FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

CHAPTER ONE
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

1.1- AN INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Refrigeration is defined as the process of extracting heat from a lower-temperature
heat source, substance, or cooling medium and transferring it to a higher-temperature
heat sink. Refrigeration maintains the temperature of the heat source below that of its
surroundings while transferring the extracted heat, and any required energy input, to a
heat sink, atmospheric air, or surface water.
A refrigeration system is a combination of components and equipment connected
in a sequential order to produce the refrigeration effect. The refrigeration systems
commonly used for air conditioning can be classified by the type of input energy and
the refrigeration process as follows:

1. Vapor compression systems: In vapor compression systems, compressors activate

the refrigerant by compressing it to a higher pressure and higher temperature level
after it has produced its refrigeration effect. The compressed refrigerant transfers its
heat to the sink and is condensed to liquid form. This liquid refrigerant is then
throttled to a low-pressure, low-temperature vapor to produce refrigerating effect
during evaporation. Vapor compression systems are the most widely adopted
refrigeration systems in both comfort and process air conditioning.
2. Absorption systems: In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by
thermal energy input. After absorbing heat from the cooling medium during
evaporation, the vapor refrigerant is absorbed by an absorbent medium. This solution
is then heated by direct-fired furnace, waste heat, hot water, or steam. The refrigerant
is again vaporized and then condensed to liquid to begin the refrigeration cycle
again.
3. Air or gas expansion systems: In an air or gas expansion system, air or gas is
compressed to a high pressure by mechanical energy. It is then cooled and expanded
to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas drops during expansion, a
refrigeration effect is produced.

1.2- REFRIGERANTS
A refrigerant is the primary working fluid used for absorbing and transmitting heat
in a refrigeration system. Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and low
pressure and release heat at a higher temperature and pressure. Most refrigerants
undergo phase changes during heat absorption—evaporation and heat releasing—
condensation.

1.2.1- DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL REFRIGERANT

In general, there is no ideal refrigerant available yet. However, it is desired to have
the features below in any refrigerant:
1. Low boiling and freezing point.
2. High critical pressure and temperature.

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FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

3. High latent heat of vaporization.

4. Low specific heat of liquid, and high specific heat of vapor.
5. Low specific volume of vapor.
6. High thermal conductivity.
7. Non-corrosive to metals.
8. Non-flammable and non-explosive.
9. Non-toxic.
10.Low cost.
11.Easily and regularly available.
12.Easy to liquefy at moderate pressure and temperature.
13.Mixes well with oil.
14.High coefficient of performance.
15.Ozone friendly.
16.Easy of locating leaks by odor or suitable indicator, i.e. Leakage Detection.

1.2.2- CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS

The refrigerants may be classified as shown in Table (1.1). However, the
refrigerants are commonly classified into five main groups as:
1. Halocarbon Refrigerants: Halocarbon Refrigerants are all synthetically produced
and were developed as the Freon family of refrigerants. They are chemicals in
which one or more carbon atoms are linked by covalent bonds with one or more
halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine). Depending on whether they
include chemical elements hydrogen (H), carbon (C), chlorine (Cl) and fluorine
(F); they are subdivided as:
- CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons): R-11, R-12, R-113, R-114, R-115
- HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons): R-22, R-123
- HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons): R-134a, R-404a, R-407C, R-410a
2. Azeotropic Refrigerants: An azeotropic refrigerant is a stable mixture of
refrigerants whose vapor and liquid phases retain identical compositions over a
wide range of temperatures. However, these mixtures, usually, have properties that
differ from either of their components. Examples of some azeotropes are:
- R-500: 73.8% R-12 and 26.2% R-152
- R-502: 8.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-115
- R-503: 40.1% R-23 and 59.9% R-13
- R-504: 48.2% R-32 and 51.8% R-115

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3. Zeotropic Refrigerants: A zeotropic refrigerant is a mixture whose composition in

liquid phase differs to that in vapor phase. Therefore, they do not boil at constant
temperatures unlike azeotropic refrigerants. Examples of some zeotropic
refrigerants are:
- R-404a: 4% R-125, 44% R-134a, and 52% R-143a
- R-407c: 52% R-32, 25% R-125, and 23% R-134a
- R-410a: 50% R-32 and 50% R-125
- R-413a: 3% R-600a, 9% R-218, and 88% R-134a

