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Pharma Mid++Final
Pharma Mid++Final
DRUG SOURCES
DRUG CLASSIFICATION
DRUG NAMES
2
DEFINITION AND DIVISIONS
PHARMACOLOGY : It is the science that deals with
interaction of drugs with living systems.
Divisions of Pharmacology:
1. Pharmacodynamics :
The main organ or tissue on which the drug acts , and for
which it is used therapeutically, is called the target
organ or tissue of drug action
2. Pharmacokinetics :
4
OTHER TOPICS LINKED WITH PHARMACOLOGY
1. Pharmacotherapeutics: It is concerned with the proper
use of drugs in treatment of disease in man
6
DRUG SOURCES
These may be either :-
Note :
Alkaloids are small organic molecules containing
nitrogen . e.g. atropine, morphine, caffeine, theophylline,
quinine
8
B. Animals : these may include either proteins , oils,
enzymes from exocrine glands, hormones, vaccines and
anti-sera, and some vitamins
2. Non-Organic sources :
- metals : Platinum, Zinc
- non-metals : Sodium chloride , magnesium sulfate
9
Rational drug design:
12
DRUG NAMES
1. Chemical name :
Because of its complexity , the chemical structure is not
usually used to name drugs.
However, sometimes a shorthand name based on a simple
chemical structure is employed e.g. acetylsalisylic acid
(aspirin) , acetaminophen (parectamol)
13
2. Generic (non-proprietory ) name :
This is a unique name that is given by official
pharmaceutical bodies;
It is present in pharmacopeas (BP or USP) .
It is the approved scientific name, and must be used in
scientific publications as well as in prescriptions esp. in
hospitals .
Its use makes it easier for pharmacist to choose from
many available brands of same drug.
Only few drugs show more than one generic name :
Noradrenaline & adrenaline in UK but are named Nor-
epinephrine and epinephrine, respectively, in USA &
WHO; salbutamol in UK while albuterol in USA
15
DOSE FORMS OF DRUGS
It is the physical form of drug product that is suitable for
administration to man. It contains specified dose or
amount of drug in a specified quantity or unit of the
formulation.
16
1. Oral dose forms: It includes the following
A. Pill: Tablets and capsules
B. Liquid: Syrup or suspension
C. Powder
D. Herbal plants: seeds, leaves etc..
E. Pastes
2. Inhalational:
A. Aerosol
B. Inhaler
C. Vaporizer (Solutions)
3. Parenteral:
A. Intradermal (ID) B. Intramuscular (IM)
C. Intraperitoneal (IP) D. Intravenous (IV)
17
E. Subcutanous (SC) F. Intrathecal (IT)
4. Topical:
A. Cream, gel, ointment, lotion
B. Eye drops ( ophthalmic)
C. Ear drops (otic)
D. Skin patch (transdermal)
5. Suppository:
A. Vaginal
B. Rectal
18
THANKS
19
PRINCIPLES OF
PHARMACODYNAMICS
CLASSIFCATION OF RECEPTORS
2
MECHANISMS OF DRUG ACTION
Drugs can act through:
1. Physical action:
Drug can produce a therapeutic response because of
it’s physical properties. e.g: Mannitol as diuretic
because it increase osmalerity, Radio-isotopes : emit
ionizing radiation
2. Simple chemical reaction:
Drug may act through a chemical reaction. e.g: Gastric
antacids work by neutralizing the stomach acidity
with a base, Chelating agents that bind heavy metals
in body.
3. Receptors:
A receptor is a specialized target macromolecule
mostly protein, present on the cell surface or
intracellular, that binds a drug and mediates it’s
pharmacological actions. 3
Receptors can either be enzymes,
nucleic acids or structural proteins to
which drugs may interact.
A molecule that binds to a receptor
is called a ligand, and can be
a peptide or another small molecule
like a neurotransmitter, hormone, or
drug.
Ligand binding changes
the conformation (three-dimensional
shape) of the receptor molecule. This
alters the shape at a different part of
the protein, changing the interaction
of the receptor molecule with
associated biochemicals, leading in
turn to a cellular response mediated
by the associated biochemical
pathway. 4
TYPES OF LIGAND-RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS
Agonist Hormone
e.g. important
Antagonist
binds β2 receptor in lung → control heart beat
therapy bronchial relaxation
in asthma
binds β2 receptor in heart muscle →
increased heart rate
5
TYPES OF LIGAND-RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS
Not every ligand that binds to a receptor also activates the
receptor. The following classes of ligands exist:
1. (Full) agonists are able to activate the receptor and
result in a maximal biological response. The
natural endogenous ligand with greatest efficacy for a
given receptor is by definition a full agonist (100%
efficacy).
2. Partial agonists do not activate receptors thoroughly,
causing responses which are partial compared to those of
full agonists (efficacy between 0 and 100%).
3. Antagonists bind to receptors but do not activate them.
This results in receptor blockage, inhibiting the binding of
agonists and inverse agonists.
4. Inverse agonists reduce the activity of receptors by 6
inhibiting their constitutive activity (negative efficacy).
TYPES OF DRUG-RECEPTOR BONDING
Drugs interact with receptors by means of chemical forces
or bonds. These are of three major types:
8
DURATION OF DRUG ACTION
Termination of drug action at the receptor level results from
one of several processes:
1. The effect lasts only as long as the drug occupies the
receptor, so that dissociation of drug from the receptor
automatically terminates the effect.
2. The action may persist after the drug has dissociated,
because, for example, some coupling molecule is still
present in activated form.
3. Drugs that bind covalently to the receptor, the effect may
persist until the drug-receptor complex is destroyed and
new receptors are synthesized.
4. Many receptor-effector systems incorporate
desensitization mechanisms for preventing excessive
activation when agonist molecules continue to be present 9
1. Transmembrane ligand-gated
ion channels: These receptors are
present in the walls of ion channels in
cell membranes. When activated by
their specific agonist, they open these
ion channels & lead to movement of
ions across cell membrane.
11
2. Transmembrane G protein–coupled receptors:
12
13
Examples:
Receptors for insulin,
Receptors for growth factors like EGF or PDGF,
Receptors for immune cytokines 14
15
4. Intracellular receptors:
16
17
THANKS
18
PHARMACODYNAMICS II
3
A. GRADED DOSE–RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS
➢The magnitude of the drug effect depends on the drug concentration at
the receptor site, which in turn is determined by the dose of drug
administered and by factors characteristic of the drug pharmacokinetic
profile, such as rate of absorption, distribution, and metabolism.
1. Potency
4
2. Efficacy
1. POTENCY:
A measure of the amount of drug
necessary to produce an effect of a
given magnitude.
7
EFFECT OF DRUG CONCENTRATION ON
RECEPTOR BINDING
The quantitative relationship between drug concentration
and receptor occupancy is expressed as follows:
Drug + Receptor ←→ Drug–receptor complex → Biologic effect
8
➢ the relationship between the percentage of bound receptors and the
drug concentration:
affinity.
ANTAGONISTS
➢ They are of 3 main types :
1. Chemical antagonist :
This combines with agonist and inactivates it away from
tissues or receptors
Examples:
a. Alkaline antacids neutralize HCl in stomach of peptic
ulcer patients;
b. protamine (basic) neutralizes the anti-coagulant heparin
(acidic) in plasma ;
c. chelating agents bind with higher affinity to heavy
metals (e.g. lead, mercury, arsenic ) in plasma and tissues,
preventing their tissue toxicity
10
2. Physiological antagonist :
Examples:
C*/C = 1 + [I] / KI
where C* is concentration of agonist that restores response
in presence of antagonist concentration [I], and C is agonist
concentration giving this response in absence of antagonist.
B. Non-competitive antagonist :
1. Irreversible antagonist :
16
17
C. Uncompetitive antagonism :
Here antagonist bind to a receptor different from that of
agonist, and is located more distally in the effector
mechanism so that the effect of agonist is blocked as well
as that of other agonists that produce similar effect by
acting on a different receptor. The dose-response curve is
similar to that of irreversible non-competitive antagonist.
Contraction
RECEPTOR REGULATION
1. Receptor up-regulation :
This means increase in number and/or affinity of specific
receptors ( receptor supersensitivity).
It may occur with :
A. Prolonged use of receptor antagonist : here,
there is lack of binding of receptor to agonist for long
period of time
19
B. Receptor down-regulation (Receptor tolerance):
This means a decrease in number and/or affinity of
available specific receptors due to their prolonged
occupation by agonist .
23
PHARMACODYNAMICS III
Example:
4
The quantal dose-effect curve is often characterized by:
1. median effective dose (ED50): the dose at which 50%
of individuals exhibit the specified quantal effect.
5
SUMMATION AND POTENTIATION
Two common types of “agonistic” drug interactions are :
1. Summation: When two drugs with similar mechanisms
are given together, they typically produce additive
effects.
2. Potentiation or synergism : if the effect of two drugs
exceeds the sum of their individual effects.
Potentiation requires that the drugs act
at different receptors or effector systems.
the ratio of the dose that produces toxicity to the dose that
produces a clinically desired or effective response in a
population of individuals
TI = TD50 / ED50
where :
TD50 = the drug dose that produces a toxic effect in half the population
ED50 = the drug dose that produces a therapeutic effect in half the
population.
7
A larger value indicates a wide margin between doses that
are effective and doses that are toxic.
TI is determined by measuring the frequency of desired
response, and toxic response, at various doses of drug.
