LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Understanding how things have evolved and changed allows us
| to see the elements of the institutions and societies have
“ ”
by Peter Stearns (1998)
“Historians do not perform heart transplants, improve highway
design, or arrest criminals. In a society that quite correctly
expects education to serve useful purposes, the functions of
history can seem more difficult to define than those of
engineering or medicine. History is in fact very useful, actually
indispensable, but the products of historical study are less
tangible, sometimes less immediate, than those that stem from
some other disciplines.” (Stearns, 1998)
Contrary to popular belief, the study of history involves not
only the mere memorization of facts, but the consideration
of multiple points of view, curation of content, and
interpretation of the past based on the different contexts
and perspectives involved. Knowledge in history creates
culturally and socially adept individuals who have the capacity
to think critically and solve present and future problems based
on the ideas that have been learned from the past. Simply put,
studying and understanding history gives us the skills necessary
to interpret how the world works so that we can chart our own
paths. The problem, however, is that most people do not
appreciate the need to study history because of the view that
the study of history only involves the memorization of dates,
names, and facts that are not useful in everyday life, or that the
study of history is repetitive.
According to Stearns (1998)
In understanding the consequences of the developments we are
experiencing in the present and those that will happen in the
future, history serves as our imperfect laboratory; the
information we gathered from the experiences of the past will
tread how we must move forward in the future.
affected us and will continue to affect us in the future.
Additionally, the study of history also serves both as art and
entertainment. Beautifully written history appeals not only
aesthetically, but also on the level of human understanding. We
develop thoughts about human experience by studying about
those who lived beautiful lives in the past and identify with these
characters on more personal levels. Such a personal connection
provides an avenue for the discussion of morality by testing
individual moral senses through critically thinking about the
decisions that were made in the past not only by certified heroes
or the great men and women of history, but also of the ordinary
people who went through such ordeals and displayed values like
courage and perseverance. This identification of values and
morals that have been prevalent in the nation from the stories in
the past creates a sense of identity and lays the foundation for
good citizenship.
Further, the study of history develops a foundation of skills
necessary for a lifetime of learning. In studying history, students
become adept at objectively assessing evidences and make
coherent arguments based on data. This improvement on the
students’ individual capacity to use and assess evidences,
analyze changes, and see their continuing influence on the
world creates well-informed citizens.
|
Primary and secondary sources differ on the source of the
accounts written on the document. Primary sources feature first-
hand accounts from actual observations and/or experiences that
the author themselves went through. Other sources that
interpret such accounts are classified as secondary sources.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
In the examples above, we can see the two different types of
sources on the first circumnavigation of the globe. On the left is
an incipit of the journal written by Antonio Pigafetta, while on the
right is a book by Alex Woolf on World History that includes the
summarized version of their claims.
Pigafetta’s journal is an example of a primary source because it
provides a first-hand account of the actual event. This means
that sources that provide information about an event, object, or
person, those that contain original works or ideas from which
other sources can use as a basis are classified as primary
sources.
• Autobiographies and memoirs
• Diaries, personal letters, and correspondence
• Interviews, surveys, and fieldwork
• Internet communications on email, blogs, listservs, and
newsgroups
• Photographs, drawings, and posters
• Works of art and literature
• Books, magazine and newspaper articles and ads
published at the time
• Public opinion polls
• Speeches and oral histories
• Original documents (birth certificates, property deeds,
trial transcripts)
• Research data, such as census statistics
• Official and unofficial records of organizations and
government agencies
• Artifacts of all kinds, such as tools, coins, clothing,
furniture, etc.
• Audio recordings, DVDs, and video recordings
• Government documents (reports, bills, proclamations,
hearings, etc.)
• Patents
• Technical reports
• Scientific journal articles reporting experimental
research results
A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about
an event, object, person, or work of art. Primary sources
include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts,
results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing,
audio and video recordings, speeches, and art objects.
Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic,
from people who had a direct connection with it. Primary
sources can include texts of laws and other original
documents. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed
an event or who quote people who did.
Primary sources are firsthand, contemporary accounts of events
created by individuals during that period of time or several years
later (such as correspondence, diaries, memoirs, and personal
histories). These original records can be found in several media
such as print, artwork, and audio and visual recording.
Examples of primary sources include manuscripts, newspapers,
speeches, cartoons, photographs, videos, and artifacts.
Primary sources can be described as those sources that are
closest to the origin of the information. They contain raw
information and thus, must be interpreted by researchers.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

1. How typical is this source for this period?

Primary Sources do not speak for themselves, they have to be
interpreted. That is, we can't always immediately understand
what a primary source means, especially if it is from a culture
significantly different from our own. It is, therefore, necessary
to try to understand what it means and to figure out what the
source can tell us about the past.
To help you interpret primary sources, you should think about
these questions as you examine the source:
1. Who wrote it? What do you know about the author?
2. Where and when was it written?
3. Why was it written?
4. To what audience is it addressed? What do you know about
this audience?
2. How widely was this source circulated?
3. What problems, assumptions, arguments, ideas, and values,
if any, does it share with other sources from this period?
4. What other evidence can you find to corroborate your
conclusions?
It is very tempting in a course of this kind to use the textbook as
a source of interpretations. If you encounter a primary source
that you don't entirely understand it seems easiest to look up the
proper interpretation in the text, rather than trying to figure it out
for your self. In this course, I would like to encourage you to
develop your interpretation. This process will take some
patience, some imagination, some practice, and a lot of hard
work on your part. But you will be developing an important,
transferable skill and also the tools and attitudes you need to
develop to think on your own.

1. What kind of work is it?

2. What was its purpose?
3. What are the important conventions and traditions governing
this kind of source? Of what, legal, political, religious, or
philosophical traditions is it apart?

1. What are the keywords in the source and what do they mean?
2. What point is the author trying to make? Summarize the
thesis.
3. What evidence does the author give to support the thesis?
4. What assumptions underlay the argument?
5. What values does the source reflect?
6. What problems does it address? Can you relate these
problems to the historical situation?
7. What action does the author expect as a result of this work? The work by Alex Woolf is an example of a secondary source
Who is to take this action? How does the source motivate that because it does not contain a primary account of the event, but
action? this source describes, interprets, summarizes, and processes
the information from secondary sources. Though such sources

