard unit is mol/m3, although more
practical units, such as mole per litre (mol/L) are used.
Chapter:#07 Igneous Petrology
Molar fraction
Basic Concept
➔ The molar fraction or mole fraction of a substance in a mixture (such as a solution) is the number
Mole
of moles of the compound in one sample of the mixture, divided by the total number of moles of
➔ The mole (symbol: mol) is the unit of measurement for amount of substance in the International all components.
System of Units (SI). It is defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 particles, which may be atoms,  For example,
molecules, ions, or electrons. if 20 g of NaCl is dissolved in 100 g of water, the amounts of the two substances in the
➔ The number 6.02214076×1023 (the Avogadro number, NA) was chosen so that the mass of one solution will be (20 g)/(58.443 g/mol) = 0.34221 mol and (100 g)/(18.015 g/mol) = 5.5509 mol,
mole of a chemical compound in grams is numerically equal, for most practical purposes, to the respectively; and
average mass of one molecule of the compound in daltons. 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙/𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
➔ Thus, for example, one mole of water contains 6.02214076×1023 molecules, whose total mass is = 0.34221/(0.34221 + 5.5509) = 0.05807
about 18.015 grams and the mean mass of one molecule of water is about 18.015 daltons.
Mass Percentage
Molar mass
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 % 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of that substance, in multiples of the gram. The 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
amount of substance is the number of moles in the sample. 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 % 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
➔ For most practical purposes, the magnitude of molar mass is numerically the same as that of the
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
mean mass of one molecule, expressed in daltons. For example, the molar mass of water is 18.015 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 % 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
g/mol. Other methods include the use of the molar volume or the measurement of electric charge.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆)
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆) Parts per Million (ppm)
=
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 (𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕) 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅(𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆) ➔ In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of
miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e.g. mole fraction or mass fraction.
P a g e 22 | 54
➔ Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they are pure numbers with no associated ➔ For example, for a hypothetical garnet peridotite consisting of 60% olivine, 25% orthopyroxene,
units of measurement. 10% clinopyroxene, and 5% garnet (see Table 1 for K ís) the bulk distribution for Ce is D
➔ Commonly used are parts-per-million (ppm, 10−6), parts-per-billion (ppb, 10−9), parts-per-trillion (ppt, DCe= (0.6)(0.001) + (0.25)(0.003) + (0.1)(0.1) + (0.05)(0.02) = 0.012
10−12) and parts-per-quadrillion (ppq, 10−15). This notation is not part of the International System of ➔ Elements with D<<1 is termed incompatible - they will be preferentially concentrated in the liquid
Units (SI) system and its meaning is ambiguous. phase
➔ (excluded from the solid phases) during melting and crystallization. In contrast, those with D>1
Ionic Strength
are called
➔ The molar ionic strength, I, of a solution is a function of the concentration of all ions present in
➔ compatible and these will be preferentially retained in the solid phase (or excluded from the liquid
that solution phase).
𝑛
𝐾𝑑 = 0.5 ∑ 𝑐𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑖 2 Batch Melting (CL/Co)