4. Inorganic Refrigerants: The inorganic refrigerants were used far earlier than the
halocarbons. They are still in use due to their inherent thermodynamic and physical
properties. These compounds include ammonia (NH3), water (H2O), and carbon
dioxide (CO2) in addition to the gases used in the gas expansion systems such as
air, oxygen (O2), and argon (Ar). They are named as:
- R-717: Ammonia
- R-718: Water/Steam
- R-728: Nitrogen
- R-729: Air
- R-732: Oxygen
- R-740: Argon
- R-744: Carbon Dioxide
5. Hydrocarbon Refrigerants: Many hydrocarbon gases have successfully been used
as refrigerants in industrial and commercial applications. They possess satisfactory
thermodynamic properties; however, they are highly flammable and explosive.
Examples of some hydrocarbons utilized as refrigerants are:
- R-170: Ethan
- R-290: Propane
- R-600: Butane
- R-600a: Isobutane
- R-1150: Ethylene

Table (1.1) Classification of Refrigerants

Refrigerant Refrigerant
Halocarbon Refrigerants Inorganic Refrigerants
R-717 (ammonia) ….. Table (1.6)
Methane Series
and Fig.(1.9)
R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) …Table (1.2)
R-718 (water/steam)
and Fig.(1.5)
R-744 (carbon dioxide)
R-22 (chlorodifluoromethane) ….. Table (1.3)
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants
and Fig.(1.6)
R-50 (methane)
R-23 (trifluoromethane)
R-170 (ethane)
R-32 (difluoromethane)
R-290 (propane)
Ethane Series R-600 (n-butane)
R-123 (2,2-dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane) R-600a (isobutane)

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R-124 (2-chloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane) R-1150 (ethylene)

R-125 (pentafluoroethane) R-1270 (propylene)
R-134a (1,1,1,2-
tetrafluoroethane)….Table(1.4) & Fig.(1.7)
R-143a (1,1,1-trifluoroethane) ….. Table (1.5)
and Fig.(1.8) Cryogenic Fluids
R-152a (1,1-difluoroethane) R-702 (normal hydrogen)
Propane Series R-702p (parahydrogen)
R-245fa (1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane) R-704 (helium)
R-728 (nitrogen)
Zeotropic Blends (% by mass) R-729 (air)
R-404A [R-125/143a/134a (44/52/4)] R-732 (oxygen)
R-407C [R-32/125/134a (23/25/52)] R-740 (argon)
R-410A [R-32/125 (50/50)] Absorption Solutions
Azeotropic Blends Ammonia/Water
R-507A [R-125/143a (50/50)] Water/Lithium Bromide

Note:
The properties of refrigerants are usually given in form of P-h diagrams and tables of
saturated liquid and saturated vapour. Those properties for some of the most common
refrigerants, i.e. R-12, R-22, R-134a, R-143a, and R-717 (Ammonia), are respectively
given in Figs.[(1.1), (1.2), (1.3), (1.4), and (1.5)] and Tables [(1.2), (1.3), (1.4), (1.5),
and (1.6)].

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Fig.(1.1) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 12

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Table (1.2)
(8.2)

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Fig.(1.2) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 22

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Table (1.3)
(8.2)

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Fig.(1.3) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 134a

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Table (1.4)
(8.2)

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Fig.(1.4) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 143a

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Table (1.5)
(8.2)

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Fig.(1.5) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 717 (Ammonia)

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Table (1.6)
(8.2)

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1.3- REFRIGERATION PROCESSES AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