8
when the therapeutic index is low,
it is possible to have a range of
concentrations where the effective
and toxic responses overlap
Agents with a low therapeutic
index are those drugs for which
bioavailability critically alters the
therapeutic effects
14
III. Special toxicity including
1. Genotoxicity leading to Mutagenicity :
Alkylating agents
2. Teratogenicity :
Congenital disorder : drugs taken in pregnancy
15
IV . Others
18
Pharmacokinetics (I)
Dr Mohammed Al-sbou
Professor of Clinical Pharmacology
Department of Pharmacology
Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University
1 1
The goal of drug therapy is to prevent,
cure, or control diseases
To achieve this goal, adequate drug doses
must be delivered to the target tissues so
that therapeutic yet nontoxic levels are
obtained
2
Pharmacokinetics (PK)
3 3
Pathways of drug movement: (ADME)
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism,
Elimination
4
Clinicians must recognize that:
Speed of onset of drug action
5
Knowledge of these four processes
(ADME) influences clinician’s decision of:
Route of administration for drug
6
Pathways of PK
Absorption:
- Is transfer of a drug from its site of
administration to bloodstream
Distribution:
7 7
Metabolism:
- By liver, kidney, or other tissue
Elimination:
8
Absorption
11
For example, oral route requires that a
drug dissolve in GI fluid and then pen-
etrate epithelial cells of intestinal mucosa,
disease states or presence of food may
affect this process
12
Absorption
13 13
1. Passive diffusion:
14
Water-soluble drugs: penetrate cell
membrane through aqueous channels or
pores
Other drugs enter cell through specialised
transmembrane carrier proteins (large
molecules)
15 15
2. Active transport:
17 17
3. Endocytosis & exocytosis
18
Exocytosis is reverse of endocytosis and
is used by cells to secrete many
substances
Certain neurotransmitters (Norepinephrine)
are stored in membrane-vesicles in nerve
terminal & are released by exocytosis
19
20
B. Effect of pH on drug absorption:
- Most drugs are either weak acids or weak
bases
- Uncharged drugs passes through
membranes readily
21 21
Physical factors influencing absorption:
22 22
Bioavailability
23 23
Bioavailability for drugs delivered IV is
100%
When drug is given orally, only part of
the administered dose appears in
plasma, bioavailability is less 100%
24 24
Bioavailability= AUC orally *100
AUC IV
25
If 100 mg of drug are administered orally,
70 mg are absorbed unchanged,
bioavailability 70%
26
Area under the curve (AUC): by
plotting plasma concentration of drug
versus time
Bioavailability of orally administered drug
is ratio of AUC for oral admin compared
with AUC for IV injection
27
Determination of bioavailability
Factors influencing bioavailability
29 29
Propranolol, lidocaine undergo
significant metabolism during passage
through liver
30
First-pass metabolism occurs with orally
administered drugs
B- Solubility of drug:
- Hydrophilic drugs are poorly absorbed
because of their inability to cross lipid-rich
cell membrane
32
C- Chemical instability:
Benzylpenicillin (Penicillin G) unstable
in pH of stomach, is given IV
Phenoxymethylpenicillin (Penicillin V)
is given IV
33
Bioequivalence:
34 34
Pharmacokinetics (II)
Dr Mohammed Alsbou
Professor of Clinical Pharmacology
Department of Pharmacology
Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University
1 1
Drug Distribution
2 2
Drug distribution depends on:
11 11
Some drugs are administered as inactive
compound (pro-drug) & must be
metabolised to their active forms
Kinetics of metabolism
First-order kinetics:
- Metabolism is catalyzed by enzymes
- At low doses, drug metabolism is first
order – rate of metabolism is directly
proportional to drug dose
13 13
Kinetics of metabolism
Zero-order kinetics:
- At high doses, drug metabolism is zero
order (no-Linear) that is constant &
independent of drug dose (because the
enzyme is saturated by high free-drug
concentration)
Effect of drug dose on rate of
metabolism
Reactions of metabolism
Phase II
16 16
Phase I
Designated as CYP
Is composed of many families of heme-
containing isozymes that are located in
most cells primarily in liver & GI tract
There are many different genes & many
different enzymes known as P450
isoforms
18 18
Most isoforms involved in metabolism
of drugs are:
CYP3A4= (60% of drugs)
20 20
CYP 450 inducers
21 21
CYP 450 inhibitors
26 26
Biotransformation of drugs
Pharmacokinetics (III)
Dr mohammed Alsbou
Professor of Clinical Pharmacology
Department of Pharmacology
Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University
1
Drug elimination
2
A. Renal elimination of a drug
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Proximal tubular secretion (active
secretion)
3. Distal tubular reabsorption (passive
reabsorption)
4. Effect of drug metabolism on
reabsorption in distal tubule
3
A. Renal elimination of a drug
1. Glomerular filtration:
Drugs enter kidney through renal arteries
4
2. Proximal tubular secretion
(active secretion):
5
3. Distal tubular reabsorption
(passive reabsorption):
6
Drug elimination by kidney
7
Effect of drug metabolism on reabsorption
in distal tubule
9
Manipulating pH of urine
10
As a general rule, weak acids can be
eliminated by alkalinization of urine
Whereas elimination of weak bases may
be increased by acidification of urine
11
Examples
12
Examples
13
Plasma clearance is expressed as
volume of plasma from which a drug is
removed in a given time (mL/min)
14
Extraction ratio:
The drugs enter kidneys at concentration
C1 and exit kidneys at concentration C2
The extraction ratio = C2/C1
15
Half-life (t1⁄2) of drug: is the time
required for drug concentration to change
by fifty percent
16
Total body clearance:
CL total or CLt, is the sum of clearances
from various organs
CL total = CL hepatic + CL renal + CL pulmonary + CL other
17
When a patient has an abnormality that
alters half-life of a drug, adjustment in
dosage is required
18
Half-life of drug is increased by:
19
Half-life of a drug may decrease by:
20
KINETICS OF CONTINUOUS
ADMINISTRATION
21
A. Kinetics of IV infusion
Rate of drug exit from body increases
proportionately as plasma
concentration increases, and at every
point in time, it is proportional to plasma
concentration of drug
22
1. Steady-state drug levels in
blood:
23
Rate of drug elimination from body = (CLt)(C)
CLt = total body clearance
24
2. Influence of rate of drug
infusion on steady state:
25
At steady state,
input (rate of infusion) equals
output (rate of elimination)
26
Css = Ro/keVd = Ro/CLt
Css = steady-state concentration
Ro = infusion rate (mg/min)
Ke =first-order elimination rate
Vd = volume of distribution
Because ke, CLt & Vd are constant for most
drugs showing first-order kinetics, Css is
directly proportional to Ro
27
If infusion rate is doubled, plasma
concentration achieved at the steady
state is doubled
28
Effect of infusion rate on
steady-state concentration
of drug in plasma
29
3. Time required to reach
steady-state drug concentration:
30
a. Exponential approach to
steady state:
32
b. Rate of drug decline when
infusion is stopped:
33
c. Loading dose:
34
B. Kinetics of fixed-dose/fixed-
time-interval regimens
35
1. Single IV injection:
Circulating level of drug
decreases exponentially
with time
36
2. Multiple IV injections:
When a drug is given repeatedly at regular
37
3. Orally administered drugs:
Plasma concentration
of orally administered
drugs is influenced by
both the rate of
absorption and the
rate of drug
elimination
38
Plasma Site of
Dosage Effects
Concen. Action
Pharmacokinetics Pharmacodynamics
12
Plasma Concentration
10 TOXIC RANGE
6 THERAPEUTIC RANGE
2 SUB-THERAPEUTIC
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Dose
DISPOSITION OF DRUGS
The disposition of chemicals entering the body (from C.D. Klaassen, Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology, 5th ed., New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1996).
LOCUS OF ACTION TISSUE
“RECEPTORS” RESERVOIRS
Bound Free Free Bound
SYSTEMIC
Bound Drug CIRCULATION
BIOTRANSFORMATION
Plasma concentration vs. time profile of a
single dose of a drug ingested orally
14
Plasma Concentration
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
TIME (hours)
12
Plasma Concentration
10 TOXIC RANGE
6 THERAPEUTIC RANGE
2 SUB-THERAPEUTIC
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Dose
LOCUS OF ACTION TISSUE
“RECEPTORS” RESERVOIRS
Bound Free Free Bound
SYSTEMIC
Bound Drug CIRCULATION
BIOTRANSFORMATION
Bioavailability
to
Dose systemic
circulation
PRINCIPLE
M KIDNEY LIVER
A
J filtration metabolism
O secretion secretion
R (reabsorption)
M LUNGS OTHERS
I
N exhalation mother's milk
O sweat, saliva etc.
R
Elimination by the Kidney
• Excretion - major
1) glomerular filtration
glomerular structure, size constraints,
protein binding
2) tubular reabsorption/secretion
- acidification/alkalinization,
- active transport, competitive/saturable,
organic acids/bases
- protein binding
• Metabolism - minor
Elimination by the Liver
• Metabolism - major
1) Phase I and II reactions
Portal circulation
Gut
12
Plasma Concentration
10 TOXIC RANGE
6 THERAPEUTIC RANGE
2 SUB-THERAPEUTIC
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Dose
Influence of Variations in Relative Rates of
Absorption and Elimination on Plasma
Concentration of an Orally Administered Drug
14 Ka/Ke=10
Plasma concentration
12 Ka/Ke=1
10
Ka/Ke=0.1
8 Ka/Ke=0.01
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
TIME (hours)
Elimination
14 DC/dt = – k•C
Plasma concentration
12 Ct = C0 . e – Kel •t
10 lnCt = lnC0 – Kel • t
8 logCt = logC0 – Kel •t
6 2.3
4 y = b – a.x
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
TIME (hours)
Plasma Concentration 10000
100
10
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time
logCt = logC0 - Kel . t
2.303
Plasma Concentration Profile
after a Single I.V. Injection
10000
Distribution and Elimination
Plasma Concentration
Elimination only
1000
C0
100
10
Distribution equilibrium
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time
lnCt = lnCo – Kel.t
Vd = Dose/C0
t1/2 = 0.693/Kel
I
N
Blood Flow = Q
ELIMINATED
Rate of Elimination = QCA – QCV = Q(CA-CV)
SIMILARLY FOR
Liver Clearance = Q(CA-CV)/CA = Q x EF OTHER ORGANS
•
Renal Clearance = Ux•V/Px
Therefore,
Kel x Amount = CL x Concentration
Kel = CL/Vd
0.693/t1/2 = CL/Vd
t1/2 is proportional to Vd
t1/2 is inversely proportional to CL
6
Plasma Concentration
Therapeutic
5 level
3
Repeated doses –
2
Maintenance dose
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time
The time to reach steady
state is ~4 t1/2’s
Concentration due to
repeated doses
dC = CL x C x dt
60
Plasma concentration
50 i.v. route
40
30 oral route
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (hours)
Variability in Pharmacokinetics
60
Concentration (mg/L)
50
Plasma Drug
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15
Daily Dose (mg/kg)
PRINCIPLE
MEDICATION ERRORS
2
RATIONAL USE OF DRUGS
Rational use of drugs: "patients receive medications
appropriate to their clinical needs, in doses that meet
their own individual requirements, for an adequate
period of time, and at the lowest cost to them and their
community".
3
MEASURES TO ENSURE RATIONAL USE
OF DRUGS
The WHO advice several measures to ensure
rational use of drugs that include development of:
National committee on drug use
4
IRRATIONAL USE OF DRUGS
Include:
Poly-pharmacy (use of too many drugs)
Over-use of injections
5
SELECTION OF DRUGS
Choice of effective drugs should be based on:
1.Efficacy
6
MEDICATION ERRORS
Definition:
any preventable event that may cause or lead to
inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the
medication is in the control of the health care professional,
patient, or consumer ...
Such events are related to professional practice, health
care products, procedures, and systems,
including prescribing; order communication; product
labeling, packaging, and nomenclature; compounding;
dispensing; distribution; administration; education;
monitoring; and use.
7
What kinds of errors are most common?
8
Causes of medication errors:
1. Poor communication between health care providers
2. Poor communication between providers and their patients
3. Sound-alike medication names and medical abbreviations
4. Errors when prescribing, transcribing, dispensing, and
administering medications
5. Errors related to patient monitoring of the effects of
medications
6. Potential or actual confusion regarding look-alike drug or
vaccine names, and packaging similarities
7. Misuse or malfunction of medication-related tools (e.g.,
syringes, needles), equipment (e.g., tubing, infusion pumps),
and technology (e.g.,
barcode scanning).
9
Examples
10
Medication errors may stem from:
1. poor communication,
2. misinterpreted handwriting,
12
Poor handwriting
13
DRUG NAME CONFUSION
14
DRUG NAME CONFUSION
15
MEDICATION ERROR PREVENTION
1. Patient communication
2. Intraprofessional communication
3. Education and training
4. Reporting
5. Electronic prescribing
16
THANKS
17
DRUGS USED DURING PREGNANCY
& LACTATION
PREGNANCY PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS EFFECTS ON PHARMACOKINETICS
Absorption
1. Gastrointestinal motility is decreased but there appears to be no major
affect in drug absorption except that reduced gastric emptying delays the
appearance in the plasma of orally administered drugs, especially during
labor.
2. Absorption from an intramuscular site is likely to be efficient because tissue
perfusion is increased due to vasodilatation.
DISTRIBUTION:
1. Total body water increases by up to 8 Litres, creating a larger space
within which water soluble drugs may distribute.
2. As a result of haemodilution, plasma albumin (normal 33-55 g/1)
declines by some 10 g/1. Thus there is scope for increased free
concentration of drugs that bind to albumin.
3. Unbound drug, is free to distribute, metabolized and excreted; e.g. the
free (and pharmacologically active) concentration of phenytoin is
unaltered, although the total plasma concentration is reduced.
METABOLISM
• Hepatic metabolism increases, but not the blood flow to liver.
depends on their delivery to the liver, i.e. on hepatic blood flow, have
(but not for urinary tract infections as penicillins are highly concentrated
in urine).
PLACENTAL TRANSFER OF DRUGS
1. The placenta is not a perfect barrier to drugs and chemicals
administered to mother.
2. Thalidomide tragedy, showed that placenta was capable of
transferring drugs ingested by mother to fetus, with potential for
great harm.
3. On other hand, placental transfer of drugs administered to mother
has been used to treat fetal arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, &
other conditions.
FACTORS AFFECTING PLACENTAL DRUG TRANSFER &
FETAL TISSUE
(1) Physicochemical properties of drug
(2) Rate at which drug crosses placenta & amount of drug reaching the fetus
(5) Stage of placental & fetal development at time of exposure to the drug
The effect that a teratogenic agent has on a developing fetus depends upon the
stage during development when the fetus is exposed.
MECHANISMS OF TERATOGENESIS
1
‘First of all be sure you
do no harm’
2
Pharmacovigilance (PV)
The root of
pharmacovigilance:
Pharmaco (Greek)= Drug
Vigilance (Latin)= to keep
awake or alert
3
Pharmacovigilance (PV)
PV is concerned
with detection,
assessment &
prevention of
adverse reactions
to drugs (ADRs) or
any drug-related
problems
4
Drug-Related Problems
Lack of efficacy
Medication errors
Drug misuse and abuse
Overdose
Quality issues:
Manufacturing defects
Contamination
Counterfeit products
5
Why Pharmacovigilance?
7
Why Pharmacovigilance?