𝑖=1
➔ In order to consider the evolution of a magmatic liquid we need to quantify its Batch melting. This
Where: is the simplest model for partial melting of a complex mineral assemblage.
one half is because we are including both cations and anions, ➔ The liquid remains at the site of melting and is in chemical equilibrium with the solid residue until
mechanical conditions allow it to escape as a single batch of primary magma.
ci = molar concentration of ion i (M, mol/L),
➔ Since the minerals are usually entering the magma in different proportions than they occur in the
zi = charge number of that ion, and the sum is taken over all ions in the solution. rock (this is referred to as non-modal melting) we must consider the impact this has on the bulk
For a 1:1 electrolyte such as sodium chloride, where each ion is singly-charged, the ionic strength partition coefficient of the solid.
is equal to the concentration. For the electrolyte MgSO4 , however, each ion is doubly-charged, leading to 𝐶𝑜
𝐶𝐿 =
an ionic strength that is four times higher than an equivalent concentration of sodium chloride: 𝐷𝑖 (1 − 𝐹) + 𝐹
➔ Where;
I = 0.5[c(+2)2 + c(-2)2] = 0.5 [4c+4c] = 4c
CL = concentration of element in liquid,
Crystallization Co = concentration of element in rock,
Distribution (Partition) Coefficient D = bulk partition coefficient,
F = fraction of melt formed (i.e., 1% melt = 0.01), and
➔ It is a useful concept that expresses the relative affinity for a sorbate in solution to sorbate to a
➔ If complete melting take place i.e., F=1
particular solid and defined as
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑜
(𝐴𝑖 )𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐾𝑑 = ➔ If small fraction of batch melting takes place i.e. F=0
(𝐴𝑖 )𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑜
Where; Ai = mole fraction or concentration of trace element “i” in ppm. 𝐶𝐿 =
𝐷𝑖
If Kd < 1 ➔ incompatible and if Kd > 1 ➔ compatible
Rayleigh Crystal Fractionation (Fractional crystallization)
Bulk Distribution (Partition) Coefficient
➔ Consider a closed system in which a body of magma is isolated in a magma chamber and undergoes
➔ In order to consider the evolution of a magmatic liquid we need to quantify its equilibrium with
continuous crystal fractionation. The crystals are effectively isolated from the magma as soon as
more than a single mineral phase. In this case, partitioning is described by the bulk distribution
they form. For this process the appropriate relationship is
coefficient D which is calculated from the weight proportion w of each mineral in the assemblage
𝑛
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑜 𝐹 (𝐷−1)
𝐷 = ∑ 𝑤𝑖 ∗ 𝐾𝑑 𝑖 Where; CL = concentration of the element in the residual melt,
𝑖=1
CO = initial concentration of the element in the melt,
Where; wi = mole fraction or concentration of trace element “i” in ppm
F = fraction of the melt that remains, and
P a g e 23 | 54
D = bulk partition coefficient for the crystallizing solids Entropy (S)

𝑞
Rayleigh Fractional Melting ➔ Change in Entropy ∆𝑆 =
𝑇
➔ For fractional melting Where; q = heat absorbed in the process and T = absolute temperature Or;
1 𝑑𝑆 𝐶𝑝
𝐶𝑜 ∗ (1 − 𝐹)(𝐷−1) =
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
𝐷𝑖 Where; Cp = heat capacity at constant pressure.
➔ where
Also, for isothermal and free expansive of an ideal gas
CL = concentration of the element in the melt, 𝑉𝑓
CO = initial concentration of the element in the melt, 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉𝑖
F = fraction of the melt that remains, and Where; q = heat absorbed in the process and T = absolute temperature; n = no. of moles of the ideal
D = bulk partition coefficient for the crystallizing solids gas; R = universal gas constant (= 8.314 J/mol-K), Vf = final volume of gas and Vi initial volume
➔ For Residue of gas.
𝐶𝑅 = 𝐶𝐿 ∗ 𝐷 Also,
𝑞
Heat needed for melting rock = Sp. Heat (solidus temp-given temp.) + heat of fusion ∆𝑆 =
𝑇
Thermodynamics 𝑉𝑓
∆𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅 ln
𝑉𝑖
Law
Helmontz free energy
dU = dQ + dW ➔ Defined as
First Law dU = dQ - pdV 𝐹 = 𝑈 − 𝑇𝑆
dU = TdS - pdV 𝑑𝐹 = −𝑝𝑑𝑉
dS = dQ/T Gibbs free energy (G)

Second Law
dQ = TdS ➔ Defined as
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆
Gibbs Phase Rule 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇
➔ P + F = C +2 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑇𝑆
Where P = phase, C = component; F = degree of freedom a Where; H = enthalpy (J); S = entropy (J/K)
Enthalpy (H) (or Heat Content) Also, for G=0 ➔ equilibrium; G<0 ➔ Forward and G>0 ➔ Backward
➔ Enthalpy of the reaction is Gibbs free energy for reaction (ΔGr)

∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ➔ It is defined as
➔ Enthalpy of the of Formation ∆𝐺𝑟 = ∑(𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐺𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡) − ∑ 𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑓∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎 ∆𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − ∑ 𝑏 ∆𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 Where; n = stoichiometric coefficient for each phase in the reaction.
Relation Between Gibbs Free Energy for reaction (ΔG) and Quotient (Q)
➔ It is defined as
P a g e 24 | 54
∆𝐺𝑟 = ∆𝐺 0 + 𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑄 ➔ Lower stability limit of water is defined as