1.3.1- REFRIGERATION PROCESSES
A refrigeration process indicates the change of thermodynamic properties of the
refrigerant and the energy transfer between the refrigerant and the surroundings. The
following refrigeration processes occur during the operation of a vapor compression
refrigerating system:
1. Evaporation: In this process, the refrigerant evaporates at a lower temperature than
that of its surroundings, absorbing its latent heat of vaporization.
2. Superheating: Saturated refrigerant vapor is usually superheated to ensure that
liquid refrigerant does not flow into the compressor.
3. Compression: Refrigerant is compressed to a higher pressure and temperature for
condensation.
4. Condensation: Gaseous refrigerant is condensed to liquid form by being de-
superheated, then condensed, and finally subcooled, transferring its latent heat of
condensation to a coolant.
5. Throttling and expansion: The higher-pressure liquid refrigerant is throttled to the
lower evaporating pressure and is ready for evaporation.
On the other hand, the following refrigeration processes occur during the operation
of an air or gas expansion refrigeration system:
1. Compression: Air or gas is compressed to a higher pressure and temperature.
2. Heat release: Heat is released to the surroundings at constant pressure in order to
reduce the temperature of the air or gas.
3. Throttling and expansion: Air or gas is throttled and expanded so that its
temperature is lowered.
4. Heat absorption: Heat is absorbed from the surroundings because of the lower air
or gas temperature.

1.3.2- REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Most refrigerants undergo a series of evaporation, compression, condensation,
throttling, and expansion processes, absorbing heat from a lower-temperature reservoir
and releasing it to a higher-temperature reservoir in such a way that the final state is
equal in all respects to the initial state. It is said to have undergone a closed refrigeration
cycle. When air or gas undergoes a series of compression, heat release, throttling,
expansion, and heat absorption processes, and its final state is not equal to its initial
state, it is said to have undergone an open refrigeration cycle.

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1.3.3- UNITS OF REFRIGERATION

In inch-pound (I-P) units, refrigeration is expressed in British thermal units per
hour, or simply Btu/h. A British thermal unit is defined as the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit from
59°F to 60°F (15oC to 15.55556oC); and 1 Btu/h = 0.293 W.
Another unit of refrigeration widely used in the HVAC&R industry is ton of
refrigeration, or simply TR. As mentioned before, 1 TR = 12,000 Btu/h of heat
removed. This equals the heat absorbed by 1 ton (2000 lb) of ice melting at a
temperature of 32°F over 24 h.
As the heat of fusion of ice at 32°F is 144 Btu / lb, then:
1  2000  144 
1TR  
24

 12,000 Btu / h  … (1.1)
 3.516 kW 



1.3.4- GRAPHICAL EVALUATION OF REFRIGERATION

The pressure-enthalpy p-h diagram is the most common graphical tool to analyses
and calculate the heat and work transfer and performance of a refrigeration cycle. A
single-stage refrigeration cycle consists of two regions: the high-pressure region, or
high side, and the low-pressure region, or low side. The change in pressure can be
clearly illustrated on the p-h diagram. Also, both heat and work transfer of various
processes can be calculated as the change of enthalpy and are easily shown on the p-h
diagram.
Fig. (1.6) is a general skeleton p-h diagram, where the enthalpy h (kJ/kg) is the
abscissa, while the pressure, expressed in logarithmic scale, is the ordinate. The
saturated liquid line separates the subcooled liquid from the two-phase region in which
vapor and liquid refrigerants coexist. The saturated vapor line separates this two-phase
region from the superheated vapor. In the two-phase region, the mixture of vapor and
liquid is subdivided by the constant-dryness-fraction quality line.
The constant-temperature lines are nearly vertical in the subcooled liquid region.
At higher temperatures, they are curves near the saturated liquid line. In the two-phase
region, the constant-temperature lines are horizontal. In the superheated region, the
constant-temperature lines curve down sharply. Because the constant-temperature lines
and constant-pressure lines in the two-phase region are horizontal, they are closely
related. The specific pressure of a refrigerant in the two-phase region determines its
temperature, and vice versa.
Also in the superheated region, the constant-entropy lines incline sharply upward,
and constant-volume lines are flatter. Both are slightly curved.