Information about rare adverse reactions,
chronic toxicity, use in special groups
(children, elderly or pregnant women) or
drug interactions is often incomplete or not
available
Post-marketing surveillance by
companies is therefore essential
9
Definition of ADR
An ADR is defined according to definition
of WHO “any response to a drug which is
noxious, unintended & that occurs at
doses used in man for prophylaxis,
diagnosis, or therapy of diseases’’
10
Epidemiology of ADRs
ADRs represent a significant cause of
morbidity & mortality
Many ADRs are mild, sometimes serious
& can cause death
U.S, ADRs caused 100 000 deaths per
year, 4th & 6th leading cause of death
About 50% of ADRs are preventable
11
Importance of ADRs
Prolong length of stay in hospitals
Increase costs of patient care
(£600 million NHS in UK)
Commonest cause of drug withdrawal
from market (recall):
ARBs (Valsartan, Losartan, Irbesartan) 2019
Reductil (Sibutramine) 2010
Valdecoxib (Bextra) 2005
Rofecoxib (Vioxx) 2004
12
Classification of ADRs
Classification of Rawlins & Thompson
Type A reactions
- Augmentation of known pharmacological effect of drug
- Predictable
- Dose related
- e.g. warfarin causing bleeding
Type B reactions
- Bizarre (idiosyncratic)
- Not dose dependent
- Unpredictable
- e.g. carbamazepine-induced skin rash
13
Warfarin-induced calf haematoma
14
Carbamazepine-induced Stevens
Johnson Syndrome (SJS)
15
ADRs according frequency are divided into
very common, common, rare, very rare
ADRs divided according to severity into
mild, moderate, severe
16
ADRs is considered serious if:
1. Causes death of patient
2. Life-threatening
3. Prolong inpatient hospitalisation
4. Causes significant or persist disability
5. Congenital abnormality
17
Risk Factors Predisposing to ADRs
Age
Long duration of treatment
Polypharmacy
Liver, kidney diseases
18
Causes of ADRs
1. Patient
2. Drug
3. Prescriber
4. Environmental factors
19
Causes of ADRs
1. The patient:
- Age (over 60)
- Genetic factors (e.g. polymorphisms
in CYP450)
- Previous history of ADR
- Hepatic or renal diseases
20
Causes of ADRs
2. The drug
- Narrow therapeutic index, e.g. warfarin,
digoxin
- Antimicrobials have a tendency to cause
allergy & may lead to type B reactions
- Ingredients of a formulation, e.g.
colouring, flavouring
21
Causes of ADRs
3. The prescriber:
- A drug is used for an inappropriately
long time
- At a critical phase in pregnancy
- Given with other drugs (drug-drug
interactions)
4. Environmental factors:
- Diet, smoking, alcohol
22
Drugs Most Commonly Causing ADRs
23
Burden of Adverse Drug Reactions
Admission
In patients
A&E
Primary
care
24
Burden of Adverse Drug Reactions
Admission
(Inter J of Cl Phar & Ther,1998, 36(9):478-482)
In patients
25
26
6.5% (n=1224) of admissions are due to ADRs
Seven 800-bed hospitals are occupied by ADR
patients
Death in 0.15% - equivalent to 5700 deaths per
year
Cost NHS £600 million per annum
27
16of 200 patients (8%) suffered from one
or more ADRs
50% of ADRs were avoidable
28
29
Number of ADR Reports / Drug Class
Number of ADR Reports / System Organ Class
Why report suspected ADRs?
Documentation of ADRs in patients’
records is often poor
Physicians fear that reporting of ADR may
put them at risk
Under-reporting is common phenomenon
32
Methods of Reporting ADRs
- Spontaneous reporting:
‘Yellow Card system’
33
Reporting Methods
35
36
37
International Collaboration
WHO International Drug Monitoring
programme, 86 member nations have
systems to record & report ADRs
Member countries send their report to
Uppsala Monitoring Centre (Sweden)
where they are entered into WHO Database
38
- WHO database (vigibase) include 15
million case reports
39
MedWatch is FDA
reporting system
in U.S. for adverse
effects of drugs
40
Jordan Food & Drug
Administration (JFDA)
41
Pharmacovigilance Center for South
Jordan/ Alkarak Governmental Hospital
42
43
44
Pharmacogenetics
Dr. Mohammed Al-Sbou
Professor of Clinical Pharmacology
Faculty of Medicine-Mutah Uni
1
The human genome project has led to an
explosion of genetic information that is freely
available to identify polymorphisms that may
determine drug response
2
Advances in molecular genetics and
genotyping technologies during the last two
decades have led to identification of many
polymorphisms in phase I and phase II drug
metabolising enzymes, drug targets, and in
drug transporters
3
Individual Variation in Response to Drugs
How individuals in a population are expected
to respond to a fixed dose of drug?
Inter-individual variability:
4
Factors Determine Response to Drugs
Environmental
(Age, sex, race, concomitant diseases, diet,
smoking, alcohol)
Genetic (polymorphisms drug metabolising
enzymes, receptors, drug targets)
6
Pharmacogenetics/Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenetics: is study of variation in
drug response due to heredity & is used in
relation to genes determining drug
metabolism
Pharmacogenomics is a more general term; it
refers to research area that comprises all genes
in the human genome that may determine
drug response
7
Benefits of
Pharmacogenetics/Pharmacogenomics
The concept “The right medicine to the right
patient” is the basis of pharmacogenetics
(personalised or individualised medicine)
Ultimate goals are to improve clinical
therapeutic outcome by:
- Increasing drug efficacy
- Increasing safety of drugs e.g. reducing
incidence of ADRs
8
Personalised or Individualised Medicine
9
Pharmacogenomic approach to personalized medicine.
Drug therapy is chosen for each patient based on their
particular genetic profile
10
Polymorphisms can occur in any gene that
encode:
- Drug metabolising enzymes
- Drug transporters
- Drug targets and receptors
11
Genetic polymorphisms of drug
metabolising enzyme genes
The majority of phase I and phase II drug
metabolising enzymes are polymorphic
The cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes are the
most important group of phase I enzymes
Polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 genes can
cause enzyme products with abolished or
reduced or increased enzyme activity
12
Cytochrome P450 enzymes
All genes that encode for families 1-3 are
polymorphic & their capacity to metabolise
drugs depends on the functional importance
and frequency of variant alleles
13
CYP450 Enzymes
CYP2D6
CYP2C9
CYP2C19
14
CYP2D6
CYP2D6 contributes to metabolism of large of
medications about 25% of all drugs, including:
Antidepressants (TCAs, SSRIs)
Antiarrythmics
Analgesics
15
CYP2D6 Phenotypes
- Poor metabolisers( PM): lack functional enzyme
- Intermediate metabolisers (IM): carry two
alleles that cause reduce activity
- Extensive metabolisers ( EM): have two normal
alleles
- Ultra-rapid metabolisers (UM): multiple gene
copies
16
Poor metabolisers can experience adverse
effects when treated with standard dose
Ultra-rapid metabolisers require high doses
of drugs
17
Depression
- Tricyclic antidepressants are metabolised by
CYP2D6
Disposition of nortriptyline is related to
number of active CYP2D6 alleles and
Dose required to obtain same plasma drug
concentrations varies between subjects with
different CYP2D6 phenotypes
20
Ultra-rapid metabolisers needed a 10-fold
larger dose of nortriptyline than poor
metabolisers to achieve the same plasma
concentration
Ultra-rapid metabolisers require 500 mg of
doses compared to 50 mg in poor metabolisers
21
Genetic polymorphisms of CYP2D6 gene may
be associated with ADRs and clinical response
to antidepressants
30% of patients with ADRs to antidepressants
were PMs
High incidence of UMs among non-responders
(20%)
22
CYP2C9
CYP2C9 metabolises a wide range of drugs
Including drugs with narrow therapeutic indices
such as:
Warfarin
Phenytoin
23
Warfarin and Bleeding
Warfarin is one of the most widely prescribed
oral anticoagulant drugs
It is used for:
Prophylaxis and treatment of venous
thromboemolism
Treatment of deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
24
Warfarin and Bleeding
The main complication of warfarin therapy is
haemorrhage
Genetic polymorphisms in CYP2C9 gives rise to
variants with altered enzymes activity
Two allelic variants CYP2C9*2 (Arg144Cys) and
CYP2C9*3 (Ile359Leu) show 12% and 5% of
enzyme activity of the wild type CYP2C9*1 allele,
respectively, and are associated with decreased
warfarin dose requirements & increased risk
of bleeding
25
Peptic Ulcer
- Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are used for treatment
of gastric acid related diseases such as peptic ulcers,
gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) & in
combination with antibiotics (amoxicillin &
clarithromycin) for eradication of Helicobacter
pylori (Hp)
- CYP2C19 metabolises several PPIs including
omeprazole and lanzoprazole
- Plasma concentrations of omeprazole, depend on
patient’s CYP2C19 phenotype
26
AmpliChip CYP450 Array
The AmpliChip CYP450
Test provides comprehensive
detection of gene variations
including deletions and
duplications for the
CYP2D6 and CYP2C19
genes
27
Genetic Polymorphisms of Drug
Metabolising Enzyme Genes
28
Acetylation
- Most individuals are either rapid or slow
acetylators, but proportion varies between races
- The percentage of slow acetylators:
90% in North African
50% in Caucasian
29
Thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT)
30
It has been shown that:
- 90% of population exhibit high TPMT activity
- 10% show intermediate activity
- 0.3% have low or absent enzyme activity
31
Genetic Polymorphisms in Drug Transporters
32
Genetic Polymorphisms in Drug targets
and Receptors
Drug target genes including those coding for
receptors, ion channels and specific enzymes are
subject to genetic polymorphisms
B2-adrenergic receptor: B2 agonist (salbutamol)
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE):
ACE inhibitors (lisinopril)
Vitamin K epoxide reductase complex
(VKORC): Warfarin
33
Practical Points
Genetic is an important factor responsible for
failure to therapy & occurrence of adverse drug
reactions
The goal of PGx is to maximize efficacy &
minimize toxicity, based on individual’s genetic
composition
Individual variation in response to drug (some may
benefit, other fail to respond to treatment,
others may develop adverse effects)
34
Drug Therapy In Pediatric & Geriatric
Age Groups
Objectives
b. Discuss the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics differences in pediatric, geriatric and adult age
groups.
e. Discuss important adverse drug reactions occurring in geriatric & pediatric age groups.
What is different from normal adult prescribing?
o Infant skin is thin and percutaneous absorption can cause systemic toxicity
Distribution:
Excretion:
Most drugs approved for use in children have recommended pediatric doses,
generally stated as milligrams per kilogram.
Calculate the doses for prescribed drugs based on weight of the patients.
Ensure proper instructions to the care giver, including when the child vomits the given
medication after consumption.
Ensure that all medicines are strictly out of reach of children at all times.
Avoid prolonged treatment with drugs that have delayed complications (Steroids).
Medications affecting the CNS need to be extensively reviewed and routinely monitored
to ensure minimal growth disturbances.
Older patients are not slowed
down adults!!!!
Geraitric Group - Pharmacokinetics
Distribution: Elderly have reduced lean body mass, reduced body water.
Elimination: Kidney is major organ for clearance of drugs from body, age-
related decline of renal functional capacity is important.
Pharmacodynamics
• Geriatric patients believed to be much more "sensitive" to action of many
drugs, implying a change in pharmacodynamic interaction of drugs with their
receptors. BUT, most of these are a result of changing Pharmacokinetics!
