MODULE 11 142

Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health and Politics

HOW TO LEARN FROM THIS MODULE

Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module:
1. Read and follow the instructions carefully.
2. Read each lesson and do all the activities provided for you.
3. Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the topic.
4. Take the Learning Activities after each lesson to determine how well you understood
the topic.
5. Answer the Assessment Task at the end of the module to measure how much you have
gained from the lessons. You may answer it via the online link provided or write your
answers on a sheet of paper that you can physically submit, or you may take a picture
of your answers and send it via messaging platforms with which you agreed with your
instructor during the class orientation.

INTRODUCTION

All organisms, from microscopic to humans, have a unique set of instructions

which set down how they look, grow and develop called the genome. These
instructions are found within cells in a chain called DNA, known as the blueprint of
life. DNA is divided into small sections called genes which control different aspects of
the organism’s growth and characteristics. These genes that codes special
characteristics have been the interest of scientists and developers for the purpose of
many promising advances in agriculture and many other fields.

Genetic engineering is the process of inserting new genetic information into

existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its
characteristics. Genetic Engineering sometimes called as recombinant DNA (rDNA)
technology. These organisms are called transgenic, into which DNA from unrelated
organism has been artificially introduced. A genetically modified organism therefore,
with its correct definition, is an organism that has undergone artificial manipulation,
modification, and recombination of DNA and is usually done in the laboratory. This
artificial manipulation of DNA would never happen in nature.

The technology was invented in the early 1970’s and is credited in the name
of Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson from Genentech, the first genetic engineering
company located in the United States. The company was able to produce a human
protein (somatostatin) in E.coli and genetically engineered human insulin.

Now-a-day, food scarcity and lack of resources are very evident. One way to
cater these problems is the creation of GMOs which serves many purposes like
faster and bigger productions. A group of high-powered scientists claimed that
GMOs are safe and that they can help in food security and environmental
sustainability. On the other hand, the rise of modern genetic modification has

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brought with it passionate opponents who give emphasis to many concerns like
health, environmental, ethical, and political issues and concerns that may lead into
long time risks.

This module will discuss the process of genetic modification in human,

animals and plants, as well as the benefits and risks of GMOs along with the ethical
concerns and the councils responsible in implementing the rules and regulation in
the production and usage of GMOs.

After completing the module, you should be able to answer the following:
 What are genetically modified organisms?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of GMOs to an individual and to
the society as a whole?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

o Determine the true meaning of genetic engineering as a science and its usages
in various aspects;
o Discuss the ethics and implications of GMOs and potential future impacts;
o Evaluate the impacts of genetic engineering on our daily life;
o Analyze the moral issues raised in the development of genetic engineering; and
o Apply different ethical theories to make moral judgment on genetic engineering.

LEARNING CONTENT

Genetic engineering is widely used in biological research. Mouse models are

engineered for biomedical studies, bacteria are engineered to produce medications
such as insulin, and crops are engineered for agriculture. All of these products of
genetic engineering were created using the same basic steps: identifying a trait of
interest, isolating that genetic trait, inserting that trait into the genome of a desired
organism, and then growing the engineered organism.

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LESSON 1. The Process of Genetic Engineering

Fig.11.1 Steps in Genetic Engineering

Source: http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/how-to-make-a-gmo/

Step 1: Identify a trait of interest. In order to identify a desirable new trait scientists
most often look to nature. Successful discovery of a new genetic trait of interest is
often a combination of critical thinking and luck. For example, if researchers are
searching for a trait that would allow a crop to survive in a specific environment, they
would look for organisms that naturally are able to survive in that specific
environment. Or if researchers are aiming to improve the nutritional content of a
crop, they would screen a list of plants that they hypothesize produce a nutrient of
interest.

Step 2: Isolate the genetic trait of interest. Comparative analysis is used to decode
what part of an organism’s genetic makeup contains the trait of interest. The
genomes of plants with the trait are compared to genomes in the same species

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without the trait, with the goal of identifying genes present only in the former. The
genomes of different species with the same trait may also be compared in order to
identify a gene, as was the case while developing Golden Rice. If there is no
database of genetic information for comparison, scientists will purposefully delete, or
―knock out,‖ parts of the genome of interest until the desired trait is lost, thereby
identifying the genes that lead to the trait.