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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
do not have the originality that primary sources are known for,
these works are often used for their contextual interpretation of
the original sources cited.
Secondary sources are works that analyze, assess, or
interpret a historical event, era, or phenomenon, generally
utilizing primary sources to do so. Secondary sources often offer
a review or a critique. Secondary sources can include books,
journal articles, speeches, reviews, research reports, and more.
Generally speaking, secondary sources are written well after
the events that are being researched. However, if an individual
writes about events that he or she experienced first-hand many
years after that event occurred, it is still considered a primary
source.
Secondary sources are materials that have taken a primary
source and summarized it, analyzed it, combined it, rephrased
it, and interpreted it. It is at least one step removed from the
event or phenomenon under review. A secondary source may
try to persuade or argue a position. Much of what you find as
sources will be secondary.
• Bibliographies
• Biographical works
• Reference books, including dictionaries,
encyclopedias, and atlases
• Articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers
after the event
• Literature reviews and review articles (e.g., movie
reviews, book reviews)
• History books and other popular or scholarly books
• Works of criticism and interpretation
• Commentaries and treatises
• Textbooks
• Indexes and abstracts
There is a strong temptation in a history class to believe that the
answers to all the questions are found in the textbook and that
the object of the course is to learn the textbook. While it is
certainly possible to approach this course in that manner, you
will not learn as much since you will be a passive recipient of
knowledge, rather than an active participant in the learning
process, and it will actually mean more work for you since you
will be doing more than you need to. This section is designed to
help you use the textbook more efficiently and effectively.
I. Three ways to use a secondary source.
Use a secondary source if you need to find a particular piece of
information quickly. You might need to know, for example, when
Ghengis Khan lived, in what year the cotton gin was invented or
the population of London in 1648.
If your interests are focused on one subject, but you need to
know something about what else was going on at that time or
what happened earlier, you can use a secondary source to find
the background material you might need. For example, if you
are writing about Luther's 95 Theses, you should use a
secondary source to help you understand the Catholic Church
in the Renaissance.
Since the facts do not speak for themselves, it is necessary for
the historian to make give them some shape and to put them in
an order people can understand. This is called an interpretation.
Many secondary sources provide not only information but a way
of making sense of that information. You should use a
secondary source if you wish to understand how a historian
makes sense of a particular event, person, or trend.
II. Using interpretations.
One of the most important tasks in reading a secondary source
is found and understanding that particular author's
interpretation. How does that particular author put the facts
together so that they make sense?
Good authors want to communicate their interpretation.
Because the reason for writing a book or article is to
communicate something to another person, a good author will
make the interpretation easy to find.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
In an essay, particularly a short one, an author will often state
the interpretation as part of the thesis statement. The thesis
statement is a summary of what the author is going to say in the
essay. The thesis statement is usually found at the end of the
introductory section or in the conclusion.
In a longer work, such as a book, the author will very likely have
many thesis statements, one or more for each section or chapter
of the book. The thesis for the book as a whole will often be
found either in the introduction or in the conclusion. The thesis
for individual chapters is often found in the first or last
paragraph. Topic sentences of paragraphs will also often have
important clues as to the author's interpretation.
N.B. It is often helpful, particularly if you are interested in the
author's interpretation to "gut" a book: Read only the first and
last chapters in their entirety; for all of the other chapters, read
only the first and last paragraphs. If this is a well-written book,
this should give you a fairly good idea of the author's point of
view.
An interpretation is how a historian makes sense of some part
of the past. Like a good story, well-done history reveals not only
the past but something about the present as well. Great
historians help us to see aspects of the past and about the
human condition which we would not be able to find on our own.
Some facts are ambiguous. Historians ask different questions
about the past. Historians have different values and come to the
material with different beliefs about the world. For these and
other reasons, historians often arrive at different
interpretations of the same event. For example, many historians
see the French Revolution as the result of beliefs in liberty and
equality; other historians see the French Revolution as the result
of the economic demands of a rising middle class. It is,
therefore, important to be able to critically evaluate a historian's
interpretation.
III. Evaluating an interpretation.
1. What historical problem is the author addressing?
2. What is the thesis?
3. How is the thesis arrived at?
a. What type of history book is it?
b. What historical methods or techniques does the
author use?
c. What evidence is presented?
d. Can you identify a school of interpretation?
e. What sources are used?
1. Did the author present a convincing argument?
a. Does the evidence support the thesis?
b. Does the evidence in fact prove what the author
claims it proves?
c. Has the author made any errors of fact?
2. Does the author use questionable methods or techniques?
3. What questions remain unanswered?
4. Does the author have a polemical purpose?
a. If so, does it interfere with the argument?
b. If not, might there be a hidden agenda?
1. How does this book compare to others written on this or
similar topics?
2. How do the theses differ?
3. Why do the theses differ?
a. Do they use the same or different sources?
b. Do they use these sources in the same way?
c. Do they use the same methods or techniques?
d. Do they begin from the same or similar points of
view?
e. Are these works directed at the same or similar
audience?
4. When were the works written?
5. Do the authors have different backgrounds?
6. Do they differ in their political, philosophical, ethical, cultural,
or religious assumptions?
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Primary and secondary sources can either be written or non-
written. This means that videos, pictures, music, and podcasts
can be used as either primary or secondary sources as well.
The images above are screen captures from two different
perspectives of one experience. On the left is a vlog by KZ
Tandingan of her experience while filming the show Singer in
China, while on the right is the actual performance by the same
artist. Both of these examples may be considered
primary sources since they both provide first-hand accounts of
the event from different perspectives. While the first presents a
more personal first-hand account from the artist herself, the
second presents a first-hand account as well but from the
perspective of the audience watching from their computers,
mobile devices, or on their television screens.
Above is a screen capture of a video reacting to the performance
of the artist mentioned above. This is an example of a secondary
source. Though the video presents most of the primary source
being commented on, the video is valued more for their reaction
to the event and not on the accurate account of the event itself.
A contextual analysis is simply an analysis of a text (in
whatever medium, including multi-media) that helps us to
assess that text within the context of its historical and cultural
setting, but also in terms of its textuality – or the qualities that
characterize the text as a text. A contextual analysis combines
features of formal analysis with features of “cultural archeology,”
or the systematic study of social, political, economic,
philosophical, religious, and aesthetic conditions that were (or
can be assumed to have been) in place at the time and place
when the text was created. While this may sound complicated,
it is in reality deceptively simple:
it means “situating” the text within the milieu of its times and
assessing the roles of author, readers (intended and actual),
and “commentators” (critics, both professional and otherwise) in
the reception of the text.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending
upon how complex one wishes to make the analysis. But it
generally includes several key questions:
Describe (or characterize) the language (the words, or
vocabulary) and the rhetoric (how the words are arranged in
order to achieve some purpose). These are the primary
components of style.
– What sort of reader does the author seem to have envisioned,
as demonstrated by the text’s language and rhetoric?
– What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of
its intended reader(s)? How can we tell?
– What sort of readers appears to be excluded from the text’s
intended audiences? How can we tell?
Why did the author write this text? And why did the author write
this text in this particular way, as opposed to other ways in which
the text might have been written?
– Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decisions
by the author. The author has chosen to write (or paint, or
whatever) with these particular words and has therefore chosen
not to use other words that she or he might have used. So we
need to consider:
– what the author said (the words that have been selected);
– what the author did not say (the words that were not selected);
and
– how the author said it (as opposed to other ways it might or
could have been said).
That is, is it written in response to:
– some particular, specific contemporary incidents or events?
– some more “general” observation by the author about human
affairs and/or experiences?
– some definable set of cultural circumstances?
– –
– If so, by whom? And why?
– And also, if so, what action(s) does the author want the
reader(s) to take?
– –
– If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think
about and to conclude or decide?
– Why does the author wish the readers to do this? What is to
be gained, and by whom?
– Such circumstances include historical or political events,
economic factors, cultural practices, and intellectual or aesthetic
issues, as well as the particular circumstances of the author's
own life.
Content analysis is a method for summarizing any form of
content by counting various aspects of the content. This enables
a more objective evaluation than comparing content based on
the impressions of a listener. For example, an impressionistic
summary of a TV program is not content analysis. Nor is a book
review: it’s an evaluation.
Content analysis, though it often analyses written words, is a
quantitative method. The results of content analysis are
numbers and percentages. After doing a content analysis, you
might make a statement such as "27% of programs on Radio
Lukole in April 2003 mentioned at least one aspect of
peacebuilding, compared with only 3% of the programs in 2001."
Though it may seem crude and simplistic to make such
statements, the counting serves two purposes:
• to remove much of the subjectivity from summaries
• to simplify the detection of trends.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Also, the fact that programs have been counted implies that
somebody has listened to every program on the station: content
analysis is always thorough.
Content analysis can actually be a lot more subtle than the
above example. There’s plenty of scope for human judgment in
assigning relevance to the content.
The content that is analyzed can be in any form, to begin with,
but is often converted into written words before it is analyzed.
The original source can be printed publications, broadcast
programs, other recordings, the internet, or live situations. All
this content is something that people have created. You can’t do
a content analysis of (say) the weather - but if somebody writes
a report predicting the weather, you can do a content analysis
of that.
Print media Newspaper items, magazine
articles, books, catalogs
Other writings Web pages, advertisements,
billboards, posters, graffiti
Broadcast media Radio programs, news
items, TV programs
Other recordings Photos, drawings, videos,
films, music
Live situations Speeches, interviews, plays,
concerts
Observations Gestures, rooms, products in
shops
That’s one way of looking at content. Another way is to divide
content into two types: media content and audience content.
Just about everything in the above list is media content. But
when you get feedback from audience members, that’s
audience content. Audience content can be either private or
public. Private audience content includes:
• open-ended questions in surveys
• interview transcripts
• group discussions.
Public audience content comes from communication
between all the audience members, such as:
• letters to the editor
• postings to an online discussion forum
• listeners’ responses in talkback radio
• Selecting content for analysis
• Units of Content
• Preparing Content
• Coding the Content
• Counting and Weighing
• Drawing Conclusion
Anything written in the past can constitute historical document
or “text,” whether it is a letter, diary, shopping list, literary text,
memo, novel, film, charter, or act of parliament. Although the
form and content of documents may vary, there are certain
questions that can be asked of any document to facilitate
analysis. It is important to ask the right questions and to make
the right assumptions. Rather than simply reading the
document, examine it closely to find the clues that are contained
within it. The questions from the tabs above will help you
analyze any document to get a complete picture of its subject
matter, period, message, significance, etc.
Documents were created by individuals in a specific historical
setting for a particular purpose. Until you know who created the
document, you cannot know why it was created or what
meanings its author intended by creating it. Sometimes you can
figure out who the author was by the document itself.
When documents are updated, there are a variety of clues that
allow an approximate date to be determined. These clues
include names and events mentioned (and not mentioned), the
form of the document, the style of the handwriting, and the
language /phraseology used. Sometimes it is possible to say
that a text must have been written after a certain date (terminus
post quem) or before another date (terminus ante quem). Often
it is possible only to say that the date is approximately or around
such and such a date (circa written as c.).
The best primary source is often that which is composed closest
in time to the event described. Memories of recent events tend
to be clearer than those of events long past. Many men and
women write their memoirs later in life, when their memories
may be fading and/or when they may be seeking to portray their
actions in a more positive light, so these may be less valuable
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