Where; ∆𝐺 0 = standard state Gibbs free energy of the reaction. 𝐸ℎ = −0.59𝑝𝐻
At equilibrium ∆𝐺𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = 𝐾 Electron Activity (pe)
So, ∆𝐺 0 = −𝑅𝑇 ln 𝐾
➔ It is defined as
Redox Potential 𝑝𝑒 = − log 𝑎𝑒−
➔ pH of a Solution is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, H+, Where; ae- = activity of an electron in a reaction.
in a solution. At standard state;
1
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻 + ] = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻 + ] 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝𝑒 0 + ln 𝑄
𝑛
Where; n = number of moles of electrons transferred per mole of reaction
Equilibrium Constant
𝐾𝑓𝑜𝑟 Relation between Oxidation Potential (Eh) and Electron Activity (pe)
𝐾𝑒𝑞 =
𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑙 ➔ It is defined as
2.303𝑅𝑇
𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 ⇌ 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷 𝐸ℎ = ∗ 𝑝𝑒
𝐹
𝑲𝒇𝒐𝒓 [𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅 ➔ At 25ºC and 1 bar
𝑲𝒆𝒒 = =
𝑲𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒍 [𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃 𝐸ℎ = 0.059 ∗ 𝑝𝑒
Oxidation Potential (Eh) Relation between Dissociation Constant and Dissociation Solubility
➔ It is defined as 𝐾𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥 2
𝑅𝑇
𝐸ℎ = 𝐸ℎ0 + ln 𝑄 Clausis Clayperon Equation
𝑛𝐹
Where;
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑆
Eh = oxidation potential of the reaction =
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
Eho = oxidation potential of the reaction at 25º and 1 bar
R = universal gas constant (= 8.314 J/mol-K),
F = faraday constant
➔ For Ions Only ➔
K (diss. constant) = Product/Reactant
K = [H+]2
So, 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔√𝐾
0.059
𝐸ℎ = 𝐸0 − ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾
𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
Where; K (Equilibrium constant) =
𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
Relation between Oxidation Potential (Eh) and pH

➔ Upper stability limit of water is defined as
𝐸ℎ = 𝐸0 − 0.059 ∗ 𝑝𝐻 (where; pH = -log[H+]
Or, 𝐸ℎ = 1.23 − 0.59𝑝𝐻
P a g e 25 | 54

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Chapter#03: Structural Geology ...............................................................................................................................11

➔ Reflection and Refraction for Two-homogenous Layer Case ...............................................................52

Chapter#1: The Planet Earth Also, D* = D0 + N(t) (eλt − 1)

Conversion of Latitude (in Degree) to Kilometre: Where;

➔ Latitude: 1 degree = 110.574 Km  111 Km

Average Atomic Weight:

h1⋅ρ1 = h2⋅ρ2 = h3⋅ρ3 = ... hn⋅ρn

➔ Also, formula for anti-root (in case of ocean)

Where a = anti-root; z= depth of ocean and w is the density of the water.

Pratt–Hayford Model of Isostasy – Proof

Chapter#02: Geomorphology Froude Number (F) = v/ (g*d)

Discharge (Q) = A*v = w*d*v

Reynold’s Number (Re) = ( * v * D)/ 

➔ Parameter which measures the elongation of a basin.

Thickness of a Dipping Layer

land surface being level

land surface being sloping in the opposite direction of

True Dip and Apparent Dip Fold Related

𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙/

Plotting Planes and Lines on the Stereonet.

A plane intersects the lower hemisphere as a great circle.

Basic Concept called space lattices.

Lattice Unit Cells

Pauling's Rules Intercepts of Crystal Faces (Weiss Parameters)

face is parallel to the “a”

face is parallel to the “b”

Packing Density for PCC (Primitive Cubic Centre)

Total internal Reflection Birefringence of a Minerals

Double Refraction 𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 – 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥

Uniaxial Minerals Biaxial Minerals

𝐾𝑑 = 0.5 ∑ 𝑐𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑖 2 Batch Melting (CL/Co)

D = bulk partition coefficient for the crystallizing solids Entropy (S)

dS = dQ/T Gibbs free energy (G)

Gibbs Phase Rule 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇

➔ Enthalpy of the reaction is Gibbs free energy for reaction (ΔGr)

∆𝐺𝑟 = ∆𝐺 0 + 𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑄 ➔ Lower stability limit of water is defined as

Relation between Oxidation Potential (Eh) and pH

𝐸ℎ = 𝐸0 − 0.059 ∗ 𝑝𝐻 (where; pH = -log[H+]

Or, 𝐸ℎ = 1.23 − 0.59𝑝𝐻

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Discharge (Q) = Av = wd*v