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Fig.(1.6) General skeleton of pressure-enthalpy p-h diagram

1.4-CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The Carnot refrigeration cycle is a reverse engine cycle. All processes in a Carnot
refrigeration cycle are reversible, so it is the most efficient refrigeration cycle.
Fig.(1.7.a) is a schematic diagram of a Carnot cycle refrigerating system, while
Fig.(1.7.b) shows the Carnot refrigeration cycle using gas as the working substance.
Using vapour as a working substance, Carnot cycle, shown in Fig.(1.7.b), is composed
of four reversible processes as:
1. An isothermal process 4-1 in which heat q1 is extracted at constant temperature
TR1 per (kg) of working substance.
2. An isentropic compression process 1-2.
3. An isothermal process 2-3 in which q2 is rejected at constant temperature TR2 per
(kg) of working substance.
4. An isentropic expansion process 3-4.
Fig.(1.7.b) shows the Carnot refrigeration cycle using vapour as the working
substance. Wet vapour is the only working substance where heat supply and heat
rejection processes can occur easily at constant temperature. This is because the
temperatures of wet vapour remain constant when latent heat is supplied or rejected.
As in the gas cycle, there are two isothermal processes 4-1 and 2-3 absorbing heat
at temperature TR1 and rejecting heat at TR2, respectively, and two isentropic processes,
one for compression 1-2 and another for expansion 3-4.

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Fig.(1.7) Carnot refrigeration cycle: (a) schematic diagram, (b) gas or vapour
cycle

1.4.1-PERFORMANCE OF CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

According to the first law of thermodynamics, when a system undergoes a
thermodynamic cycle, the net heat supplied to the system is equal to the net work done,
or:
Heat Supplied + Heat Rejected = Net Work Done … (1.2)
Referring to Fig.(1.7.a), in a Carnot refrigeration cycle,
q1  q 2  W 

q1  q 2  W  … (1.3)
q 2  q1  W 
Where; q1 = heat supplied from surroundings per kg of working substance at
temperature T1
q2 = heat rejected to sink per kg of working substance at temperature T2
W = net work done by system
The heat extracted from the source at temperature TR1 by the working substance,
i.e. the refrigerating effect per kg of working substance, is
q1  TR1 ( s1  s 4 ) … (1.4)
Where s1, s4 = entropy at state points 1 and 4, respectively in kJ/kg·K. The heat rejected
to the heat sink at temperature TR2 can be calculated as:
q 2  TR 2 ( s 3  s 2 )  TR 2 ( s 2  s 3 ) … (1.5)
Where s2, s3 = entropy at state points 2 and 3, respectively in kJ/kg·K. Because in the
isentropic process 1-2, s1 = s2, and in isentropic process 3-4, s3 = s4, thus:
q 2  TR 2 ( s1  s 4 ) … (1.6)
1.4.2- COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The coefficient of performance is an index of performance of a thermodynamic
cycle or a thermal system. Because the COP can be greater than 1, COP is used instead
of thermal efficiency.
For a refrigerator, COP is defined as the ratio of the refrigeration effect q1 to the
work input Win, both in kJ/kg, that is,
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Refrigeration Effect q1
COP   … (1.7)
Work Input Win
For the Carnot refrigeration cycle, from Eq.(1.3);
q1
COP 
q2  q1
… (1.8)
TR1 ( s1  s4 ) TR1
 
(TR 2  TR1 )( s1  s4 ) (TR 2  TR1 )

1.5- VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE

1.5.1- SINGLE-STAGE IDEAL VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE
The Carnot cycle cannot be achieved
for the vapour cycle in actual practice
because liquid slugging would occur
during compression of the two-phase
refrigerant. In addition, the mixture,
mostly liquid, does very little work when
it expands after condensation in the heat
engine. Therefore, a single- stage ideal
vapour compression cycle is used
instead of the Carnot cycle.
Fig.(1.8) shows an ideal single-stage
vapour compression cycle, where the
following points should be kept in mind:
1- The compression process occurs in the
superheated region.
2- A throttling device, such as an
expansion valve, is used instead of the
heat engine.
3- Single-stage means that there is only
one stage of compression.
4- An ideal cycle is one in which the
compression process is isentropic and
the pressure losses in the pipeline,
valves, and other components are
negligible.
5- Vapour compression means that the
vapour refrigerant is compressed to a
higher pressure, and then the
condensed liquid is throttled to a
lower pressure to produce the
refrigerating effect by evaporation.
Fig.(1.8) Single-stage ideal vapour compression cycle: (a) schematic diagram;
(b) p-h diagram; (c) T-s diagram.
1.5.1.1- FLOW PROCESSES