than contemporary letters. On the other hand, sometimes time

gives more time for reflection and insight.

The form and genre of the document reflect its purpose.

The location may not always be relevant, but it might suggest
Examine the document's presentation. How is it organized? For
something about the author and/or when it was published. For
example, letters usually contain a greeting (e.g., Dear Bob), a
example, a 1950s treatise about Communism written in the
complimentary close (e.g., Cordially,) and a signature. Is the
Soviet Union may have a very different agenda or political
document's organization formal or informal? Is the language
viewpoint from one written in the United States during the same
formal or informal? Is it written in legal language?
era.

Every author has a point of view, and exposing the assumptions

The relationship between author and audience will tell you much
of the document is an essential task for the reader. Ask yourself,
about the purpose of the document. Knowing the intended
“Is this a likely story?” Why or why not?” How reliable is this
audience determines your view of what to expect from the
document? What are its limitations, biases or blind spots?
document. It will tell you what to expect in the author's use of
language, the amount of knowledge that the writer assumes the
Remember that modern terms and terms used in the past often
audience has, and the form that the document takes.
differ. When you are looking for information, try both the modern
and the historical way to say something (e.g., First Nations and
Is the intended audience the author himself or herself (e.g.,
Indians). Being culturally sensitive will not help you locate
private diary), one other person (e.g., a private letter), a
information; it may hinder your research. Think of a broader way
particular group (e.g., an organizational newsletter), or the
of looking at something. For example, don't just look for “The
general public (e.g., a speech, a government report, a letter to
Battle of the Plains of Abraham” because a book on the “Seven
the newspaper, or a book)? Or, it could be addressed to more
Years War” will have information on this topic, too.
than one audience. For example, a private letter to an individual
that the author knows may eventually be published or a report
Societal or cultural values are not static; today's views on a
for one person that the author expects to be passed on to others
subject are often very different from those of the past. All
in an organization. How does the audience(s) affect the nature
documents reveal information about the authors and the era in
of the document?
which they lived. The document's language, structure, and
assumptions can provide information about the historical period
In other words, what is this document about? Remember that
or the event.
the “story” might be simple, but its meaning might be
complicated.

Why is the document important? What did it mean to the

historical actors (author, the original audience(s), and/or
Everything is written for a reason; every author has some sort
society)? What does it mean to today's society or to you?
of agenda that shapes the document's content and tone. Is the
document's purpose to convince the audience to act a certain
way or believe a certain idea? To spur conversation? To
motivate? To persuade? To entertain? Etc.

What strategies does the author employ to achieve his or her

purpose? Humour? Logic? Emotional appeals?