Rules of prescribing for the elderly
14/11/2021 1
14/11/2021 2
Eric Doglas
14/11/2021 3
Drug Poisoning
14/11/2021 4
14/11/2021 5
14/11/2021 6
Causes of death in drug
poisoning
CNS depression: Narcotics, sedative-hypnotics
CVS toxicity: Digitalis, Cocaine
Convulsions: Cocaine
Accidents
14/11/2021 7
ABCD of Poisoning treatment
A: Airway
B: Breathing
C: Circulation
D: Dextrose
14/11/2021 8
Prevention of further absorption of
the poison:
Remove patient from the toxic environment
Measures of decontamination:
14/11/2021 9
Principles of treatment of poisoning
ABCD of poisoning treatment
A: Airway, B: Breathing, C: Circulation, D:
Dextrose
Diagnosis;history, exam, investigations
Prevention of absorption of the poison:
Skin, GIT (Emesis, G lavage, Activated Charcoal)
Specific
antidote
Enhancing elimination of toxins by:
Haemodialysis or alteration of urinary pH
14/11/2021 10
Activated charcoal
Reduces drug absorption
Better than emesis or gastric lavage
14/11/2021 11
Specific antidote
Paracetamol Acetylcysteine
Iron Desferoxamine
Digitalis Digoxin antibodies
Benzodiazepines Flumazenil
Opioids Naloxone
OPI (CE inhibitors) Pralidoxime
14/11/2021 12
Enhancing Elimination of Toxins
Haemodialysis:
Aspirin, Lithium, Carbamazepine
Urinary pH alteration:
Urine alkalinazation: aspirin
Urine acidification: amphetamines
14/11/2021 13
Examples of Common Poisoning
14/11/2021 14
Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)
Most common suicide drug
Ingestion of 7 g total (adults) is toxic
14/11/2021 16
Pharmacokinetics of Paracetamol
The highly toxic metabolite is N-acetyl-p-benzo
quinonimine (NABQI) conjugates with glutathione
In overdose toxicity:
Excess NABQI
Glutathione depletion
Then NABQI oxidizes thiol group of enzymes
Leading to cell death
Resulting in hepatic & renal tubular cell damage
14/11/2021 17
Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)
Serum level > 200 mg/L after 4 hours of
ingestion suggests a risk for liver injury
Delirium
Tachycardia, mydriasis
Treatment is supportive
14/11/2021 19
Aspirin (Salicylate)
Ingestionof > 200 mg/kg
Hyperventilation, respiratory alkalosis,
metabolic acidosis
Hyperthermia
Convulsions, coma
CV collapse
14/11/2021 20
Aspirin (Salicylate)
General supportive care
Gastric lavage
Activated charcoal
IV fluid
14/11/2021 21
Organophosphorous insecticide
poisoning
Cholinergic crisis
Muscarinic & Nicotinic stimulation
Pinpoint pupil, sweating, diarrhoea
Urination, defecation
Hypotension, bradycardia
Treatment:
Atropine (anti-muscarinic)
Pralidoxime (enzyme reactivator)
14/11/2021 22
Other poisoning
Iron:
Childhood poisoning; bleeding
Desferoxamine
Opioids:
Drugs of abuse
CNS & respiratory depression
Naloxone IV
14/11/2021 23
Other poisoning
Carbon monoxide (CO):
Colorless, odorless gas
Results from incomplete combustion
Forming carboxyhaemoglobin
Interfering with carrying of oxygen
Leading to hypoxia
Cyanide poisoning:
Syncope, convulsions, coma
Treatment: Cyanide antidote kit consists of:
Nitrites: induce methemoglobinemia
Thiosulfate: converts cyanide to thiocyanate
14/11/2021 24
New Drugs: Their
Development & Evaluation
Dr. Mohammed Al-sbou
Professor in Clinical Pharmacology
Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University
1
New Drug Development
Idea or hypothesis
Design & synthesis of substances
Studies on tissues & animal (preclinical studies)
Studies on man (clinical studies)
Official license (registration & market
authorization)
Post-marketing studies
2
Aims of Therapeutic Evaluation
To assess efficacy, safety & quality of new
drugs
To expand indications for the use of current
drugs
To protect public health
3
Drug Development
Drugs are chemical substances useful in
prevention & diagnosis & treatment of diseases
The process of drug development may be
abandoned at any stage including after
marketing (safety, inadequate efficacy)
4
Drug Development
New drug development is enormously expensive
Cost of development of a new chemical entity
from synthesis to market US $ 500 million
The process may take 10-15 years
5
Origin of Drugs
Natural sources:
Plant origin like morphine, digoxin, atropine
6
Origin of Drugs
Synthetic when synthesized chemically in
laboratories
These represent majority of drugs, as they are
easily manufactured & cheaper like aspirin,
paracetamol & propranolol
7
Medicines
Medicines are drugs formulated in a suitable
way for administration & use by patients
Medicines consist of the active drug
combined with excipients that give it shape,
size, stability & other criteria as starch, Arabic
gum & many other substances
8
Therapeutic Investigation
There are three questions to be answered during
drug development:
1. Does the drug work?
2. Is it safe?
3. What is the dose?
9
Phases of Drug Development
1. Pre-clinical studies in animals
2. Clinical studies in human
10
1. Pre-clinical studies in animals including:
A. General pharmacology studies:
Pharmacokinetic studies
Pharmacodynamic studies
Dose, preparation & routes of
administration
11
1. Pre-clinical Studies in Animals including:
B. Toxicological studies
Acute toxicity
Special toxicity studies:
Reproductive system
Oncogenesis (malignancy)
12
2. Clinical Studies in Human
These are carried out in
humans in clinical trials
centers & in hospitals
under supervision of qualified
investigators
These include:
13
2. Clinical studies in human
Phase 1 studies
Phase 2 studies
Phase 3 studies
Phase 4 studies
14
Phase 1 Studies
(Human pharmacology)
These are performed on a limited number of
healthy volunteers (20-50 subjects)
The aims of these trials are:
Study of the general pharmacology of drug
Pharmacokinetics (ADME)
17
Phase 4 studies
(Therapeutic use)
These include post-marketing surveillance
(post-authorization studies) (2000- 10,000) to
look for possible long term effects of drugs
Long term efficacy & safety
18
Phases of Drug Development
19
20 20
Clinical Trials
21
Aims of clinical trials
Whether treatment is of value
Magnitude of that value compared with other
remedies
Type of patients in whom it is of value
Best method of applying treatment (how often,
dosage of drug)
Disadvantages & dangers of treatment
22
Fundamental to any clinical trial are:
An hypothesis
Definition of primary endpoints
Method of analysis
A protocol
23
Other factors when designing a trial:
Characteristics of patients
Size of trial
Duration
Method of monitoring
Use of interim analyses
24
Subjects included in the studies are either:
Healthy normal volunteers or
Patients
25
Patients excluded from clinical trials include:
Children
Pregnant women
Mentally ill patients
26
Techniques to avoid bias
Randomization:
- Introducing element of chance into selection &
allocation of subjects to treatments
Blinding
27
Criteria of clinical trials (CCT)
28
Criteria of clinical trials
Clinical trials may be of non-crossover design
recruiting different subjects as a control group
Balanced regarding sex, age, weight & disease state
Double-blind technique when neither investigator
nor subject knows about treatments they are
receiving. This technique is important to:
Eliminate investigator bias
Eliminate patients or subject bias
Allow the use of placebo
29
Single-blind technique is described when
investigator knows but patient does not
know treatment given to him
Control group is used who will receive either
placebo or a standard therapy
Statistical analysis should be planned initially
including the proper tests used
30
The use of placebo
It is a pharmacologically inert substance
identical in all aspects to the active treatment
indistinguishable from it
It is intended to:
Eliminate observer or investigator bias
Detect non-pharmacological effects of drugs
(placebo effects)
A control for statistical comparison
31
Conditions that do not require use of
placebo
Therapeutic studies as it is unethical to
deprive patients of treatments. A standard
therapy is chosen instead of placebo
When the active compound can be identified
e.g. a vasodilator, alkaptonuria (nitisinone)
Dose-finding studies
Pharmacokinetic studies
32
Ethical Considerations in Clinical Trials
Declaration of Helsinki
The declaration of Helsinki (1964, 1975) sought to
clarify the ethical principles governing clinical
research involving human subjects emphasizing
informed consent & proper scientific research
design. It is the mission of doctor to safeguard
health of people. The doctor’s knowledge &
conscience are dedicated to the fulfillment of this
mission
33
Recommendations are essential as a
guide to doctors in clinical research:
34
Recommendations are essential as a
guide to doctors in clinical research:
35
DevelopAKUre
o 140 patients
o Patients were from Spain,
France, Belgium, Italy,
Netherlands, Germany,
Slovakia & Jordan
o 19 Jordanian patients
National Institute for
Rheumatic diseases,
Slovakia
38
Procedures
39
Autonomic Nervous System
Lecture-5 :Topics
Functions of ANS
Effect of Sympathetic &
Parasympathetic stimulation
Overall difference between 2 divisions
of ANS
Learning Objectives
Effects of sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurotransmitters on
target organs and tissues.
Sympathetic Effects
GI motility decreases
Contraction of sphincters
Relaxation of
Detrusor muscle
Ciliary muscle
Mydriasis
Parasympathetic Effects
Normally not activated as a whole
Stimulation of separate parasympathetic
nerves.
Release ACh as NT
Relaxing effects-
Decreases HR.
Dilates visceral blood vessels.
Increases digestive activity.
Parasympathetic Effects
Bronchonstriction
GI motility increases
Relaxation of sphincters
Contraction of
Detrusor muscle
Ciliary muscle
Miosis
Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic
Transmission
• ACh is NT released by -
Most postganglionic parasympathetic
fibers
Some postganglionic sympathetic
fibers
• Postganglionic autonomic fibers
innervate the target tissue
Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic
Transmission
Adrenergic Synaptic Transmission
(continued)
Cholinergic fibers-.
Release ACh as NT
All somatic motor neurons,
All preganglionic neurons
Most postganglionic parasympathetic
neurons
Some postganglionic sympathetic neurons
Responses to Cholinergic
Stimulation (continued)
.
Muscarinic receptors
Ach binds to receptor
Requires the mediation of G-proteins
βγ-complex affects-
Opening a channel or
Closing a channel or
Activating enzymes
Responses to Cholinergic
Stimulation (continued)
Dual innervations
Innervations by both
Sympathetic fibers
Parasympathetic fibers
Most visceral organs receive dual innervations
Effects of dual innervations
Antagonistic
Complementary
Cooperative
Organs With Dual Innervations
Antagonistic :
◦ Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers innervate the
same cells.
Actions counteract each other.
Heart rate.
Complementary:
◦ Sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation
produces similar effects.
Salivary gland secretion.
Cooperative:
◦ Sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation produce
different effects that work together to produce
desired effect.
Micturition.
Organs Without Dual Innervations
• Exocrine glands:
- Salivary Thick & viscid Watery
- Sweat Increase No effect
Neurotransmitters
• Ganglia Ach Ach
• Postganglionic Norepinephrine(NE) except in Ach
sweat glands Ach is released
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
• Synthesis
6 1. Phenylalanine tyrosine (by - Choline is transported
hydroxylase) into cholinergic neurons
2. Tyrosine DOPA (by tyrosine by carrier system
hydroxylase)
3. DOPA dopamine (by dopa - Choline is acetylated to
decarboxylase) Ach by choline acetyl-
4. Dopamine is actively transported into transferase in presence of
synaptic vesicles by carrier system acetyl CoA
5. Finally, NE is formed by hydroxylation
of dopamine (via dopamine B-
hydroxylase)
* In the adrenal medulla & some CNS
tracts, epinephrine(adrenaline) is formed via
methylation of NE by phenyl ethanolamine
N-methyl-transferase [PENMT]
Release of transmitters:
Arrival
7 of impulse to the nerve ending.
Opening of voltage-activated Ca2+ channel calcium influx into nerve ending.
Fusion of vesicles with membrane of the nerve ending and exocytosis of the transmitter.
Fate of NE & epinephrine:
8 A] Reuptake:
1- Neuronal reuptake [uptake I], 65-70% :
• Active reuptake by neuronal membrane monoamine transporter (MAT).
• Inhibited by cocaine, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and guanethedine &
guandril.
2- Vesicular reuptake [uptake III]:
• Follows uptake I to protect NE from monoamine oxidase [MOA].
• Inhibited by reserpine.
3- Tissue reuptake [uptake II], 7-13%:
• NE is taken by the target tissue where it is inactivated by MAO(in the
mitochondria)& catechol orthomethyltransferase [COMT]in cyroplasm.
• Inhibited by corticosteroids
B] Metabolism (15%):
9 • MAO in mitochondria of nerve endings and tissues.
16
II-Indirect-acting agents inhibit cholinesterases increase the endogenous
Ach in synaptic clefts and neuroeffector junction stimulate cholinoceptors.
The are classified into:
Reversible Irreversible
Physostigmine & neostigmine. Organophosphorus compounds:
Neostigmine substitutes: - Echothiophate -Isoflurophate
(edrophonium, - Ware gases e.g. sarin &soman.
pyridostigmine, ambenonium, - Thiophosphate insecticides e.g.
benzpyrinium and demecarium) parathion &malathion.
I-Direct Cholinomimetics
17 (1) Choline esters
They are poorly absorbed and poorly distributed into CNS (they are hydrophilic).
18
Eye:
Muscarinic (M3)
1) Contraction of constrictor pupillae muscle resulting in miosis.
2) Contraction of the ciliary muscle.
As a result of 1&2 the iris is pulled away from the angel of the anterior chamber,
and the trabecular meshwork at the base of the ciliary muscle is opened. Both
effects facilitate aqueous humor outflow into the canal of Schlemm, and I.O.P .
3) Accommodation for near vision.
Nicotinic: Lid twitches due to activation of nicotinic receptors in the eye lid
muscles.
When applied to eye, carbachol miosis& lid twitches ( muscarinic and
nicotinic).