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Fig.(1.8.b) and Fig.(1.8.c) shows the refrigeration cycle on p-h and T-s diagrams,
where a series of cyclic processes take place sequentially as follows:
1- The refrigerant evaporates entirely in the evaporator and produces the refrigerating
effect.
2- It is then extracted by the compressor at state point 1, compressor suction, and is
compressed isentropically from state point 1 to 2.
3- It is next condensed to liquid in the condenser, and the latent heat of condensation is
rejected to the heat sink.
4- The liquid refrigerant, at state point 3, flows through an expansion valve, which
reduces it to the evaporating pressure. In the ideal vapour compression cycle, the
throttling process at the expansion valve is the only irreversible process, usually
indicated by a dotted line. Some of the liquid flashes into vapour and enters the
evaporator at state point 4.
5- The remaining liquid portion evaporates at the evaporating temperature, thus
completing the cycle.

1.5.1.2- CYCLE PERFORMANCE

For the evaporating process between points 4 and 1, there is no work done during
evaporation and the change of kinetic energy between points 4 and 1 is small and it is
usually ignored. Then, the refrigeration effect can be determined as:
q ref  q 41  h1  h4 (kJ/kg) … (1.9)
Where:
h1, h4 = enthalpy of refrigerant at points 1 and 4, respectively, kJ/kg
qref = heat supplied per kg of working substance during evaporation process,
kJ/kg
For isentropic compression between points 1 and 2, work input to the compressor Win
is given as:
Win  h2  h1 (kJ/kg) … (1.10)
Similarly, for condensation process between points 2 and 3, the heat rejected by the
refrigerant in the condenser qrej is calculated as:
q rej  q 23  h2  h3 (kJ/kg) … (1.11)
For the throttling process between points 3 and 4, assuming that the heat loss is
negligible:
h3  h4 … (1.12)
Accordingly, the COP of the single-stage ideal vapour compression cycle is:
Refrigeration Effect
COP 
Work Input
… (1.13)
h  h4
q ref
  1
Win h2  h1
While the refrigerant mass flow rate ṁr (kg/s) flowing through the evaporator is:
 Qref Qref
mr   … (1.14)
q ref h1  h4

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Where Qref is the refrigeration capacity of the system under consideration.

Note: From Eq.(1.13), the smaller the difference between the condensing and
evaporating pressures, or between condensing and evaporating temperatures, the lower
the Win input to the compressor at a specific Qref and, therefore, the higher the COP.
This fact can be observed easily from Figs.(1.8.b & c).

Example 8.1- A standard vapor-compression cycle producing 50kW of refrigeration

using refrigerant R-22 operates with a condensing temperature of 35°C and an
evaporating temperature of -10°C. Calculate (a) the refrigerating effect in kJ/kg, (b) the
circulation rate of refrigerant in kg/s, (c) the power required by the compressor in kW,
(d) the coefficient of performance, (e) the volume flow rate measured at the compressor
suction, (f) the power per kW of refrigeration, and (g) the compressor discharge
temperature.

Solution- The first step in the solution is to sketch the refrigeration cycle on the
pressure-enthalpy diagram, shown in Fig.(1.9), as follows:
1. The state of the vapour leaving the evaporator and entering the compressor, i.e.
point 1, is located on the saturated vapour line at -10°C.
2. The condition of the superheated vapour leaving the compressor and entering the
condenser, i.e. point 2, is located by following the constant entropy lines until
reaching the saturation pressure corresponding to 35°C, which is the condensing
pressure 1354 kPa.
3. The condition of vapour leaving the condenser and entering the expansion valve, i.e.
point 3, is located on the saturated liquid line at 35°C.
4. Starting from point 3 and following the constant enthalpy line down until reaching
the evaporator temperature of -10°C, the state of vapour leaving the expansion valve
and entering the evaporator, i.e. point 4, can be located.