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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

• Editorials and commentaries

• Encyclopedias
• Journal articles (not reporting original research)
• Reviews
• Theses (not reporting original research)
A primary source provides first-hand information on the topic.
The author personally participated in the event under Examples for Various Subjects and Disciplines
discussions, such as a science experiment, a humanitarian
mission, or the writing of a novel. The work has not been
changed or analyzed by another person or organization.
• Primary source: Export company’s annual report
Primary sources include: • Secondary source: Book on profits of Canadian export
companies
• Original research – results of experiments, interviews,
questionnaires, studies, surveys, archaeological digs
• Personal works – diaries, identification papers,
journals, letters, memoirs and autobiographies (not • Primary source: Huckleberry Finn
biographies), speeches, theses (reporting original • Secondary source: Book review of Huckleberry Finn
research)
• Government records – Parliamentary proceedings
(Hansard), bills, acts, treaties, census data, court • Primary source: Michaelangelo’s David
transcripts • Secondary source: Book describing and illustrating
• Corporate records – account books, e-mails, invoices, famous sculptures
purchase orders, minutes, annual reports
• Works of literature – novels, plays, poetry, short stories
• Art and artifacts – paintings, sculptures, photographs,
• Primary source: Mozart’s Requiem
coins, objects
• Secondary source: Musical analysis of Mozart's
• Journal articles reporting original research (see first
Requiem
bullet above)
• Original audio and video recordings – feature films,
news footage, performances
• Music – notated (print), recorded • Primary source: Findings of an MRI study at UNB
• Other – advertisements, data files, maps, newspaper • Secondary source: Article promoting advances in MRI
reports “from the field,” patents, posters, and public research at Canadian universities
opinion polls
•
• Primary source: UBC survey of drug addicts and their
Secondary sources present an argument, interpretation, activities
conclusion, or summary based upon information found in • Secondary source: Book about drug addiction in
primary sources. In other words, the authors gained their Canada
information second hand.

Secondary sources include: • Primary source: A diary kept by parents of a special-

• Biographies (not autobiographies) needs child
• Books (textbooks, literary criticism) • Secondary source: Guidebook for parents of special-
needs children
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

How you use an item may determine whether it is a primary or

a secondary resource. In order to categorize it, think about how
the resource is relevant to your work.
Art Original artwork Article critiquing
the piece of art
For example: Architecture Architectural Book on
drawing architectural style
A history textbook from 1867 might be used as a primary source and design
for a study of confederation-era textbooks (since it is one), or as Geology Map Interpretation of
a secondary source for an essay on the history of Ancient geologic features
and history for a
Greece (since that’s what it’s about).
given location
A documentary on the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) might be
Poster, Book critiquing the
used for its primary material (interviews with soldiers), or its Graphics computer- photographs and
secondary material (the voice-over commentary). generated graphics
graphics,
Types of Sources | Examples photographs
Music Song Review of the song
History Explorer’s diary Book about
Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic,
exploration
from people who had a direct connection with it. Primary sources
Journalism Newspaper from Article describing
can include: 1920 how reporting of
the news has
• Texts of laws and other original documents. changed over time
• Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an Literature Poem Criticism on a
event or who quote people who did. particular genre of
poetry
• Speeches, diaries, letters, and interviews - what the
Political Science Government An article
people involved said or wrote. documents (i.e. reviewing the law
• Original research the text of laws) and its effects on
• Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic the citizenry.
statistics. Religion Tablets, ancient Interpretation of
• Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event. manuscripts the meaning of a
document created
in the ancient
world
Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary Science Original journal Biological
sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary article Abstracts
sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of Theatre Arts Videotape of a Biography of a
interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include: performance playwright

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.
Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not Person Reference Material
directly involved. Interview Book
Documentaries (though they often include photos or video E-mail Contact DVD
portions that can be considered primary sources). Event Encyclopedia
Discussion Magazine Article
Debate Newspaper Article
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Community Meeting Video tape
Survey Audio Tape
Artifact Television Broadcast
| • Documents were created by individuals in a specific
The historical text informs the reader about key events and
important people from the past
The historical text gives the reader an understanding of what led
up to the important events in history
Examples of historical text are nonfiction history books,
autobiographies, biographies, historical research websites,
diaries, social studies/history textbooks, past newspapers,
encyclopedias.
Historical documents are original documents that contain
important historical information about a person, place, or event
and can thus serve as primary sources as important ingredients
of the historical methodology
There are a number of criteria that historians use that can be
applied to establish the significance of events.
• Relevance to people living at the time.
• Resonance to people's experiences, beliefs, or
situations at the time.
• Relevance to an increased understanding of the
present-day.
Anything written in the past can constitute historical document
or “text,” whether it is a letter, diary, shopping list, literary text,
memo, novel, film, charter, or act of parliament. Although the
form and content of documents may vary, there are certain
questions that can be asked of any document to facilitate
analysis. It is important to ask the right questions and to make
the right assumptions. Rather than simply reading the
document, examine it closely to find the clues that are contained
within it. The questions from the tabs below will help you analyze
any document to get a complete picture of its subject matter,
period, message, significance, etc.
Who wrote the document?
historical setting for a particular purpose. Until you
know who created the document, you cannot know
why it was created or what meanings its author
intended by creating it. Sometimes you can figure out
who the author was by the document itself.
• Was the document written by an individual or by a
group (e.g., a political body, government body, another
type of organization)?
▪ Was the document written by an individual or by a
group (e.g., a political body, government body,
other types of the organization)?
o Individual: What was the author’s name,
position (office, title), social class, education,
nationality or ethnicity, religion, political
leanings, and anything else that might
"explain" him or her?
o Group author: What was the composition of
the group? What was its purpose? What
ideas did the group support? If the item was
written by a committee, it implies that the
body made revisions and amendments before
it was completed. Such authorship suggests
a wide degree of support and probably more
than one compromise between those wanting
either stronger or weaker statements
When documents are updated, there are a variety of clues that
allow an approximate date to be determined. These clues
include names and events mentioned (and not mentioned), the
form of the document, the style of the handwriting, and the
language /phraseology used. Sometimes it is possible to say
that a text must have been written after a certain date (terminus
post quem) or before another date (terminus ante quem). Often
it is possible only to say that the date is approximately or around
such and such a date (circa written as).
The best primary source is often that which is composed closest
in time to the event described. Memories of recent events tend
to be clearer than those of events long past. Many men and
RAI | 12
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
women write their memoirs later in life, when their memories
may be fading and/or when they may be seeking to portray their
actions in a more positive light, so these may be less valuable
than contemporary letters. On the other hand, sometimes time
gives more time for reflection and insight.
The location may not always be relevant, but it might suggest
something about the author and/or when it was published. For
example, a 1950s treatise about Communism written in the
Soviet Union may have a very different agenda or political
viewpoint from one written in the United States during the same
era.
The relationship between author and audience will tell you much
about the purpose of the document. Knowing the intended
audience determines your view of what to expect from the
document. It will tell you what to expect in the author's use of
language, the amount of knowledge that the writer assumes the
audience has, and the form that the document takes.
Is the intended audience the author himself or herself (e.g.,
private diary), one other person (e.g., a private letter), a
particular group (e.g., an organizational newsletter), or the
general public (e.g., a speech, a government report, a letter to
the newspaper, or a book)? Or, it could be addressed to more
than one audience. For example, a private letter to an individual
that the author knows may eventually be published or a report
for one person that the author expects to be passed on to others
in an organization. How does the audience(s) affect the nature
of the document?
In other words, what is this document about? Remember that
the “story” might be simple, but its meaning might be
complicated.
STEP TWO: Probe behind the facts
• Everything is written for a reason; every author has
some sort of agenda that shapes the document's
content and tone. Is the document's purpose to
convince the audience to act a certain way or believe
a certain idea? To spur conversation? To motivate? To
persuade? To entertain? Etc.
• What strategies does the author employ to achieve his
or her purpose? Humour? Logic? Emotional appeals?
The form and genre of the document reflect its purpose.
Examine the document's presentation. How is it organized? For
example, letters usually contain a greeting (e.g., Dear Bob), a
complimentary close (e.g., Cordially,) and a signature. Is the
document's organization formal or informal? Is the language
formal or informal? Is it written in legal language?
What are the basic assumptions made in this document?
Every author has a point of view, and exposing the assumptions
of the document is an essential task for the reader. Ask yourself,
“Is this a likely story?” Why or why not?” How reliable is this
document? What are its limitations, biases or blind spots?
Societal or cultural values are not static; today's views on a
subject are often very different from those of the past. All
documents reveal information about the authors and the era in
which they lived. The document's language, structure, and
assumptions can provide information about the historical period
or the event.
In other words, "so what?" Why is this document important?
What did it mean to the historical actors (author, the original
audience(s), and/or society)? What does it mean to today's
society or to you?
Examining Author's Main Argument
An argument is a claim that is supported by reasons or
evidence. When an author tries to persuade the reader that
something is true or correct by presenting supporting reasons or
evidence, an argument is being made.
RAI | 13
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