Step 3: Insert the desired genetic trait into a new genome. Altering the genome of
plant seeds is difficult due to their rigid structure. Many biotech companies use ―gene
guns‖ that shoot metal particles coated with DNA into plant tissue with a .22-caliber
charge [8]. Monsanto no longer uses gene guns, but instead takes advantage of
bacteria, called Agrobacterium tumefaciens, that naturally invade seeds and alter
plants by inserting pieces of their own DNA into a plant’s genome.

Step 4: Growing the GMO. After a genetic trait has been successfully inserted into
an organism’s genome, the modified organism must then be able to grow and
replicate with its newly engineered genome. First, the genotype of the organisms
must be checked so that researchers are only propagating organisms in which the
genome was modified correctly.

Genetic Engineering Tools

Over the years, scientists have learned about some weird and cool things you can
do with DNA. These findings have helped us to understand what goes on naturally in
our cells (and elsewhere in nature, such as bacterial cells), but they also open up the
possibility of using enzymes, viruses, and more as tools.
1. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- PCR uses DNA polymerase, the same enzyme that copies DNA in our
cells when it’s time for them to divide (see the ―Making More Cells‖
section). But instead of the human version of that enzyme, PCR uses a
version of that enzyme, called Taq polymerase, from a bacterium called
Thermophilus aquaticus.
- This tiny creature lives in very hot water, including the geysers in
Yellowstone National Park. Its DNA polymerase can withstand extreme
heat. G enetic E ngineering Tools 221 That’s convenient, because when
we heat DNA, the two strands of the double helix are no longer strongly
attracted to each other.
- A PCR machine heats a sample of DNA until the two strands come apart.
Then it lowers the temperature back to normal, and the Taq polymerase
gets to work filling in the missing nucleotides on each lonely strand. Now
we have two pieces of DNA. Raise the temperature again, and the same
thing happens. In each cycle, the amount of DNA doubles, so it only takes
ten cycles to get 1,024 copies of DNA. This polymerase needs a double-
stranded bit of DNA to start from, though. So when you begin your PCR
experiment, you can add primers—short segments of single-stranded
DNA—that match the sequence at the beginning and end of the spot you
want to amplify.

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Fig. 11. 2 PCR

Source: https://sciencemusicvideos.com/ap-biology/genetic-
engineering-and-biotechnology/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-tutorial/

2. RESTRICTION ENZYMES AND LIGASE

If you want to cut and paste a gene from one place to another,
restriction enzymes are a great way to do that. These are enzymes naturally
made by bacteria, and each one has a specific sequence that it recognizes
and then cuts unevenly. You can use this enzyme to cut a gene of interest out
of any old DNA, and then use the same enzyme to cut a plasmid (a tiny
circular piece of DNA that bacteria can carry).
Because the enzyme recognizes a certain sequence, and cuts it
unevenly, each of the places that were cut has a length of unpaired DNA with
a certain sequence. And it just so happens that all of the unevenly cut ends
are able to match with each other. That means you can take the gene you just
cut and insert it into the plasmid. Once you have a plasmid containing a gene
you’d like to work with, you can introduce it into bacteria. Then, when the
bacteria replicate, your plasmid will replicate as well.

Fig. 11.3 Restriction enzyme and ligase

Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-
technology/dna-cloning-tutorial/a/overview-dna-cloning

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3. GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
The gel is just what it sounds like—a slab of
material that looks and feels a little bit like Jell-O.
If you could shrink down to the size of a DNA
molecule, you would see the gel as a network of
chains of sugars called agarose. A tiny piece of
DNA could easily slip between the strands, like
how a mouse can disappear into a brush pile. But
a larger piece of DNA would have a harder time.
To get the DNA to move, a scientist hooks up
electrodes that put a positive charge at one end of
the gel and a negative charge at the other. DNA is
negatively charged, so it wants to move toward
the end with the positive electrode. After a while,
perhaps an hour or two depending on the
experiment, the DNA shows up as stripes, or
bands, in the gel. DNA is naturally clear, but you
can dye it after the fact, or you can use DNA that
has already had a dye or label attached. Fig. 11.5 Gel Electrophoresis
Source:https://www.wikiwand.com/e
n/Agarose_gel_electrophoresis
CRISPR AND GENE EDITING Cut and Paste