Now, using Table (1.3) and Fig.(1.2), the enthalpies at the key points, i.e. 1, 2, 3, and
4, can be determined as follows:
- From Table (1.3), the specific volume and enthalpy of the saturated vapour at -10°C
are respectively h1 = 401.6kJ/kg and v1= 0.0652kg/m3.
- From Fig.(1.2), the enthalpy of the superheated vapour at the saturation pressure
corresponding to 35°C, which is 1354kPa, is h2 = 435.2 kJ/kg.
- From Table (1.3), the enthalpy of the saturated liquid at 35°C is h3 = h4 = 243.1
kJ/kg.

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Fig.(1.9) The pressure-enthalpy diagram for the system in Example- 1.1

(a) The refrigerating effect is:

qref  q41  h1  h4  401.6 - 243.1 = 158.5 kJ/kg
(b) The circulating rate of refrigerant can be calculated by dividing the refrigerating
capacity by the refrigerating effect:
 Qref 50 kW
mr    0.315 kg / s
qref 158.5 kJ / kg
(c) The power required by the compressor is the work of compression per kilogram
multiplied by the refrigerant flow rate:
Win = (0.315 kg/s) (435.2 - 401.6 kJ/kg) = 10.6 kW
(d) The coefficient of performance is the refrigerating rate divided by the compressor
power:
Qref 50 kW
COP    4.72
Win 10.6 kW
(e) The volume rate of flow at the compressor inlet can be determined as:
Volume flow rate = ṁr×v1=(0.315 kg/s) (0.0652m3/kg)
= 0.0205 m3/s = 20.5 L/s
(J) The compressor power per kilowatt of refrigeration is:
10.6 kW 1
Power of refrigeration    0.212 kW / kW
50 kW COP
(g) The compressor discharge temperature is the temperature of the superheated vapour
at point 2, which from Fig.(1.2) is found to be 57°C.

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1.5.2- SUBCOOLING AND SUPERHEATING

1.5.2.1- SUBCOOLING
Condensed liquid refrigerant is usually subcooled to a temperature lower than the
saturated temperature corresponding to the condensing pressure of the refrigerant,
shown in Fig.(1.10.a) as point 3′. This is done to increase the refrigerating effect. The
degree of subcooling depends mainly on the temperature of the coolant, e.g.
atmospheric air, surface water, or well water, during condensation, and the construction
and capacity of the condenser.
The enthalpy of subcooled liquid refrigerant hsc, kJ /kg, can be calculated as:
hsc  hs ,cond .  c pr (Ts ,cond .  Tsc ) … (1.15)
Where:
hs,cond. = enthalpy of saturated liquid refrigerant at condensing temperature,
kJ/kg
cpr = specific heat of liquid refrigerant at constant pressure, kJ/kg·°C
Ts,cond. = saturated temperature of liquid refrigerant at condensing pressure, °C
Tsc = temperature of subcooled liquid refrigerant, °C

Note: Enthalpy hsc is also approximately equal to the enthalpy of the saturated liquid
refrigerant at subcooled temperature.

1.5.2.2- SUPERHEATING
The purpose of superheating process, shown in Fig.(1.10.b), is to avoid compressor
slugging damage, where saturated refrigerant vapor is usually superheated to ensure
that liquid refrigerant does not flow into the compressor. The degree of superheat
depends mainly on the type of refrigerant feed and compressor as well as the
construction of the evaporator.

Fig.(1.10) (a) Subcooling and (b) superheating processes

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Example 1.2- A 500-ton single-stage centrifugal vapour compression system uses R-

22 as a refrigerant. The vapour refrigerant enters the compressor at dry saturated state.
The compression process is assumed to be isentropic. Hot gas is discharged to the
condenser and condensed at a temperature of 35°C. The saturated liquid refrigerant
then flows through a throttling device and evaporates at a temperature of 1.7°C.
Calculate:
1. The refrigeration effect.
2. The work input to the compressor.
3. The coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.
4. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant.
Recalculate the COP and the energy saved in work input if the refrigerant is
subcooled to a temperature of 32.2°C.