When an author makes an argument, it's the claim that the

author is trying to persuade the reader to accept as true.

To evaluate an argument, you need to analyze it. When you

analyze an argument, you break it down into each part and
examine them by themselves and in relation to the other parts
of the argument.

• In the old times, Spices considered as a precious

An argument needs to include evidence in support of the writer’s
claim or position.
three major ways that authors present an argument:
Reasoning - the author presents a logical explanation of the
argument.
Evidence - the author presents statistics, facts, and studies to
prove his point.
Appeal - the author appeals to the reader's emotions to elicit
empathy.
As good critical readers, it is important to consider the motives
and qualifications of authors. Authors typically attempt to
convince the reader that their point of view is the correct one.
When examining a text, the reader should check to see if:
1) facts are provided.
2) the facts provided have been selectively picked from a
broader set of data or factual information and limited to only
those that support the author's opinion or bias.
3) the facts presented explore perspectives other than the
author's and examine different positions and sides that can be
taken in relation to the issue or argument.
4) the supporting facts pertain to the point being made and prove
or support the author's opinions, arguments, or conclusions.
product for the Europeans, some families and
government institutions in the continent is eager to
control/monopolize its supply to gain immense wealth.
• These spicesbeca me an in-demand commodity
because of its numerous uses such as food
preservation, flavor enhancement and medicinal use.
• Many European started to establish Maritime schools
to develop and train sailors in preparation to discover
possible routes going to Spice Islands (now Moluccas
Island, Indonesia)
• Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese sailor visioned the
greatest exploration that will change the history of
Maritime Science. He presented his plan to go to Spice
Island using the West direction, proving the mythical
belief that Earth is not Flat.
• He tried to proposed the plan to the King of Portugal
but rejected, and he did the same to the Kingdom of
Spain which then approved to invest by giving five (5)
ships namely: Santiago, San Antonio, Concepcion,
Trinidad and Victoria, with 270 men of different
nationalities.
• Sailed in Seville on August 20, 1519 and returned with
only Victoria and 18 men as survivors in September 7,
1522 including Juan Sebastian Elcano and Antonio
Pigafetta.