Cardiovascular System
19
1) Vasodilation: Stimulation of M3 production of NO (endothelium –
derived relaxing factor), which diffuses to smooth muscles cells of blood
vessels cGMP VD.
2) Bradycardia & delay AV conduction are due to stimulation of M2
Side effects:
1- Glaucoma.
3- To cut recent adhesion between iris and lens [alternatively with mydriatics].
C) Atropine toxicity: It antagonizes central and peripheral action but not preferred due
to CNS toxicity
Neostigmine :
29 1- Reversal of paralysis induced by non-depolarizing neuromuscular
blockers during surgical operations.
2- Postoperative retention of urine (Catheterization is better alternative).
3- Postoperative paralytic ileus.
4- Myasthenia gravis.
5- Antidote to atropine toxicity.
6- Glaucoma.
Toxicity:
30 Muscarinic : Bradycardia, hypotension, bronchospasm, miosis, vomiting,
diarrhea and secretions.
Nicotinic : muscle twitches.
CNS: (with physostigmine only)
Convulsions & collapse
Coma
Death from RC depression
Treatment of toxicity:
1- Stomach wash.
2- Oxygen and artificial respiration.
3- Atropine.
4- Anticonvulsant in case of seizures.
Edrophonium Pyridostigmine Benzpyrinium Demecarium
Ambenonium
31
Treatment :
1- Neostigmine or Pyridostigmine + Atropine.
2- Adjuvant treatment : ephedrine or caffeine (potentiates neostigmine & facilitate
NM transmission
3- Others : to decrease antibodies
Steroids (e.g. prednisolone) or immunosuppressant drugs e.g. azathioprine.
Plasmapharesis to wash antibodies.
Thymectomy.
33
Drugs contraindicated in myasthenia gravis:
1-Skeletal muscle relaxants. 2- Aminoglycosides 3- β-blockers.
N.B.
• Myasthenia crisis: severe muscle weakness due to under treatment with
anticholinesterase drugs Edrophonium produces muscle improvement.
• Cholinergic crisis: severe muscle weakness due to over treatment with
anticholinesterase drugs [ sustained depolarization] Edrophonium
produces more weakness.
Alzheimer's disease
34
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common age-related dementia.
The main pathological features of AD comprise amyloid plaques & loss of neurons
(particularly cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain).
Drugs approved for the treatment of AD:
1- Cholinesterase inhibitors:
Tacrine is a drug with anticholinesterase activity, has been used for the
treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease but hepatotoxic.
Donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine are newer, more selective and lack
the hepatotoxic effect of tacrine.
2- Memantine [NMDA receptor antagonist] inhibiting glutamate-induced
excitotoxicity and neuronal damage. The drug improves cognitive function in
moderate-to-severe AD.
(2) Irreversible cholinesterase Inhibitors
35
Echothiophate &Isoflurophate eye drops for glaucoma.
Ware gases [e.g. sarin & soman].
Thiophosphate insecticides [e.g. Parathion & Malathion]
Pharmacokinetics:
All organophosphates (except for echothiophate) are well absorbed from the skin,
lung, gut, and conjunctiva and distributed to all parts of the body, including CNS.
The thiophosphate insecticides (parathion & malathion) are prodrugs. They are
rapidly activated in insects and vertebrates. Malathion (not parathion)is rapidly
metabolized by other pathways to inactive products in birds and mammals but
not in insects (considered to be relatively safe).
Organophosphorus poisoning
Causes :
1- Occupational inhalation or contamination of skin, clothes and food with
insecticides.
2- Suicidal.
3- Wars.
Clinical manifestations:
37 • Muscarinic : Salivation, miosis, sweating, vomiting, colic, bradycardia and
bronchospasm.
• Nicotinic : Muscle fasciculation then muscle weakness and paralysis.
• CNS : Confusion, convulsions the CNS depression.
• Cause of death : Respiratory failure.
Treatment:
1.Remove contaminated clothes and wash the skin by soap or NaHCO3.
2.Aspiration of secretion and artificial respiration.
3.Gastric lavage.
4.Atropine 1 mg IV every 10 minutes till full atropinization [dryness of mouth, mydriasis
and tachycardia]. The patient is kept full atropinized for 24 hrs.
5. Cholinesterase reactivators [ oximes]:
Pralidoxime (PAM): [30mg/kg bolus dose then 8mg/kg/hr IV infusion until
38
clinical improvement] can break the bond between organophosphates and the
enzyme, so the enzyme becomes free and hydrolyzes Ach at the receptors.
Diacetylmonoxime (DAM): like pralidoxime but can cross BBB and reactivate
central cholinesterase.
6. Diazepam for convulsions, and artificial ventilation for respiratory failure.
Note:
o Early after intoxication and formation of organophosphate-enzyme complex
spontaneous reactivation of the enzyme can occurs that can be hastened by oximes.
o Within a few hours, the organophosphate-enzyme complex loses one alkyl group renders it
no longer susceptible to reactivation ageing. So cholinesterase reactivators should be
administered as early as possible.
Parasympatholytics
[Muscarinic Antagonists or Antimuscarinics]
39
Muscarinic receptors blockers are competitive antagonists.
1. Natural belladonna alkaloids [ atropine and hyoscine]
2. Synthetic atropine substitutes.
Atropine
- Natural belladonna alkaloids .
- Tertiary amine.
Pharmacokinetics :
• Well absorbed from all sites except intact skin.
• Passes BBB.
• Metabolized in liver.
• Excreted in urine [1/3 unchanged], enhanced by acidification of urine.
Pharmacodynamics :
40 A. Antimuscarinic actions:
ANTIMUSCARINIC AGENTS
GANGLIONIC BLOCKERS
NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKERS
2
DEFINATION AND TYPES
Cholinergic antagonists (cholinergic
blockers, or anticholinergic drugs) bind
to cholinoceptors, but they do not trigger
the usual receptor-mediated
intracellular effects.
Types:
A. Antimuscarinic agents: selectively
block muscarinic receptors of the
parasympathetic nerves
B. Ganglionic blockers: block nicotinic
receptors of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic ganglia
C. Neuromuscular-blockers: interfere
with transmission of efferent impulses 3
to skeletal muscles.
4
A. ANTIMUSCARINIC AGENTS:
1. Atropine:
It is obtained from a plant called
belladonna alkaloid. It binds
competitively and prevents Ach from
binding to muscarinic receptors.
a. Eye:
e. Secretions:
Atropine blocks the salivary glands (producing dry mouth),
Tachycardia
8
B. GANGLIONIC BLOCKERS:
These specifically act on the nicotinic receptors of both
parasympathetic and sympathetic autonomic ganglia
These drugs block the entire output of the autonomic
nervous system at the nicotinic receptor
1. Mecamylamine:
It produces a competitive nicotinic blockade of the ganglia
and is primarily used to lower blood pressure in
emergency situations
9
C. NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKERS
These drugs block cholinergic transmission between
motor nerve endings and the nicotinic receptors on the
neuromuscular endplate of skeletal muscle
These neuromuscular blockers are structural analougs of
ACh, and they act either as
a. Antagonists :Nondepolarizing (competitive) blockers
b. Agonists (depolarizing type)
at the receptors on the endplate of the NMJ.
is minimal
NONDEPOLARIZING (COMPETITIVE) BLOCKERS
These drugs interact with the
nicotinic receptors to prevent
the binding of Ach. Thus, these
drugs prevent depolarization of
the muscle cell membrane and
inhibit muscular contraction.
shock treatment
THANKS
13
Adrenergic Drugs
1
Sympathomimetics
(Adrenergic Agonists)
Agents that mimic actions of sympathetic
system & stimulate adrenergic receptors
(adrenoceptors)
Adrenergic neurons release norepinephrine
as primary neurotransmitter
2
Classification of Sympathomimetics
Direct-acting:
Selective: salbutamol (B2), dobutamine (B1)
Non-selective: adrenaline, noradrenaline (B &
alpha receptors)
Indirect-acting
Releasing agents (amphetamine)
Uptake inhibitors (cocaine, tricyclic
antidepressants TCAs)
MAO Inhibitors
Mixed-acting (ephedrine, pseudoephedrine)
3
Actions of sympothomimetics
5
Sympathomimetics
They are also classified into:
Catecholamines: (adrenaline, NA,
dopamine, dobutamine, isoprenaline)
Non-catecholamines:
(synthetic alpha-agonists & beta-
agonists, e.g. phenylephrine, ephedrine,
amphetamine)
6
PK of Sympathomimetics
Catecholamines
Parenteral
Rapid onset of action, brief duration of
action (have short t ½)
Enzymatic metabolism by MAO & COMT
Poor penetration into CNS
7
PK of Sympathomimetics
Non-catecholamines
Oral & parenteral
Slower onset & longer duration of action
Less enzymatic degradation
More central effects (CNS effects)
8
Locations & Functions of adrenoceptors
-adrenoceptors: 1 & 2
9
1-Adrenoceptors
Vascular smooth M Vasoconstriction
Radial M. of iris Mydriasis
Bladder sphincter Contraction
Intestine sphincter Contraction
Male sex organs Ejaculation
Inhibits entry of K into cells Hyperkalemia
Increase peripheral vascular resistance
(PVR)
10
2-adrenoceptors
Presynaptic Inhibits NA release
11
Alpha-stimulants
Pressor agents:
- Phenylephrine
Mucosal decongestants:
- Pseudoephedrine, Oxymetazoline
Alpha 2-agonists:
- Clonidine & alpha-methyldopa
12
Alpha-stimulants
1- Pressor agents
These are non-catecholamines that
increase peripheral vascular resistance
(PVR) & arterial blood pressure (both
SBP & DBP)
They reduce renal blood flow (RBF) &
splanchnic blood flow due to 1-
vasoconstriction
13
Phenylephrine
14
2. Mucosal decongestants:
Pseudoephedrine, Oxymetazoline
Oxymetazoline (Otrivin)
Useful in allergic rhinitis,
common cold & sinusitis
Oxymetazoline is used in
Ophthalmic drops for
relief of redness of eye
associated with swimming,
colds or contact lens
15
2. Mucosal decongestants:
Pseudoephedrine, Oxymetazoline
Avoid:
Prolonged use (rebound congestion)
In hypertensive patients
Children below 2 years of age
Alpha 2-agonists
(Clonidine & methyldopa)
Centrally acting antihypertensive drugs:
clonidine & methyldopa (Aldomet)
These act centrally to produce inhibition of
sympathetic vasomotor centers, decreasing
sympathetic outflow to the periphery
Methyldopa is used in hypertension during
pregnancy
They are rarely used because of risk of
rebound hypertension on withdrawal of
therapy 17
Beta-adrenoceptors (receptors)
Two subgroups 1, 2
1-adrenoceptors:
Heart Increase HR, contractility &
conductivity
Kidneys Increase renin release
18
2-adrenoceptors
Bronchi Bronchodilatation
Bladder wall Relaxation
Skeletal M. arterioles Vasodilatation
Glycogenolysis Increase blood glucose
Gluconeogenesis Increase blood glucose
Uterus Relaxation
Enhances entry of K into cells Hypokalemia
19
Adrenergic Drugs
1
Beta-adrenoceptors (receptors)
Two subgroups 1, 2
1-adrenoceptors:
Heart Increase HR, contractility &
conductivity
Kidneys Increase renin release
18
2-adrenoceptors
Bronchi Bronchodilatation
Bladder wall Relaxation
Skeletal M. arterioles Vasodilatation
Glycogenolysis Increase blood glucose
Gluconeogenesis Increase blood glucose
Uterus Relaxation
Enhances entry of K into cells Hypokalemia
19
-Stimulants
1. Selective 2 agonists:
Salbutamol (Albuterol) (Ventolin)
non-catecholamine
can be given by inhalation, orally &
injection
Short acting bronchodilator
Its t ½ is about 4 hours
Has a rapid onset of action (acute
asthmatic attacks)
20
1. Selective 2 agonists:
Dobutamine
- Is a synthetic, direct acting catecholamine
- Inotropic sympathomimetic
- is used in congestive heart failure (CHF) to
increase cardiac output
- Inotropic support after cardiac surgery
- Septic and cardiogenic shock
23
3. Non-selective -stimulants:
Isoprenaline (Isoproterenol)
A synthetic, direct acting drug
It is a catecholamine with non-selective
1 & 2 agonistic activities
It increases SBP & HR (1 effect) &
decreases DBP (2 effect)
It is rarely used to increase heart rate in
heart block & to stimulate heart in
cardiac arrest
24
Mixed Alpha & Beta agonists
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
It is an endogenous catecholamine
synthesized in adrenal medulla &
certain areas in brain
Commonly used therapy (drug of
choice in emergency situations)
25
Pharmacodynamic effects
On blood vessels:
Response differs according to site of vessels:
- Skin, mucous membrane & viscera
arterioles contain 1 receptors & show
vasoconstriction
- Skeletal muscle vessels contain mainly 2-
receptors that show vasodilatation
26
Pharmacodynamic effects
27
Effect on blood pressure:
- Small doses of adrenaline given by Sc or
i.m will increase SBP (1 effect on heart)
& decrease DBP (2 vasodilatation of
skeletal BV) ( effect predominate)
- Giving adrenaline in large doses or by IV
administration will increase both SBP &
DBP (predominant 1 effect)
28
Iris(mydriasis), bronchi (bronchodilatation)
Sphincters of gut & bladder show
contraction, while walls of gut & bladder show
relaxation
Metabolic effects: adrenaline increases
blood glucose
29
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Pharmacokinetics:
Has rapid onset & brief duration of action
Is given Iv, Sc, by inhalation or topically
to the eye
Therapeutic uses
Cardiac arrest (cardiopulmonary resuscitation-
CPR)
Severe allergic reactions (anaphylactic shock &
angioedema):
Physiological antagonist to histamine & stabilizer of mast
cells
Vasoconstrictor with LA
Chronic open angle glaucoma (topically):
vasoconstriction; reduces aqueous humor production &
IOP
31
Adverse effects
CNS disturbances: Headache, tremor,
anxiety
High doses may increase BP, precipitate
cerebral haemorrhage, cardiac
arrythmias
32
Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
33
Dopamine
It is an alpha, beta & dopaminergic agonist
Increases renal blood flow due to D1
vasodilatory effect on renal circulation
At low dose, activates B1 receptors on heart,
increases cardiac output, heart rate & BP
At very high doses, activates alpha
receptors, causes vasoconstriction
Is the drug of choice for shock (cardiogenic &
septic) and is given by continuous infusion to
improve renal blood flow
34
Indirect-acting sympathomimetics
Amphetamines
Are important because can be misused as
a central psychostimulants that improve
mood & alertness
Acts by releasing endogenous NA from
adrenergic neurons after being taken up
into neurons
35
Amphetamines
Its effects include increase alertness &
improved mood & decreased fatigability
It has also central anorectic effects
(depress appetite) due to its action in
hypothalamic feeding center
36
Amphetamines
Paradoxically, it produces sedation in
children
Peripheral effects include increase in BP
& arrhythmias
It produces emotional dependence
Therapeutic uses of amphetamines
38
Adverse effects
CNS: insomnia, irritability, dizziness,
tremor
CVS: Palpitations, cardiac arrhythmias, HTN,
angina pain
Emotional dependence
Psychosis (Schizophrenia-like with
hallucinations & delusions)
Anorexia
39
Direct & indirect sympathomimetics
Ephedrine
Mixed-action drugs induce release of NA
from pre-synaptic terminals and they
activate adrenergic receptor on
postsynaptic membrane
Non-catecholamine
40
Ephedrine
It is non-selective agonist, stimulate
both alpha & beta receptors & its effects
are similar to that of adrenaline
Ephedrine raises systolic & diastolic
blood pressure by vasoconstriction &
cardiac stimulation
It causes bronchodilation
Is give orally
Therapeutic uses
Bronchial asthma
Mydriatic agent & nasal mucosal
decongestant
Pressor agent in chronic orthostatic
hypotension
Heart block to increase heart rate
42
ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS
2. Eye:
Blockade of 1 receptors in the radial muscle of the iris
leads to miosis.