There are many ways to cut and paste DNA, including several that
scientists have been using for decades. But one new technique, known as
CRISPR/Cas9, can do the job easily and more precisely than ever before.
CRISPR, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats, is a group of DNA sequences that are derived from DNA fragments
from bacteriophages that have infected a prokaryote. These sequences are
then tasked to search and destroy any similar bacteriophages that try to infect
that organism. Meanwhile, Cas9, which stands for CRISPR-associated protein
9, is a protein that is able to cut DNA, which gives bacteria with Cas9 the
ability to alter any genome using this protein. With a CRISPR/Cas9 technique
developed just a few years ago, you can actually tell the CRISPR machinery
where in a chromosome you would like to see a change and exactly what
change you would like it to be. Jennifer Doudna, one of the people who
discovered the technique, has said that it’s like having a scalpel when the
previous tools were all sledge hammers.

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Fig. 11.6 CRISPR/Cas9

Source: https://medium.com/the-science-scholar/science-crispr-cas9-change-
for-the-better-one-gene-at-a-time-cd11f78dcae6

How CRISPR AND CAS9 edit DNA?

In the wild, the bacterium makes an RNA copy of one or more of its
scrapbooked sequences from the CRISPR array, and a protein called Cas9
holds onto it. This is the guide RNA: the thing that Cas9 is programmed to
search and destroy. When it finds a piece of DNA floating around in the cell, it
cuts that DNA. Mission accomplished.

How CRISPR is used by Scientists?

CRISPR will likely be the tool of choice for genetically modifying crops
in the future. It’s already been used to create a mushroom that doesn’t brown
when cut. The technique works in animals as well as people, so one group of
scientists used CRISPR to create leaner pigs whose meat is lower in fat.
Another group worked in cattle, snipping out a gene that’s necessary for horns
to develop. It’s possible to breed hornless cattle, but it would take decades of
careful mating.
CRISPR does the job in just one generation. Another use of CRISPR in
livestock is relevant to human health. Decades ago, scientists explored the
idea of transplanting organs from pigs to people, because there aren’t enough
donated human organs to go around. But a pig’s genome contains
retroviruses that could be dangerous to a human host. A team of researchers
recently managed to remove all sixty-two of these problematic elements
CRISPR and G ene Editing 227 from a pig’s genome, opening up the
possibility of animal-to-human transplants once again.

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Genetic Engineering in Plants

Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA
of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. In most cases, the
aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the
species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases,
environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments
(e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.
Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels,
and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

Fig.11.7 Genetic Engineering in Plants.

Source: google.com/search?q=genetic+engineering+microorganisms

Genetic Engineering in Animals

Genetic engineering poses great
improvement of health and welfare among
agricultural animals. It is observed that genetic
engineering animals can be resistant to
diseases, parasites and endure stresses making
them more productive. These animals may not
need more veterinary interventions and other
growth stimulants. However, it is always
important to note that the technology is approved
as safe for humans, animals and the
environment (Gottlieb & Wheeler, 2011).
Moreover, all genetic engineering animals
Fig. 11.8 Genetic Engineering in Animals
are identified and tracked throughout the
Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=genetic+engi
research and development (R&D) process. At neering+process+in+animals&sxsrf=ALeKk01ThGIo6_7TH
this time, there have been no approved genetic z9tgUJsincM1KBx0A:1597578946070&source=lnms&tbm
engineered animals or its products for =isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwju4tKs1Z_rAhUEBogKHTHcD9
EQ_AUoAXoECAwQAw&biw=1242&bih=553#imgrc=TRq8
commercialization hence, it is only allowed at the T-hJUI5IkM
R & D processes.

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Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines genetically modified

organism, (GMO) as an ―organism, either plant, animal or microorganisms, in which
the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally
by mating or natural recombination. GMO’s are artificially manipulated in a laboratory
through genetic engineering.
Organisms that have been genetically modified include micro-organisms such
as bacteria and yeast, plants, fish, and mammals. Source of genetically modified
foods, and are also widely used in scientific research and to produce useful goods
other than food. In 1972, Paul Berg conducted the first recombinant DNA molecules
hence one of the foundations of genetic engineering.