Regardless of the author's position and purpose, evidence

should be provided to support statements and conclusions, and
the sources for that evidence should be cited so readers can
check out and judge the accuracy of the facts themselves.
When reading critically, readers must be alert to the many points
of view that relate to a topic or issue and seek them out if the
author does not acknowledge them. In addition, authors should
establish the authority of their claims and arguments. If they
don't, readers must.
RAI | 14
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
• Born around 1490 in Vicenza, Venice, Italy.
• He used to be an astronomer, geographer and
cartographer.
• He was the official chronicler of the Magellan
Exploration
• In his return, he reported to the King of Spain the entire
voyage by presenting his handwritten travelogue.
• Return to his private life and joined the Knights of St.
John of Jerusalem; died around 1534.
• In his return to Italy, many of his associates
encouraged him to write a formal account of the
exploration and published it.
• He seek financial help to Pope Clement VII, Philippe
de Villiers L'Isle-Adam and Louis of Savoy.
• He did not succeed to seek help because the accounts
of Maximilianus Transylvanus (the Secretary of the
King of Spain) and Peter Martyr (Transylvanus'
mentor) were already out.
• 1536 - condensed version was published in Venice by
Jacques Fabre.
• The Original manuscript did not survive time.
• Three were written in French but only 2 kept in the
Bibliotechque Nationale in Paris.
• The other one was originally owned by Sir Thomas
Philipps but currently kept in Yale University.
• The 4th copy was written in mixed Italian, Spanish and
Venetian kept in Ambrosian Library in Milan.
• Carlo Amoretti published an Italian version of the book
in 1800.
• A French version was released by the following year.
• The English version was publish in 1819.
• James Alexander Robertson published his own
English version can be found in the Philippine Island
Opus (Volume 33).
• During the 1st century of Spanish rule, the colonial
government had difficulty in running local politics
because of the limited number of Spaniards who
wanted to love outside Intramuros.
• This situation forced the Spaniards to allow Filipinos to
hold the position of Gobernadorcillo (Little Governor)
• To ensure that the Gobernadorcillos would remain
loyal to the Crown, the friars assigned in the local
parishes.
• Friars who were assigned in mission territories were
required periodically to inform their superiors of what
was happening in their respective areas.
• Their report includes the number of natives they
converted, the people’s way of life, their socio-
economic situation and the problems they
encountered.
• There were other friars and colonial officers who also
wrote about the Filipinos would could further enrich our
knowledge of the Philippine History during the early
part of the Spanish Period:
o Miguel de Loarca (1582) Relacion de las Islas
Filipinas
o Lt. Governor Antonio de Morga (1609) Sucesos de
las Islas Filipinas
o Fr. Pedro Chirino, SJ (1604) Relacion de las Islas
Filipinas
o Fr. Juan Delgado, SJ (1751) Historia General
o Fr. Francisco Colin, SJ (1663) Labor Evangelica
RAI | 15
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
o Fr. Francisco Ignacio Alcina, SJ (1668) Historia
Natural del Sitio, Fertilidad y Calidad de las Islas
e Indios de Bisayas
• Born Joan de Portocarrero, was a member of the
Franciscan Order who came together with the first
batch of missionaries to the Philippines in 1578.
• Together with Fray Diego de Oropesa, were assigned
to do mission works in the Southern Luzon, where they
helped in the foundation and organization of numerous
towns in Quezon, Laguna, Rizal and Bulacan.
• He wrote Doctrina Christiana en Lengua Española y
Tagala which became the first printed book in the
Philippines in 1593.
• He died on 1590 in Liliw, Laguna
• The original document is currently kept in the Archivo
General de Indias in Seville, Spain.
• A duplicate copy of it is kept in the Archivo Franciscano
Ibero-Oriental in Madrid, Spain.
• An English translation appeared in Volume VII of the
Blair-Robertson’s The Philippine Islands and another
English Translation was published as part of the
volume for precolonial Philippines in the second series
of the Filipiniana Book Guild.
The Philippine Revolution of 1896 began with what later became
known as the "First Cry" or the initial move of the Filipinos to
begin revolution towards independence, By tearing up their
cedulas (now known as Community Tax Certificate), is also the
start of proclaiming war against the oppressors. The event
happened after the Katipunan was exposed on August 19, 1896
and the Spaniards began to crack down on suspected rebels.
Supremo Andres Bonifacio proceed to a designated meeting
place outside the city to decide on their next move. The original
plan was to start a revolution at the end of August but following
the arrests of the Katipuneros, Bonifacio found it wise to begin
the revolution that day and attack Manila at the end of the
month.
In the first years of the twentieth century, many Filipinos
believed that the first cry happened at Pugad Lawin on August
26, but issues was raised regarding the exact date and place of
the said scenario, with historians and other personalities were
claiming that the details are wrong. In this lesson, we presented
some excerpts of some personalities who has direct
involvement with the said event.
• This account was the basis of the official date and
place of the revolution.
• His account was published as Memoirs of the KKK and
the Philippine Revolution.
• In the excerpt, Valenzuela said that they decided to
meet at Balintawak, Andres and Procopio Bonifacio,
Teodoro Plata, Aguedo del Rosario and Emilio Jacinto
arrived on August 19 and he then followed them by the
next day.
• The first meeting was held on August 22 at the house
of Apolonio Samson in Kangkong with them and
estimated 500 members in attendance.
• On August 23, another meeting was held in the house,
store-house and yard of Juan Ramos, son of Melchora
Aquino with 1000 members attended; finally they
decided to start the revolution by August 29.
• It was mentioned in this account that the tearing of
cedulas happened.
RAI | 16
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
• This account was published in a weekly magazine
"Sampaguita" with 36 parts in 1927.
• This was later published as a book entitled "The
Katipunan and the Revolution" with an English
translation by Paula Carolina Malay.
• According to Alvarez, the event happened in Bahay
Toro -- now part of Project 8 in Quezon City on August
24, 1896.
• His account somehow has melodramatic elements that
will make his audience fantasize each scene.
• Its started when their group reached the house of his
brother, Apolonio Samson in Kangkong.
• The Supremo began assigning guards at five o' clock
the follwoing morning, August 22, a Saturday. He
placed a detachment at the Balintawak boundary and
another at the backyard to the north of the house where
we were gathered.
• Before the gathering of the 500 men mentioned in the
previous account, no less thank 300 men assembled
at the bidding of the Supremo Andres Bonifacio where
they carried out assorted weapons that was owned by
Lt. Manuel, for hunting birds.
• 10:00am of August 23, 1896 they arrived in Bahay
Toro, with more than 500 members, they met at
Cabesang Melchora's house, that like Apolonio
Samson, she opened her granary and animals were
slaughtered to feed them.
• 10:00am of August 24, 1896, Bonifacio called for a
meeting inside Cabesang Melchora's Barn and
approved that the uprising will start at the midnight of
August 29 1896. They decided with that date and time
because this they think will be the disadvantage of the
enemy. Their immediate objective is to capture Manila.
In 1932, Masangkay, a friend and fellow Katipunero of
Bonifacio, recounted his experiences as a member of the
revolutionary movement. In an interview with the Sunday
Tribune magazine, he said that that the First Cry happened in
Balintawak on August 26, 1896. In the first decade of the
American rule, it was his account that was used by the
governement and civic officials to fix the date and place of the
First Cry which was capped with the erection of the "Monument
to the Heroes of 1896" in that place.
However, in an interview published in the newspaper Bagong
Buhay on August 26, 1957, Masangkay changed his narrative
stating that the revolution began on August 23, 1896, similar to
the assertion of Dr. Valenzuela. But Masangkay's date was later
changed again when his granddaughter, Soledad Buehler-
Borromeo, cited sources, inculding the Masangkay Papers, that
the original date was August 26.
The first days of the Philippine Revolution saw the defeat of the
Katipunan in Manila, forcing Bonifacio and his mento retreat to
the mountains of Montalban. It was a different story in Cavite.
Here, the Katipunan under Emilio Aguinaldo managed to
subdue the Spanish forces by surprise and control of the
province. The victory, however, was short-lived as the Cavite
Katipuneros -- which consisted of two groups, the Magdiwangs
(Bonifacio) and Magdalo (Aguinaldo) -- were soon fighting each
other over territory and logistics. Unable to resolve their
differences, Aguinaldo invited the Supremo Andres Bonifacio to
Cavite to mediate. However, when he arrived in infuriated the
Magdalos. The two groups finally agreed to form a revolutionary
government (pamahalaang panghihimagsik) which would lead
the revolution. The assembly was set to be held in the friar's
estate house in Barrio Tejeros, a part of the town of San
Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias). On March 22, 1897,
the Cavite Katipuneros, as well as representatives of the
Katipunan from the nearby provinces, converged at the estate
house. Emilio Aguinaldo, however was not at the assembly as
he was commanding the Filipino forces at the frontliners in
Pasong Santol, Barrio Salitran, Dasmariñas, facing the
imminent attack of the Spanish forces.
RAI | 17
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
He was one of the officials of the Magdiwang faction. During the
Tejeros Assembly, he served as the secretary of the convention
when Bonifacio began presiding over the session. Ricarte was
elected in the Tejeros Assembly as Captain-General of the
Revolutionary government. He initially refused the position but
his objections were overruled by the electoral body. His account
of the Philippine revolution was titled: "Apuntes Historicos de la
Insurreccion pro los Asociados al 'Kamahalmahala't
Kataastaasang Katipunan nang manga Anak ng Bayan' contral
el Gobrierno Español en las Islas Filipinas." It was written during
his imprisonment for the subversion by the American authorities
in 1904. It was translated into English by a British journalist,
William Brecknock Watson, but remained in manuscript form.
Ricarte's memoirs were published in Tagalog in 1927 in
Yokohama, Japan with the title Himagsikan ng Mga Pilipino
Laban sa Kastila.
This is a letter he wrote to Emilio Jacinto in Montalban from
Indang, Cavite on April 24, 1897, a month after the Tejeros
elections. This would be the first time the other members of the
Supreme Council would hear of the events that happened in
Cavite. This was first published in Jose P. Santos, Si Andres
Bonifacio at Ang Himagsikan (1932).
This account of the convention is found in Chapter 32 of Genral
Santiago Alvarez' memoirs. Like Ricarte, Alvarez was a direct
participant and witness to the events that occurred in the
elections.
A leader of the reformist movement in Spain, Dr. Jose Rizal was
arrested, tried and sentenced to death by a Spanish court-
martial after being implicated as a leader of the Philippine
Revolution. The night before his death by firing squad at the
Luneta on December 30, 1896, accounts exist that Rizal
allegedly retracted his Masonic ideals and his writings and
reconverted to Catholicism following several hours of
persuasion by Jesuit Priests. There was considerable doubt to
this allegation by Rizal's family and friends until in 1935, the
supposed retraction document with Rizal's signature was found.
Until today, the issue whether Rizal retracted or not and whether
the document is forged or real is a subject of continuous debate
between historians and Rizal scholars alike.
The following primary sources are of two kinds: the first two are
the official accounts as witnessed by the Jesuits who were
instrumental in the alleged retraction of Rizal. The two other are
critical analyses by tow Rizalist scholars who doubted the story
of the retraction.
Father Balaguer was one of the Jesuit priests who visited Rizal
during the last hours in Fort Santiago and claimed that he
managed to pursuade Rizal to denounce Masonry and return to
the Catholic fold. In an affidavit executed in 1917 when he had
returned to Spain, Balaguer also claimed that he was the one
who solemnized the marriage of Josephine Bracken and Rizal
hours before the hero's execution.
Father Pio Pi was the Jesuit Superior in the Philippines during
the time when Rizal was executed. In 1917, he issued an
affidavit recounting his involvement in the alleged retraction of
Rizal. Unlike Father Balaguer, however, he was involved only in
securing the retraction document from the Archbishop of Manila
Bernardino Nozaleda, OP, and writing another shorted
retraction document as well which was the one Rizal allegedly
copied.
RAI | 18
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