4
THERAPEUTIC USES
1. Hypertension
2. Hypertensive crisis
3. Pheochromocytoma hypertension
4. Benign prostatic hypertrophy to relax
bladder sphincter muscle & reduces urine
retention
5. Peripheral vascular disease e.g. Raynaud’s
syndrome (spasm of the upper limb blood
vessels on exposure to cold weather).
5
ADVERSE EFFECTS
1. Postural hypotension
2. Tachycardia (more with nonselective alpha-
blockers)
3. Failure of ejaculation.
4. Headache, sedation, nasal congestion
6
INDIVIDUAL ALPHA BLOCKERS
1. Doxazosin: selective -1 blocker suitable for once daily
administration in hypertension & benign prostatic
hypertrophy (BPH).
8
PHARMACOKINETICS OF BETA BLOCKERS
➢ Most beta-blockers can be given orally once daily or more.
10
THERAPEUTIC USES OF BETA BLOCKERS
1.CVS indications:
Essential hypertension
Angina pectoris: Beta-blockers are cardioprotective by reducing
cardiac work & myocardial O2 demand.
Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) to reduce infarction size & to
prevent new infarction.
Arrhythmias like ectopic beats & tachycardia
2. Glaucoma: timolol eye drops reduces production of
aqueous humour & the high IOP
3. Hyperthyroidism to reduce manifestations of
sympathetic over-activity in the disease.
5. CNS indications:
Migraine prophylaxis
Chronic anxiety to control excessive sympathetic manifestations of
anxiety 11
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BETA BLOCKERS
1. Bradycardia
2. Bronchospasm & precipitation of asthmatic attack
3. Cold extremities due to peripheral vasoconstriction
4. Nightmares with lipid soluble agents
12
CONTRAINDICATIONS OF -BLOCKERS
1. Asthma
2. Heart block
3. Severe heart failure (although small doses of
selective beta-blockers were found to be useful
in mild heart failure)
4. Late pregnancy
13
INDIVIDUAL BETA-BLOCKERS:
1. Atenolol (selective)
2. Propranolol ((nonselective)
3. Timolol (nonselective)
4. Metoprolol (selective)
5. Pindolol (nonselective)
14
THANKS
15
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
⚫ Classification
⚫ Resistance
⚫ Cross resistance
⚫ Prevention of drug resistance
MASKING of an INFECTION
Enterobacteriaceae
Psuedomonas
Candida & other Fungi
WHY?????
Narrow spectrum
Duration short
Selection of antimicrobial agent
Depends on
⚫Pharmacokinetic factors
⚫Host factors
Pharmacokinetic factors
⚫ Host Defences
Immunity intact - Bacteriostatic Agents
Impaired immunity - Bactericidal Agents
Factors affecting Antimicrobial Therapy
⚫ Local factors
Pus, pH, anaerobic conditions,
⚫ Age
⚫ Genetic factors
⚫ Pregnancy & lactation
⚫ Drug allergy
Therapy with combined AMA’s
Justified
⚫ Broaden the spectrum
For emperical therapy
Treatment of polymicrobial (mixed)
infections
⚫ To enhance antimicrobial activity i.e.
synergism for a specific infection
⚫ To reduce severity or incidence of adverse
effects.
⚫ To prevent emergence of resistance
Therapy with combined AMA’s
To achieve synergism:
When two antimicrobials of different
classes are used together
Their can be synergism (supra-additive)
additive
antagonism
⚫Two bacteriostatic agents: Additive
eg. combination of tetracyclines,
chloramphenicol, erythromycin
Exception, Sulphonamide + Trimethoprim
Supraadditive / synergism
⚫ Two bactericidal agents:
Disadvantages
⚫ Risk of toxicity
⚫ Multiple drug resistance
⚫ Increased cost
⚫ Antagonism of antibacterial effect if
bacteriostatic & bactericidal agents
are given concurrently.
Antibiotic misuse
⚫ Treatment of untreatable infections
⚫ Viral : measles, mumps, self-limiting.
⚫ Improper dosage
⚫ Wrong frequency, excessive/sub-therapeutic
⚫ Inappropriate reliance on chemotherapy
alone
⚫ Abcesses, necrotic tissue/foreign body,
⚫ Pneumonia, empyema
⚫ Surgical drainage + AMA
⚫ Lack of adequate bacteriological
information.
⚫ Lack of adequate bacteriological
information.
⚫ or duration of treatment
1
1. Aminoglycosides
2. Tetracyclines
3. Macrolides
4. Clindamycin
5. Chloramphenicol
6. Linezolid
7. Glycylcylines: Tigecycline
2
Aminoglycosides (AG)
➢ Mechanism of action:
➢ These are bactericidal antibiotics that
inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by an
action on ribosome 30S resulting in
abnormal proteins & killing of bacteria
➢ They are effective against aerobic
bacteria only (their entry into bacteria is
oxygen-dependent)
3
➢ Aminoglycoside antibiotics had been
mainstays for treatment of serious
infections due to aerobic gram -ve bacilli
➢ Because their use is associated with
serious toxicities, they have been replaced
to by safer antibiotics, such as:
▪ 3ed & 4th generation cephalosporins
▪ Fluoroquinolones
▪ Carbapenems
4
➢ Gentamicin
➢ Amikacin
➢ Tobramycin
➢ Streptomycin
➢ Spectinomycin
➢ Neomycin
➢ Framycetin
5
Mechanisms of Bacterial resistance
6
Therapeutic Uses & Spectrum of Activity
7
➢ Some serious Gram +ve infections like bacterial
endocarditis (combined with penicillin G or
vancomycin)
➢ Streptomycin (Tuberculosis)
➢ Topical therapy including:
⚫ Eye, ear & skin infections (using topical
8
Pharmacokinetics
➢ AG are water-soluble agents that are poorly
absorbed from GIT
➢ Therefore, they should be given parenterally
or topically
➢ AG are eliminated by kidneys by glomerular
filtration with no significant metabolism
➢ Accumulation occurs in renal cortex,
endolymph & perilymph of inner ear
9
Aminoglycosides & renal disease
➢ In renal impairment, AG t ½ increases &
therefore, intervals between doses should be
increased or daily doses should be reduced
➢ Doses can be obtained from tables according to
patient’s weight & renal function
➢ The following formula helps to calculate daily dose
in renal disease:
Dose (mg/day) = Daily dose/creatinine = 300 /
creatinine
10
Aminoglycosides & renal disease
➢ Blood levels have also to be checked e.g.