Genetic Engineering Products

Agricultural Products
Genetic modifiction in crops is not inherently good or inherently
bad. In this section, we’ll look at some of the common types of GMOs,
and what they really mean for agriculture and for health.
 Bt Cotton, Bt Corn, and Bt Potato
- Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria are pathogenic to some
insects because they produce a protein called Bt toxin that
interferes with the insect digestive tract. The Bt gene has
been inserted into a variety of crop plants, including Fig.11.9 Bt Corn
corn, cotton and potatoes, so insects that eat the Source:https://www.philstar.com/business/agriculture/
2018/07/15/1833522/gm-corn-aids-philippine-self-
plants will be killed. sufficiency

- This corn is the source of cornstarch, corn syrup, and

tons of other corn-related products. It also makes up most of
the diet that chickens, cows, and other livestock eat. The
majority of corn grown this way is genetically modified to
stave off insects or to tolerate being sprayed with weed
killers, or both.
- Cotton plants make our clothes, but they are food crops too:
cotton seed oil is edible. Like corn and soy, cotton plants are
often genetically modified to resist insects or to tolerate weed
killers. Fig.11.10 Bt cotton
Source:http://news.agropages.com/N
- There is one GMO potato variety that was approved in ews/NewsDetail---25717.htm
2017. Its naturally occurring enzyme for browning (which
happens when the potato is bruised) no longer works, so the
potato doesn’t get black spots. This potato also produces
less acrylamide, a chemical that is formed when food is fried
or cooked at high temperatures.

Fig.11.11 Bt potato
https://bearmarketreview.wordpress.com/2014/02/28/ge
netically-modified-potatoes-the-power-of-biotechnology-
nikki-nolan/
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 Papayas - Most papayas on the market today are genetically engineered to be

resistant to the papaya ringspot virus.The GMO papaya may have saved the
papaya industry; before it came along, the virus devastated papaya crops.
 MacGregor tomatoes- these GMO tomatoes stay firm after harvest because the
gene for polygalacturonase (PG), the enzyme that breaks down pectin, is
suppressed. The suppression was accomplished by antisense DNA technology,
so fruits have longer shelf life.

Fig. 11.12 GMO papaya Fig.11.13 MacGregor Tomato

Source:https://www.sutori.com/story/geneti Source:https://aliquotthesciencespot.com/2015/
cally-modified-papayas-- 07/23/the-first-genetically-modified-food-in-the-
CZanfGTmrdhGKMLHwcrBsH8C
united-states-was-the-tomato/

Genetically Modified Bacterium

 Pseudomonas flourescens bacterium
- This bacterium has been has been engineered to
produce a toxin normally produced by Bacillus
thuringiensis. This toxin kills certain plant
pathogens, such as the European corn borer. The
genetically altered pseudomonas, which produces
much more toxin than B. Thuringiensis, can be
added to plant seeds and in time will enter the
vascular system of the growing plant. Its toxin is
ingested by the feeding borer larvae and kills Fig. 11.14 Pseudomonas flourescens bacteria
them (but is harmless to humans and other Source:https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/783
457/view/pseudomonas-fluorescens-bacteria-sem
warm-blooded animals).

Animal Husbandry Products

 Bovine growth hormone (bGH)
- bGH improves weight gain and milk production in
cattle, produced by E. coli When bGH is injected
into beef cattle, it increases their weight gain; in
dairy cows, it also causes a 10% increase in milk
production. Such procedures have met with
resistance from consumers, especially in Europe,
primarily as a result of as-yet unsubstantiated

Fig. 11.15 Bovine growth hormone

Source:https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/115897390
384666944/

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fears that some of the bGH would be present in the milk or meat of these
cattle and might be harmful to humans.
 Porcine growth hormone (pGH)
- Improves weight gain in swine; produced by E. Coli
 Transgenic animals
- Genetic modification of animals to produce medically useful products in
their milk.

Pharmaceutical Products
 Human Growth Hormone – Corrects growth deficiencies in children produced
by E. coli.
 Cervical Cancer Vaccine – Consists of viral proteins produced by S.
cerevisiae.
 Factor VII – Treatment for hemorrhagic strokes; produced by mammalian cell
culture.
 Hepatitis B Vaccine – Produced by S. cerevisiae that carries hepatitis virus
gene on a plasmid
 Influenza Vaccine – Trial vaccine made from E. coli or S. cerevisiae carrying
virus genes.
 Human insulin – Therapy for diabetes; better tolerated than insulin extracted
from animals; produced by E. coli.