5. Illegal Drugs
6. Prostitution
7. Violence Against Women and children
Lawyer, writer, educator and politician Rafael Palma was the 8. Squatting in the Philippine
author of Biografia de Rizal, a work on the life of the National 9. Illegal Gambling
Hero which won a literary contest in 1938 sponsored by the 10. Terrorism
Commonweath Government. The publication of the book, 11. Social Media Issues
however, was postponed because of the World War II and only 12. Press Freedom
saw in print in 1949. That same year, an English translation by 13. Cybersex
Roman Ozaeta with the title Pride of the Malay Race was 14. Issues on Contractualization
published by Prentice-Hall, Inc. in the United States. The Story 15. Tax Evasion
of Rizal's alleged retraction is found in Chapters 32 and 33 with
Palma's analysis in the latter chapter.

Coates' interest in Jose Rizal began when he was Assistant

Colonial Secretary and Magistrate in Hong Kong in 1950. His
first study on Rizal was on the latter's year-long stay in Hong
Kong (1891-1892). At that time, many of the personalities who
knew Rizal were still alive. This early awareness on Rizal
eventually led to the writing and publication of his book -- Rizal:
Philippine Nationalist and Martyr (Oxford University Press,
1956) -- the first Rizal biography written by a European since
Vida y Escritos del Dr. Jose Rizal by Wenceslao Retana in 1907.
The second edition of the book was published in the Philippines
by Solidaridad Publishing House in 1992.
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles by which a
state is governed. In principle, it brings together distinct entities
into one group with the same principles and ideals. The
Philippine Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It has
been in effect since 1987. Only three constitutions that preceded
this one have effectively governed the country: the 1935
Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, and the
1986 Freedom Constitution. Other constitutions mentioned in
history were just attempts by Filipinos to break free from the
colonial government.
The socioeconomic issues started in the past and still
currently experienced by most Filipinos.