twice weekly
➢ Single daily dose administration of AG is
recommended nowadays rather than 2-3
doses daily to reduce risk of ototoxicity
& nephrotoxicity
11
Adverse effects
➢ These are more in elderly, in renal & liver
diseases & with prolonged therapy
➢ Adverse effects are dose-related
(therapy should not exceed 7 days)
➢ Monitor plasma levels
12
Adverse effects
➢ Nephrotoxicity:
➢ AG may accumulate in proximal tubular cells
➢ Kidney damage ranging from mild,
reversible renal impairment to severe,
acute tubular necrosis, which can be
irreversible
➢ being highest with kanamycin & least with
streptomycin
13
Adverse effects
➢ Ototoxicity:
▪ Irreversible in the form of vestibular damage (
patients presented with vertigo) or cochlear
damage ( presented with deafness & tinnitus) or
both. AG ear drops may also produce ototoxicity
➢ Neurotoxicity: AG may reduce acetylcholine
release & may produce neuromuscular blockade
& muscle weakness
➢ Others like allergic reactions, fever & blood
disorders
14
Contraindications & precautions of AG
15
Drug interactions with AG:
➢ Loop diuretics (frusemide, bumetanide):
increase ototoxicity & nephrotoxicity of AG
➢ β-LA (penicillins & CSs): potentiate their
antibacterial activity
➢ Neuro-muscular blockers: potentiation
of effect
16
Gentamicin
➢ Itis mainly used in serious aerobic Gram
–ve infections (E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella
& Pseudomonas) & some Gram +ve
infections (endocarditis)
➢ can also be used topically in eye, ear &
skin infections
➢ In septicemia, it is combined with a
penicillin & metronidazole
17
Tetracyclines
18
Pharmacokinetics
➢ Tetracyclines are usually given orally
➢ Their absorption from GIT is impaired by
antacids, iron & by food particularly calcium-
containing food like milk. Therefore, they are
better taken on empty stomach
➢ Unabsorbed fraction alters bacterial flora &
causes diarrhea
➢ They are distributed throughout body but have
poor entry into CSF (except minocycline)
➢ They cross placenta and are excreted in milk
19
➢ Tetracyclines are eliminated mainly
unchanged in urine and should be
avoided in renal disease
➢ Doxycycline & minocycline are excreted
only in bile & are therefore, safe in renal
disease
➢ Tetracyclines bind to calcium of teeth &
bones
20
Therapeutic uses
➢ Brucellosis
➢ Cholera
➢ Mycoplasma pneumonia
➢ Chlamydia infections like pelvic inflammatory disease,
urethritis, trachoma, psittacosis
➢ Syphilis
➢ Chronic bronchitis exacerbations
➢ Acne (inhibit Corynobacterium acnes bacteria)
21
Contraindications
➢ Pregnancy
➢ Breast feeding women
➢ Renal disease because they accumulate in
renal disease (except doxycycline &
minocycline)
➢ Children because of yellow discoloration
of teeth
22
Tetracycline-Induced Discoloration of Teeth
23
Adverse effects
➢ GI: Epigastric pain or discomfort, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea or even antibiotic-associated
colitis
➢ Sore throat, black hairy tongue & dysphagia
➢ Photosensitivity, burn, rash & blue gray
discolouration (with minocycline)
➢ Yellow discolouration & hypoplasia of teeth
in children
➢ Renal impairment
24
Macrolides
25
Pharmacokinetcis
➢ Route of administration is usually orally
➢ They are well absorbed & widely
distributed in tissues but do not cross
BBB into the CSF
➢ Elimination is in bile through liver
26
Therapeutic uses
➢ Alternative to penicillin in presence of
penicillin allergy
➢ Mycoplasma pneumonia (called atypical
pneumonia)
➢ Helicobacter infections like gastro-enteritis
➢ Chlamydia infections
➢ Diphtheria
➢ Whooping cough (pertussis)
➢ Legionnaire’s disease (characterized by
respiratory, GIT & CNS manifestations)
27
Contraindications
➢ Liver disease
Adverse effects:
➢ GI upset
➢ Liver damage (cholestatic jaundice)
➢ Inhibition of hepatic drug metabolism
28
Erythromycin
(Erythrocin)
➢ Effective against gram +ve organisms
➢ Antibacterial spectrum is similar to that of
penicillin
➢ It is used in patients allergic to penicillin
29
Clarithromycin (Klacid)
➢ It acts like erythromycin & with similar spectrum
of activity mainly against Gram +ve organisms
& also against H. influenzae
➢ It is rapidly & better absorbed than erythromycin
and produces less GIT upset
➢ It is used in respiratory tract infections & soft
tissue infections
➢ It is useful in peptic ulcer therapy to eradicate
Helicobacter pylori with other anti-ulcer drugs
30
Azithromycin
(Zithromax)
➢ It is active against many Gram -ve organisms
like H. influenzae & N. gonorrhoea & against
chlamydia but less effective than erythromycin
against Gram +ve organisms
➢ It is useful to treat respiratory TI (mycoplasma
pneumonia), soft tissue infections & sexually
transmitted chlamydial disease
➢ Long half-life (40 hrs)
➢ Orally or intravenous infusion
31
Clindamycin (Dalacin)
32
Therapeutic uses
➢ Anaerobic infections like in abdomen,
teeth (dental infections), pelvis & septic
abortion
➢ Osteomyelitis (infection of bone caused
by staphylococci) because of good bone
penetration & good anti-staph activity
➢ In serious Gram +ve infections
33
Adverse effects
➢ Diarrhoea, antibiotic-associated colitis,
allergy & liver dysfunction
34
Chloramphenicol
➢ It is a bacteriostatic agent, but sometimes,
may be bactericidal (H.influenzae, strep
pneumonia)
➢ It has a broad spectrum of activity against
Gram +ve & Gram –ve bacteria & anaerobes
➢ Because of its serious adverse effects, it has
limited uses mainly in serious infections
35
Pharmacokinetics
36
Therapeutic uses
➢ Salmonellosis
➢ H. influenza meningitis
➢ Meningococcal meningitis in penicillin
allergic patients
➢ Anaerobic infection in CNS
➢ Topically in ocular infections (bacterial
conjunctivitis)
37
Adverse effects
➢ Bone marrow depression includes:
⚫ Reversible dose-dependent depression (anemia)
⚫ Idiosyncratic irreversible depression (aplastic anemia)
➢ Gray baby syndrome (cyanosis, hypotension,
death) because of inability of newborn liver to
metabolize drug efficiently resulting in its
accumulation & toxicity
➢ Optic & peripheral neuritis
➢ Inhibition of hepatic metabolism of drugs like
warfarin & phenytoin
38
Contraindications
➢ Latepregnancy
➢ Newborn babies (risk of grey baby
syndrome)
➢ Breast feeding women
39
Linezolid
➢ Itsmain clinical use in resistant gram-
positive organisms such as:
- Methicillin- and vancomycin-resistant
staphylococcus aureas
- Vancomycin- resistant Enterococcus
- Penicillin– resistant streptococci
➢ Oral & iv administration
➢ Adverse effects: nausea, diarrhea,
headache, rash, thrombocytopenia
40
Glyclycyclines
➢ Tigecyline
➢ Structure similar to tetracylines
➢ Has extended broad spectrum activity against:
➢ Multidrug–resistant gram +ve:
➢ - methicillin-resistant staphylococci, multi-drug
resistant streptococci, vancomycin-resistant
enterococci
➢ Extended- spectrum B-lactamase producing gram –
ve
➢ Acinetobacter baumanii
➢ Anaerobic organisms
41
➢ Not active against Proteus & Pseudomonas
➢ Is indicated for:
- complicated skin & soft tissue infections
- complicated intra-abdominal infections
➢ Given iv infusion every 12 hrs
➢ Eliminated via biliary/fecal excretion
➢ No dose adjustment in renal impairment
42
➢ Adverse effects:
➢ Similar to tetracyclines
➢ Nausea & vomiting
➢ Photosensitivity
➢ Discoloration of teeth in children
➢ Contraindicated during pregnancy
43
Inhibitors of Metabolism & Inhibitors
of Nucleic Acid Function or
Synthesis
1
➢ Inhibitors of metabolism:
- Sulfonamides, trimethoprim
➢ Inhibitors of nucleic acid function or
synthesis:
- Fluoroquinolones
2
Folic Acid Antagonists
➢ Sulpha drugs (sulphonamides),
Trimethoprim
➢ These are synthetic agents that inhibit folic
acid synthesis in bacteria, therefore,
leading to interference with nucleic acid
synthesis
➢ Interfere with ability of bacteria to divide
3
➢ Bacteria require folic acid, which is
synthesized in bacteria from para-amino-
benzoic acid (PABA)
➢ Sulpha drugs compete with PABA
preventing synthesis of folic acid in
bacteria
4
➢ Trimethoprim inhibits DHFR
(dihydrofolate reductase) enzyme which
converts folic acid into folinic acid
resulting in impaired synthesis of folinic
acid (an essential coenzyme in nucleic
acid synthesis) leading to antibacterial
effects
5
Mechanism of action
DHFR
PABA Folic acid Folinic acid
(Dihydrofolate) (Tetrahydrofolate)
6
➢ Sulpha drugs & trimethoprim are
bacteriostatic when given alone
➢ However, their combination (co-
trimoxazole) inhibits above 2 steps resulting
in bactericidal effect
7
Sulpha Drugs
➢ These agents were active against many
Gram +ve & Gram -ve bacteria & others
➢ At the present time, they are infrequently
used with limited indications because of
increased bacterial resistance
➢ Safer more effective agents have
replaced sulpha drugs
➢ The following sulpha are important:
8
Sulpha Drugs
➢ Sulphadiazine
➢ Sulphadoxine
➢ Sulphacetamide
➢ Sulphamethoxazole
➢ Sulphasalazine
9
Sulphadiazine
➢ Itis an oral well absorbed short acting
sulpha that crosses well BBB into CSF
➢ Useful in treatment of meningitis (with
penicillin)
➢ Useful in treatment of toxoplasmosis (with
pyrimethamine)
➢ Flamazine (silver sulphadiazine):
useful topically in prevention & treatment of
infections in burns, leg ulcers & pressure
sores
10
Sulphadoxine
➢A long acting sulpha useful in treatment of
malaria (with pyrimethamine)
➢ Fansidar: sulphadoxine + pyrimethamine
Sulphacetamide
➢ It is useful topically for eye infections
11
Sulphamethoxazole
➢ It is combined with trimethoprim
producing co-trimoxazole
12
Sulphasalazine (salazopyrine)
➢ It is useful in chronic inflammatory bowel
disease (IBD) like ulcerative colitis &
Crohn’s disease
➢ It is used orally
➢ In colon, it is splitted by bacterial flora into
sulphapyridine & 5-aminosalicylic acid
which is the active part that produces anti-
inflammatory effect of the drug
13
➢ Sulpha drugs are metabolised in liver by
process of acetylation
➢ People are either rapid or slow
acetylators
➢ Slow acetylators accumulate drug & are
more prone to adverse effects
➢ The drug & its metabolites are excreted in
urine (excretion increases in alkaine urine)
14
Contraindications
➢ Newborn babies because of risk of kernicterus
due to displacement of billirubin from binding
sites on plasma proteins & increased entry into
brain tissues through immature BBB leading to
mental retardation
➢ Late pregnancy due to possible passage to fetus
& risk of kernicterus
➢ Allergy
➢ G6-PD deficiency leading to hemolytic anemia
15
Kernicterus
16
Adverse effects
➢ Crystalluria: Sulpha may precipitate in urine
leading to hematuria & even obstruction; can be
prevented by increasing water intake & urine
alkalinization
➢ Haemolytic anaemia in patient deficient of
G6-PD enzyme
➢ Kernicterus
17
Adverse effects
➢ Hypersensitivityreactions (HSR):
fever, skin rashes, including severe
Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJD) &
TEN (Toxic epidermal necrolysis)
(Erythema multiform; target lesions in skin
& mucous membrane)
18
Stevens- Johnson syndrome
(SJS)
19
Trimethoprim
➢ This is a DHFR inhibitor that inhibits
conversion of folic acid into folinic acid
➢ It can be used alone or with
sulphamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole)
➢ It may be used in UTI, prostatitis & in
respiratory infections
20
➢ Prolonged therapy may produce blood
disorders (macrocytic anemia,
leucopenia & thrombocytopenia) due to
effect on folic acid pathway in cells
21
Co-trimoxazole (Septrin)
22
Therapeutic uses
➢ Respiratory TI: (pneumococci, haemophilus,
klebsiella infections, Pneumocystis carini
pneumonia in patients with AIDS)
➢ UTI (caused by E.coli, Proteus)
➢ Enteric fever (salmonellosis)
➢ Brucellosis
➢ Gonorrhoea
23
Fluroquinolones
➢ First generation:
Nalidixic acid, used less today, Gram – ve
(narrow spectrum mainly in UTI)
➢ Second generation:
Gram –ve, Gram +ve, Atypical bacteria
(chlamydia, mycoplasma)
Ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin & ofloxacin
24
➢ Third generation:
Gram –ve, Gram +ve (streptococcus
pneumonia), Atypical bacteria (chlamydia,
mycoplasma)
Levofloxacin (Tavanic) (UTIs & respiratory
infections: acute sinusitis, chronic bronchitis,
community acquired & nonsocial pneumonia)
➢ Fourth generation:
Gram –ve, Gram +ve, Anaerobic
Moxifloxacin 25
➢ Mechanism of action:
➢ Acts by inhibiting DNA gyrase enzymes
(inhibit topoisomerases) in bacteria
leading to interference with DNA synthesis
& anti-bacterial effect
26
Fluroquinolones
Nalidixic acid (Negram)
➢ Active against Gram –ve organisms
including E.coli, salmonella, shigella & H.
influenza
➢ This is useful in UTI (concentrated in urine)
but has limited systemic anti-bacterial
actions
➢ Its derivatives called fluroquinolones
(ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin & ofloxacin)
are 60 times more potent with systemic anti-
bacterial actions
27
Ciprofloxacin
28
Pharmacokinetics
29
Therapeutic uses
➢ UTI (prostatitis) even those caused by resistant
Gram –ve b. as Pseudomonas
➢ Traveler’s diarrhea (E.coli)
➢ Enteric fever (salmonellosis) & shigellosis
➢ Gonorrhoea
➢ Septicemia
➢ bone infections
➢ Chlamydia & Helicobacter infections
➢ Serious respiratory TI like that caused by H.
influenza & atypical pneumonia (mycoplasma,
chlamydia)
➢ Topically in some eye infections like that caused
by Pseudomonas 30
Contraindications
31
Adverse effects
Usually well tolerated with few adverse reactions
which may include:
➢ GI: nausea, vomiting , diarrhea
➢ Arthralgia
➢ Allergy: rash, photosensitivity, anaphylaxis,
Stevens-Johnson syndrome
➢ CNS manifestations: (headache, hallucination &
convulsions).
➢ Tendon damage like rupture of Achilles tendon
32
ANTI-PROTOZOAL DRUGS
2
Protozoa are a diverse group of mostly motile unicellular
eukaryotic organisms
1. Treatment of Malaria:
Malaria is an acute infectious disease caused by four
species of the protozoal genus Plasmodium.