Please click/ visit the link below:

To know more about GMOs in https://www.gmo-free-
the Philippine context, visit the regions.org/gmo-free-
given link. regions/asia/philippines/gmo-
news-related-to-philippines.html

READ

ACTIVITY 1. GMO and You!

(Lesson Check – Up)

Search over the internet five (5) GMOs that can be consumed (drink or
eat) and fill the given table below. In the second column, just answer YES or
NO. To support your claim in the second column, write your short but
substantial reasons in the third column.

Are you willing to

GMO Reason/s
consume this GMO?
1.

2.

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Lesson 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of GMOs

Since the 1990’s, when the first GMOs were introduced in the human food
supply chain, the advantages and disadvantages of this technology have been
debated. The US has somewhat embraced GMOs, but the rest of the world has
treated them with great hesitation. This is due to their notions that since it is not
natural, then modifications may change and continuously change the organisms and
may become destructive instead of becoming helpful and useful.

But everything that has been created is done with a good purpose- to benefit
organisms, with human well-being as the center of most of scientific activities.
Reasons and positive impacts stemming from the creation of GMOs include the
development of crops with pest resistant traits, reduce damage and increase
productions in all products that are basically needed for human consumption.
Scientists view this as a bioremediation to cope up with needs of the increasing
population.
Generally, the following are noted advantages of GMOs (Medical News Today,
2019):
- Manufacturers use genetic modification to give foods desirable traits. For
example, they have designed two new varieties of apple that turn less brown
when cut or bruised.
- Crops are more resistant to diseases as they grow. Manufacturers also
engineer produce to be more nutritious or tolerant of herbicides.
- Crop protection is the main rationale behind this type of genetic modification.
Plants that are more resistant to diseases spread by insects or viruses result
in higher yields for farmers and a more attractive product.
- Genetically modification can also increase nutritional value or enhance flavor.
- Can contribute to lower costs for the consumer. It also ensures that more
people have access to quality food.

There are also drawbacks that most people often associate with GMO
foods (Medical News Today, 2019):
- Allergic Reactions. The World Health Organization (WHO) is discouraging
genetic engineers from using DNA from allergens unless there are relevant
proofs that the gene itself will not cause any health problem. It is believed by
some people that GMO foods contain allergens that can trigger allergic
reactions. However, it is also noting that there have been no reports of allergic
effects of any GMO foods currently on the market.
- Cancer. Some researchers argue that cancer is a disease that is caused by
mutations in DNA and it is dangerous to introduce new genes into the body
hence, GMO products can contribute to cancer development. However, the
American Cancer Society (ACS) that more research activities should be
thoroughly conducted to reach more valid conclusions on GMOs.
- Antibacterial Resistance. Genetic modifications on crops are believed to affect
the ability of people to defend against illness. Therefore, there is a chance
that GMO foods could contribute in the growing concerns of people becoming
more resistant to antibiotics. The WHO has said that the risk of gene transfer

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is low. As a precaution, WHO has set guidelines for the manufacturers of

GMO foods.
- Outcrossing. It refers to the risk of genes from certain GMO plants mixing with
those of conventional crops. There have been reports of low levels of GMO
crops approved as animal feed or for industrial use being found in food meant
for human consumption.

Karki (2006) also identified that the major environmental risks caused by
GMOs are: risks in gene flow, emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary
pests and weed problems and recombination of virus and bacteria to produce new
pathogens.
Genetics has come a long way from the days when Gregor Mendel began
counting his peas. He might be well delighted today at the strides modern genetics
has made since his rediscovery. On the other hand, like any good scientist, he might
well be concerned about the pace and the direction genetic research has taken in
recent years. Indeed, neither the pace nor the direction could have been anticipated.
Yet our abilities grow. We can only assume that with care and thoughtfulness, the
great promise of modern genetics will be realized.