Solution-
1. The refrigeration effect:
From Table (1.3), the enthalpy of the saturated liquid refrigerant at a temperature
of 35°C, point 3 as shown in Fig.(1.11), is h3= h4=243.075kJ/kg.
Similarly, the enthalpy of saturated vapour refrigerant at a temperature of 1.7°C,
point 1, is h1=405.67kJ/kg.
Thus, the refrigeration effect is calculated as:
qref = h1 - h4 = 405.67- 243.075 = 162.6kJ /kg
2. The work input to the compressor:
From Fig.(1.2), the enthalpy of the superheated vapour refrigerant at temperature
of 50°C, point 2, is h2= 430kJ/kg. Thus:
Win = h2 – h1 = 430- 405.67 = 24.33kJ /kg
3. The coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle:
According to Eq.(1.13), COP of the refrigerating system is calculated as:
qref 162.6
COP    6.68
Win 24.33
4. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant:
From Eq.(1.14), the mass flow rate of the refrigerant can be calculated as
 Qref 500  3.516
mr    10.81kg / s
qref 162.6

If the liquid refrigerant is subcooled to a temperature of 32.2°C, then its enthalpy

is found using Fig.(1.2) to be h3′= h4′=240kJ/kg. Thus, the refrigeration effect is
increased to:
q′ref = h1 - h4′ = 405.67- 240 = 165.67kJ /kg
Also COP is increased to:
qref 165.67
COP    6.81
Win 24.33
Now, the electric power input to the compressor Pin without subcooling is:
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FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Qref 500  3.516

Pin    263.17kW
COP 6.68
While its value with subcooling Pin′ is:
 Qref 500  3.516
Pin    258.15kW
COP 6.81
Thus, the savings in electric energy required are calculated as:

 Pin  Pin 263.17  258.15
Pin    0.019  1.9%
Pin 263.17

Fig.(1.11) The p-h diagram of the refrigeration system in Example- 1.2

1.5.2.3- SUBCOOLING AND SUPERHEATING USING HEAT EXCHANGERS

Some refrigeration systems use a liquid-to-suction heat exchanger, which subcools
the liquid from the condenser with suction vapour coming from the evaporator. This
arrangement is illustrated in Fig.(1.12.a) and the corresponding pressure-enthalpy
diagram in Fig.(1.12.b).
Saturated liquid at point 3 coming from the condenser is cooled to point 4 by means
of vapour at point 6 being heated to point 1. From heat balance, h3-h4= h1-h6, and hence,
the refrigeration effect is either h6-h5 or h1-h3.

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FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Fig.(1.12) Refrigeration system with a heat exchanger to subcool the liquid from
the condenser

Example 1.3- A refrigerant 22 vapour compression system includes a liquid-to-suction

heat exchanger in the system. A heat exchanger is installed to warm the saturated
vapour coming from the evaporator from -10 to 5°C with subcooling the liquid coming
from the condenser at 30°C. The compressions are isentropic in both cases listed
below.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger
but with the condensing temperature at 30°C and an evaporating temperature of -10°C.
(b) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger?
(c) If the compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 L/s measured at the compressor
suction, what is the refrigeration capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(d) With the same compressor capacity as in (c), what is the refrigerating capacity of
the system with the heat exchanger?
(e) What is the degree of subcooling obtained with the heat exchanger?