P falciparum, P vivax, P malariae, and P ovale
5
1. TISSUE SCHIZONTICIDES:
Primaquine eradicates exoerythrocytic forms of recurring
malarias and has gametocidal action.
Primaquine is the only agent that can lead to radical
cures of malarias,
Mechanism of action:
It interferes with plasmodial mitochondria
Adverse effects
1.GI upset.
2.Jaundice.
3.Haemolytic anaemia (in patients with glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase2 deficiency).
6
2. BLOOD SCHIZONTICIDES:
1.Chloroquine :
is the drug of choice in the treatment of erythrocytic
malaria
It prevents ploymerization of heme to hemozoin leading to
lysis of parasite and red blood cells
7
Therapeutic uses:
1. Treatment & prophylaxis of malaria.
2. Hepatic amoebiasis
3. Others as in rheumatoid arthritis for its anti-
inflammatory actions.
Adverse effects:
1.GI upset.
2.Rashes & pruritis.
3.Pigmentation of skin & mucous membrane.
4.Deposition in cornea, iris & retina (retinopathy) causing
various ocular manifestations.
Precautions:
1.Should not be taken by patients with psoriasis because of
risk of exacerbation of the disease. 8
2.Regular ocular examination is needed during prolonged
therapy to detect early ocular complications.
2.Quinine:
Itinterferes with heme polymerization leading to death of
parasites
Cinchonism or quinism
Adverse effects
GI upset (nausea & vomiting).
Blood disorders (haemolysis and thrombocytopenia)
Allergic rashes
Cinchonism.
Hypotension, convulsion, respiratory depression and ventricular
tachycardia (following rapid IV).
3. Mefloquine
Used for multi-resistant forms of P. falciparum, single,
produce cure
Damage parasite membrane as quinine
9
4. Artemisinin
For multi-resistant Falciparum malaria
It produces Neurotoxicity
5.Pyrimethamine
It is a dihydofolate reductase inhibitor useful in the
prophylaxis of malaria and treatment of chloroquine-
resistant malaria.
Prolonged use may lead to bone marrow depression &
therefore, blood counts are needed.
Folate deficiency: Folinic acid is commonly administered
to protect against folate deficiency
10
DRUG THERAPY OF AMOEBIASIS
Amebiasis (amebic dysentery) is an infection intestinal
tract caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
mild diarrhea to fulminating dysentery.
11
A.Mixed Ambicides (Luminal and systmic) :
1. Metronidazole (Flagyl)
This is an anti-microbial agent that has an amoebicidal
activity against the vegetative form of the Entamoeba
histolytica.
Mechanism of action
Metronidazole acts by interference with DNA.
Therapeutic uses
Acute amoebic dysentery.
Hepatic amoebiasis & pulmonary amoebiasis.
Anaerobic bacterial infections.
Postoperative prophylaxis.
Trichomoniasis: is primarily an infection of the urogenital
tract
Giardiasis.
Ulcertive gingivitis. 12
Non-specific vaginitis.
Adverse effects
1. Metallic taste in the mouth.
2. GI disturbances.
3. Headache
4. Allergy
Metronidazole is contraindicated in the first trimester
of pregnancy.
2. Tinidazole:
is a second-generation imidazole family that is similar to
metronidazole in spectrum of activity.
Treatment of amebiasis, amebic liver abscess, giardiasis,
and trichomoniasis
Tinidazole is as effective as metronidazole, with a shorter
13
course of treatment.
B. Luminal amebicides:
o A luminal agent should be administered for treatment of
the asymptomatic colonization state(carrier to disease).
1. Iodoquinol:
is amebicidal against E. histolytica and is effective
against the luminal trophozoite and cyst forms.
Side effects include rash and diarrhea
2. Paromomycin:
Effective against the intestinal (luminal) forms of E.
histolytica.
It exerts its antiamebic actions by reducing the population
of intestinal flora. Its direct amebicidal action is probably
due to the effects it has on cell membranes, causing
leakage.
14
Adverse effects: diarrhea
.
C. Systemic amebicides:
liver abscesses and intestinal wall infections
1. Chloroquine: is used in combination with metronidazole
to treat and prevent amebic liver abscesses
2. Emetine Hcl & dehydroemetine
They are used in amoebiasis when there is intolerance to
metronidazole or when there is no response to it.
They have low safety index & may cause cardiotoxicity.
Adverse effects
These agents are given as IM injection in hospital under close
supervision because of risk of toxicity.
GI upset (nausea & vomiting).
Treatment :
1. Metronidazole for 5 days.
Or
2. Tinidazole, which is equally effective as metronidazole
in the treatment of giardiasis but with a much shorter
course of therapy (2 grams given once).
16
CHEMOTHERAPY FOR LEISHMANIASIS
There are three types of leishmaniasis:
cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral.
Pentavalent antimonials, such as sodium
stibogluconate, are the conventional therapy
used in the treatment of leishmaniasis.
1. Sodium stibogluconate
Given daily by IV or IM injections or
topically in cutaneous lesions.
17
CHEMOTHERAPY FOR TOXOPLASMOSIS
Toxoplasma gondii, which is transmitted to humans when
they consume raw or inadequately cooked infected meat.
An infected pregnant woman can transmit the organism to
her fetus.
Treatment:
A combination of sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine.
18
Anthelmintics
19
1. TREATMENT OF NEMATODES
They cause infections of the intestine as well as the blood
and tissues (round worm)
A. Mebendazole:
Mebendazole acts by inhibiting microtubule synthesis and
also by decreasing glucose uptake.
Therapeutic uses :
ascariasis, enterobiasis & ancylostomiasis.
Contraindications :
Pregnancy: it has been shown to be embryotoxic and
teratogenic in experimental animals
Children under 2 years of age.
20
2. TREATMENT OF CESTODES
o The cestodes, or “true tapeworms,” typically attach to
the host’s intestine
A. Albendazole:
o inhibits microtubule synthesis and glucose uptake
A. Praziquantel:
agent of choice for the treatment of all forms of
schistosomiasis .
It increases permeability of the cell membrane to calcium,
causing contracture and paralysis of the parasite.
22
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
Drugs for systemic fungal infections
Polyene antibiotics
-Amphotericin B
Pyrimidine antimetabolites
-Flucytosine
Antifungal azoles
-Ketoconazole
-Fluconazole
-Itraconazole
Echinocandins
Caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin
Drugs for superficial fungal infections
Systemic drugs
-Griseofulvin
-Iodide
Topical drugs
-Nystatin
-Haloprogin
-Tolnaftate
Targets of antifungal drugs
PHARMACOLOGY OF AMPHOTERICIN B
Chemistry
-Amphotericin B is a polyene antibiotic (polyene:
containing many double bonds)
Mechanism of action
-Binding to ergosterol present in the membranes of
fungal cells
Haloprogin
-The drug is fungicidal to various species of dermatophytes and
candida.
-Principal use: in tinea pedis (cure rate » 80% )
Tolnaftate
-The drug is effective against most dermatophytes and
Malassezia furfur but not against Candida
-In tinea pedis the cure rate is » 80%
Antifungal azoles
-Azoles are reported to cure dermatophyte infections in
60-100% of cases
-The cure rate of mucocutaneous candidiasis is > 80% and that
of tinea versicolor > 90%.
-Administration: cutaneous, vaginal.
-Cutaneous application rarely causes erythema, edema,
vescication, desquamation and urticaria
Antiviral Drugs
Dr. Mohammed Al-Sbou
Professor in Clinical Pharmacology
Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University
1
Viral infections
• Viruses lack both cell wall & cell membrane
• Clinical symptoms of viral infection appear
late in course of disease, at time that most viral
particles have replicated
• Administration of antiviral drugs have limited
effectiveness
• Some antiviral are use as prophylaxis
2
3
4
Respiratory Virus Infections
• Antiviral drugs for influenza types A &
B and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
• Immunization against influenza A is
the preferred approach
5
Antiviral drugs for Respiratory
Virus Infections
• Neuraminidase inhibitors:
oseltamivir & zanamivir
• Inhibitor of viral uncoating:
Amandatine
• Ribavarin
6
1. Neuraminidase inhibitors
7
• These drugs prevent release of new
virions & their spread from cell to cell
• Oseltamivir & zanamivir are effective
against influenza types A & B
8
1. Neuraminidase inhibitors
• Neuraminidase inhibitors prevent infection if
administered prior exposure
• They are most effective for treatment of
influenza if given within few hours of onset of
symptoms
• When administered within first 24-48 hrs of
onset of infection, they have modest effect on
intensity & duration of symptoms
9
1. Neuraminidase inhibitors
10
1. Neuraminidase inhibitors
• Adverse effects:
• Oseltamivir: GI discomfort, nausea
• Zanamivir: irritation of respiratory
tract, bronchospasm, should be avoided
in patients with asthma, COPD
11
2. Inhibitor of Viral Uncoating
• Adamantine derivatives: Amandatine
• Effective only against influenza A
infections
• Treatment is useful for unvaccinated
individuals & during epidemics
• Amantadine is also effective in treatment
of some cases of Parkinson’s disease
12
2. Inhibitor of Viral Uncoating
13
3. Ribavirin
• Effective against RNA & DNA viruses
• Is used in treating infant & children with
severe RSV infections
• Is indicated in chronic hepatitis C in
combination with interferon-alpha-2b
• Is given orally or I.V, aerosol
• Adverse effects:
- Transient anemia, elevated bilirubin,
teratogenic
14
Hepatic viral infections
15
Hepatic viral infections
16
Antiviral drugs for hepatic viral
infections:
• Interferon
• Lamivudine
17
1. Interferon
• A family of naturally occurring,
inducible glycoproteins that interfere
with ability of viruses to infect cells
• Three types interferon- α, β, γ
18
• Pegylated” formulations has been
attached to either interferon-α-2a or
interferon-α-2b to increase size of
molecule
• The larger molecular size delays
absorption from injection site, increase
duration of action of drug & decreases its
clearance
19
Some approved indications for interferons
20
Interferon
• Interferon is not active orally
• Is administered intralesionally, SC & I.V
• Adverse effects:
- Flu-like symptoms: fever, chills, myalgias, arthralgias
- Bone marrow suppression
- Neurotoxicity (severe fatigue, weight loss, thyroditis)
- Rarely CHF, hypersensitivity reactions (HSR)
21
2. Lamivudine
22
Herpesvirus infections
• Acyclovir, Ganciclovir, famciclovir,
penciclovir
23
Herpesvirus infections
• Herpes simplex infections:
- Mouth, lips (cold sores) & eye
are associated with HSV-1,
- are treated with topical antiviral
24
Herpesvirus infections
• Varecilla-zoster virus:
- Chickenpox in healthy children
mild & antiviral drug is not required
- Chikenpox in adults is more severe,
required antiviral therapy
25
1. Acyclovir (Zovirax)
• Is a prototypic antiherpetic agent
• The most common use of acyclovir is in
therapy for genital herpes infections
• Herpes simplex virus type 1 & 2 (HSV-1
& HSV-2), varecilla-zoster virus (VZV),
mediated infections are sensitive to
acyclovir
• Drug of choice in HSV encephalitis
26
1. Acyclovir
• Route of administrations:
I.V, orally or topical route
• Adverse effects:
- Topical: Local irritation
- Oral: headache, diarrhea,
nausea, vomiting
- I.V: renal dysfunction
27
AIDS
• Aquired immunodeficiency syndrome
• Is disease of human immune system
caused by HIV (Human immunodeficiency
virus)
• 33.2 million live with AIDS worldwide
28
29
Treatment of AIDS
• A highly active regimen that uses combinations
of drugs to suppress replication of HIV & to
restore immunocompetency of host
30
Treatment of AIDS
• Highly Active AntiRetroviral Therapy
(HAART)
1. Nucleoside & nucleotide reverse
transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
2. Non-Nucleoside reverse transcriptase
inhibitors (NNRTIs)
3. Protease inhibitors (PIs)
31
Treatment of AIDS
32
Treatment of AIDS
33
Nucleoside & nucleotide reverse
transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
1. Zidovudine (AZT)
2. Didanosine
3. Abacavir
34
Non-Nucleoside reverse
transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
• Nevirapine
35
Protease inhibitors (PIs)
• Saquinivir
• Ritonavir
• Indinavir
36
Protease inhibitors (PIs)
• Adverse effects:
- Lipodystrophy syndrome:
metabolic effects include fat
redistribution, insulin resistance &
dyslipidemia
- Fat redistribution after chronic use
including loss of fat from extremities &
its accumulation in abdomen & base of
neck (buffalo hump)
Buffalo hump
37