Success and Failures of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering has advanced the understanding of many theoretical and

practical aspects of gene functions and organizations. It paved way into the
production of beneficial GMOs that have helped cases like crops able to withstand
pest attacks and calamities, vaccines, and many others. But the questions: how
much did it cost? How effective? And until when and what generation will it be
effective? These are big issues opponents are trying to raise. How much does it
really cost for one GMO to be created? And what are the failures done in genetic
engineering?
All scientists face the challenges of communicating complex issues to a public
that receives them through media channels often not equipped to communicate the
qualifications and uncertainties attaching to much scientific information. At its core,
science is an expression of some of our most cherished values. The public largely
trusts scientists, and scientists must in turn act as good stewards of this trust.
The application of gene editing in humans has raised ethical concerns,
particularly regarding its potential use to alter traits such as intelligence and beauty.
Here is another activity that will allow you to make moral judgment on genetic
engineering based on the ethics of GMOs.
Please click/ visit the link below:

Watch the video entitled https://www.youtube.com/

Human Genetic Engineering watch?v=dKBfxoPnT7g
using the given link and
proceed to the next activity
afterwards.
READ

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Activity 2. Human Genetic Engineering: Ethical or Not?

(Lesson Enhancement!)

After watching the video on Human Genetic Engineering, complete the given
table below and briefly answer the following questions. Submit your output through
word or pdf format at ______________________.

Aspects Pros Cons Ethical concerns

Designer babies
Gene selection
Gender selection
Trait selection
Gene therapy
Social-economic
differences
Military use
Prolonged human life

Q1. Do you support applying GE on human? Please explain and defend your answer
using the theories of ethics.

Q2. Imagine a world where you could pick your child’s traits ( like hair & eye color /
height/ build/ intellegency/ chance of disease/ memory/ number of clones). Would
this be a world you want to live in? Why or why not?

Rubric for Short Answer Question

5 points 4 points 3 points
The response indicates The response indicates The response indicates
that the student has a that the student has a that the student does not
complete understanding of partial understanding of demonstrate an
the concept. The student the concept. The student understanding of concept.
has provided a response has provided a response The student has provided
that answers the question that includes information a response that is
accurately and completely. that is essentially correct, inaccurate and
Necessary support and/or but the information is too incomplete.
examples are included. general or too simplistic.
Some of the support
and/or examples may be
incomplete or omitted.

On a clean sheet of paper, write your reflection on the following questions:

1. Knowing the benefits and risks GMOs can bring us, what will be your stand –
are you against GMO or not?
2. Would it affect your decision on whether or not to buy genetically modified
food? Why or why not?

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 ASSESSMENT TASK

Genetic Engineering: World’s Greatest Scam?

There are also notable controversies on GMOs and one specific example is on rice
production. With this, determine the controversies on the production of GMO golden rice and
how these controversies impacted the community. Submit your output at ____________.

Scientists and medical practitioners were definitely continue to search for

means of preserving lives and genetic engineering is one of the considered key in
this venture. Gene alteration and gene therapy are perceived to have many more
promising ways to improve health and human lives. However, genetic engineering
has been opposed by many due to possible risks that may encounter including
mainly on its ethical concerns. Should the law allow GM foods to be grown and
marketed? The answer to this, and every, public policy question rests ultimately
with us—citizens who will in the voting booth and shopping market decide the
answer. To make up our minds, we will use feelings, intuition, conscience, and
reason. However, as we citizens are, by and large, not scientists, we must, to one
degree or other, rest our factual understanding of the matter on the opinions of
scientific experts. Therefore, ethical responsibility in the decision devolves heavily
upon scientists engaged in the new GM technology. Science is a communal
process devoted to the discovery of knowledge and to open and honest
communication of knowledge. Its success, therefore, should be guided by ethics.

 REFERENCES

 ―Biotechnology Consultations on Food from GE Plant Varieties.‖

Biotechnology Consultations on Food from GE Plant Varieties. FDA, 30 June
2015.
 ―Genetic Engineering.‖ BBC. BBC, 2015. Web.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zg2bkqt/revision/2
 ―Questions & Answers on Food from Genetically Engineered Plants.‖ U.S.
Food and Drug Administration. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 22 June
2015.
http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/Biotechnology/ucm346030.ht
m
 Barrel, A. (2019). Genetically Modified Organisms. Accessed July 24, 2020 at
 Boyle, Rebecca. ―How To Genetically Modify a Seed, Step By Step.‖ Popular
Science. Popular Science, 24 Jan. 2011.
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