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FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Solution-
(a) Without a heat exchanger:
- From Table (1.3), the enthalpy saturated vapour refrigerant at -10°C, point 1 or 6, is
h1 = 401.555 kJ/kg.
- From Fig.(1.2), the enthalpy of the superheated vapour at the saturation pressure
corresponding to 30°C, which is 1191.9kPa, is h2 = 431.787 kJ/kg.
- From Table (1.3), the enthalpy saturated liquid refrigerant at 30°C, point 3 or 4, is
h3 =236.664 kJ/kg.
- At point 5, h5 = h3 = 236.664 kJ/kg.
Thus, the coefficient of performance is:
h1  h5 401.555  236.664
COP    5.46
h2  h1 431.787  401.555
(b) With a heat exchanger:
- From Table (1.3), the enthalpy saturated vapour refrigerant at -10°C, point 6, is h6
= 401.555 kJ/kg.
- At point 1, where the superheated vapour leaves the heat exchanger and enters the
compressor, the evaporator saturation evaporator pressure corresponding to - 10 °C
is 354.79kPa, while the temperature is 5°C. So, the enthalpy can be read from
Fig.(1.2) as h1 = 411.845kJ/kg.
- From Fig.(1.2), the enthalpy of the superheated vapour leaving the compressor, point
2, at the saturation pressure corresponding to 30°C, which is 1191.9kPa, is h2 =
444.407kJ/kg.
- From Table (1.3), the enthalpy saturated liquid at 30°C, point 3, is h3 =236.664
kJ/kg.
- From heat balance, h3–h4= h1–h6, and hence, the refrigeration effect is either h4=
h3+h6–h1 =226.374 kJ/kg= h5.
Thus, the coefficient of performance is:
h1  h5 411.845  226.374
COP    5.7
h2  h1 444.407  411.845
(c) Refrigerating capacity without heat exchanger:
From Fig.(1.2) at point 1, v1 = 0.06534m3/kg. So, the refrigerating capacity is:

 Vr 12.0  10 3 m 3 / s
Qref  m r qref  (h1  h5 )  (401.555  236.664)  30.283kW
v1 0.06534m 3 / kg
 8.613 TR
(d) Refrigerating capacity with heat exchanger:
From Fig.(1.2) at point 1, v1 = 0.070275m3/kg. So, the refrigerating capacity is:

 Vr 12.0  10 3 m 3 / s
Qref  m r qref  (h6  h5 )  (401.555  226.374)  29.913kW
v1 0.070275m 3 / kg
 8.508 TR
(e) The degree of subcooling obtained:
At point 4, where the enthalpy of the subcooled liquid is h4=226.374 kJ/kg; we find
from Fig.(1.2) that T4=20°C. Thus:

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FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Degree of Subcooling = T3- T4=30-20=10°C

Fig.(1.13) The p-h diagram of the refrigeration system in Example- 1.3

Notes:
1- Compared with the standard vapour compression cycle, the system using a heat
exchanger may seem to have obvious advantages due to the increased refrigerating
effect, where both the capacity and the coefficient of performance may seem to be
improved. However, this is not necessarily true! Even though the refrigerating effect
is increased, the compression is pushed further out into superheat region, where the
work of compression in kJ/kg is greater than it is close to the saturated vapour line.
Moreover, and from standpoint of capacity, point 1 has a higher specific volume
than point 6, so that a compressor which is able to pump a certain volume delivers
less refrigerant mass flow rate if the intake is at point 1.
2- However, using heat exchanger is definitely justified in situations where the vapour
entering the compressor must be superheated to ensure that no liquid enters the
compressor. Another practical advantage is to subcool the liquid from the condenser
to prevent bubbles of vapour from impeding the flow of refrigerant through the
expansion valve.

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FOURTH GRADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

1.5.3- ACTUAL VAPOUR-COMPRESSION CYCLE

The actual vapour-compression cycle suffers from inefficiencies compared with

the standard or ideal cycle. There are also other differences from the standard, which
may be intentional or unavoidable. Some comparisons can be illustrated by
superimposing the actual cycle on the p-h diagram of the standard cycle as shown in
Fig.(1.14).

Fig.(1.14) Actual vapour-compression cycle compared with the ideal cycle

The main differences between the actual and the ideal cycle appear in the pressure
drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the subcooling of the liquid leaving the
condenser, and in the superheating of vapour leaving the evaporator. The ideal cycle
assumes no pressure drop occurs in either the condenser or the evaporator. Because of
the friction, however, the pressure of the refrigerant drops in the actual cycle. The result
of these drops in pressure is that the compression process between 1 and 2 requires
more work than it is in the standard cycle. The other difference in the actual cycle is
that the compression is no longer isentropic as there are inefficiencies due to friction
and other losses in the compressor.

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