1. Corruption in the Philippines

2. Poverty
3. Unemployment and underemployment
4. Criminality
RAI | 19
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
On November 1, 1897, the Philippine revolutionary government
promulgated the constitution of Biak-na-Bato. It was the
provisionary constitution of the Philippine Republic during the
Philippine Revolution. This constitution, borrowed from Cuba,
was written by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferer in Spanish and
later translated into Tagalog.
The organs after government under the constitution were:
• The Supreme Council, vested with the power of the
Republic, headed by the President and four
department secretaries: the interior, foreign affairs,
treasury, and war;
1. The Supreme Council of Grace and Justice was
given the authority to make decisions and affirm or
disprove the sentences rendered by other courts
and to dictate rules for the administration of
justice; and
2. The assembly of Representatives, which was to
be convened after the revolution to create a new
constitution and elect a new council of government
representatives and representatives of the people.
The constitution of Biak-na-Bato was never fully implemented
since a truce, the "Pact of Biak-na-Bato," was signed between
the Spanish and the Philippine revolutionary army.
After signing the truce, the Filipino revolutionary leaders
accepted a payment from Spain and went to exile in Hong Kong.
Upon the defeat of the Spanish to the Americans in the battle of
Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, the United States Navy transported
Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. The newly reformed
Philippine revolutionary forces reverted to the control of
Aguinaldo, and the Philippine Declaration of Independence was
issued on June 12, 1898, together with several decrees that
formed the first Philippine Republic. The Malolos Congress was
elected, which selected a Commission to draw up a draft
constitution on September 17, 1898, composed of wealthy and
educated men.
The document they came up with was approved by Congress
on November 29, 1898, and was promulgated by Aguinaldo on
January 21, 1899. It was titled "The Political Constitution of
1899" and was written in Spanish. The constitution has 39
articles divided into 14 titles, with eight articles of transitory
provisions and a final additional article. The document was
patterned after the Spanish constitution of 1812, with influences
from the charters of Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa
Rica, and Guatemala, and the French constitution of 1793.
According to Felipe Calderon, the primary author of the
constitution, these countries were studied because they shared
similar social, political, ethnological, and governance conditions
with the Philippines. Previous constitutional projects in the
Philippines also influenced the Malolos Constitution, namely,
the Kartilya and the Sangguniang Hukuman, the charter of laws
and morals of the Katipunan written by Emilio Jacinto in 1896;
the Biak-na-Bato Constitution of 1897 written by Isabelo
Artacho; Mabini's "Constitutional Program of the Philippine
Republic of 1898"; the provisional constitution of Mariano Ponce
in 1898 that followed the Spanish constitutions; and the
autonomy projects off Paterno in 1898.
After the treaty of Paris, the Philippines what subject to the
power of the United States of America, effectively the new
colonizers of the country. From 1898 2 1901, the Philippines
would be placed under a military government until a civil
government would be put into place.
Two acts of the United States Congress were passed that may
be considered to have qualities of constitutionality. First was the
Philippine Organic Act of 1902, the first organic law for the
Philippine Islands that provided a popularly elected Philippine
assembly. The Act specified that the legislative power would be
vested in a bicameral legislature composed of the Philippine
Commission as the upper house and the Philippine Assembly,
the lower house. Key provisions of the Act included a bill of
rights for Filipinos and the appointment of two non-voting
Filipino Resident Commissioners of the Philippines as
representatives to the United States House of Representatives.
The second Act that functioned as a constitution was the
Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, commonly referred to as
"Jones Law," which modified the structure of the Philippine
RAI | 20
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
government through the removal of the Philippine Commission,
replacing it with a Senate that served as the upper house and
its members elected by the Filipino voters, the first truly elected
national legislature. This Act explicitly declared the purpose of
the United States to end their sovereignty over the Philippines
and recognize Philippine independence as soon as a stable
government can be established.
In 1932, with the efforts of the Filipino independence mission led
by Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas, The United States
Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act with the promise
of granting Filipinos' independence. Then-Senate President
Manuel L. Quezon opposed the bill and, consequently, was
rejected by the Philippine Senate.
By 1934, another law, the Tydings-McDuffie Act, also known as
the Philippine Independence Act, was passed by the United
States Congress that provided authority and defined
mechanisms for establishing a formal constitution by a
constitutional convention. The convention members were
elected and held their first meeting on July 30, 1934, with Claro
M. Recto unanimously elected as President.
The constitution was crafted to meet the United States
government's approval and ensure that the United States would
live up to its promise to grant independence to the Philippines.
In 1965, Ferdinand E. Marcos was elected president, and in
1967, Philippine Congress passed a resolution calling for a
constitutional convention to change the 1935 constitution.
Marcos won the re-election in 1969, in a bid boosted by
campaign overspending and the use of government funds.
Elections of the delegates to the constitutional convention were
held on November 20, 1970, and the convention began formally
on June 1, 1971, with former president Carlos P. Garcia being
elected as convention president. Unfortunately, he died and was
succeeded by another former president, President Diosdado
Macapagal.
Before the convention finished its work, Martial Law was
declared. Marcos cited a growing communist insurgency as a
reason for the Martial Law, which was provided for in the 1935
Constitution. Some delegates of the ongoing constitutional
convention were placed behind bars and others went into hiding
or were voluntarily exiled. With Marcos as a dictator, the
direction of the convention turned, with accounts is that the
president himself dictated some provisions of the constitution,
manipulating the document to be able to hold on to power for as
long as he could. On November 29, 1972, the convention
approved its proposed constitution.
The constitution was supposed to introduce a parliamentary-
style government, where legislative power was vested in the
unicameral National Assembly, with members being elected A
six-year term. The president was to be elected as the symbolic
and ceremonial head of state chosen from the members of the
National Assembly. The president would serve A six-year term
and could be re-elected do an unlimited number of terms.
Executive power was relegated to the Prime Minister, who was
also the head of government and commander in chief of the
armed forces who was also to be elected from the National
Assembly.
President Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 73 setting the
date of the plebiscite to ratify or reject the proposed constitution
on November 30, 1973. This plebiscite was postponed later on
since Marcos feared that the public may vote to reject the
constitution. Instead of a plebiscite, Citizen Assemblies were
held, from January 10 to 15, 1973, where the citizens coming
together in voting by hand, decided on whether to ratify the
constitution, suspend the convening of the Interim National
Assembly, continue Martial Law, or place a moratorium on
elections for a period of at least several years. The President,
on January 17, 1973, issued a proclamation announcing that the
proposed constitution had been ratified by an overwhelming
vote of the members of the highly irregular Citizen Assemblies.
The constitution was amended several times. In 1976, Citizen
Assemblies, once again, decided to allow the continuation of
Martial Law, as well as approved the amendments: an Interim
Batasang Pambansa to substitute for the Interim National
Assembly, the president to also become the Prime Minister and
continue to exercise legislative powers until Martial Law was
lifted and authorized the President to legislate on his own on an
RAI | 21
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
emergency basis. An overwhelming majority would ratify further
amendments succeedingly. In 1980, the retirement age of
members of the judiciary was extended to 70 years. In 1981, the
parliamentary system was formally modified to a French-style,
semi-presidential system where executive power was restored
to the president, who was, once again, to be directly elected;
and Executive Committee was to be created, composed of the
Prime Minister and 14 others, that served as the president’s
cabinet; and some electoral reforms were instituted. In 1984, the
executive committee was abolished and the position of the vice
president was restored.
After all the amendments introduced, the 1973 constitution was
merely a way for the President to keep executive powers,
abolish the senate, and by any means, never acted as a
parliamentary system, with all the real power concentrated in the
hands of the president, with the backing of the constitution.
The situation in the 1980s had been very turbulent. As Marcos
amassed power, discontent has also been bourgeoning. The
tide turned swiftly when in August 1983, Benigno Aquino Jr.,
opposition leader and regarded as the most credible alternative
to President Marcos, was assassinated while under military
escort immediately after his return from exile in the United
States. There was widespread suspicion that the orders to
assassinate Aquino came from the top levels of the government
and the military. This event caused the coming together of the
non-violent opposition against the Marcos authoritarian regime.
Marcos was then forced to hold “snap” elections a year early
and said were marred by widespread fraud. Marcos declared
himself a winner despite international condemnation and
nationwide protests. A small group of military rebels attempted
the stage a coup, but failed; however, this triggered what came
to be known as the EDSA People Power Revolution of 1986, as
people from all walks of life spilled onto the streets. Under
pressure from the United States of America, who used to
support Marcos and his martial law, the Marcos family fled into
exile. His opponent in the snap elections Benigno Aquino Jr.’s
widow, Corazon Aquino, was installed as president on February
25, 1986.
President Corazon Aquino’s government has three options
regarding the constitution: revert to the 1935 constitution, retain
the 1973 constitution and be granted the power to make
reforms, or start anew and break free from the “vestiges of a
disgraced dictatorship.” They decided to make a new
constitution that, according to the president herself, should be
“truly reflective of the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino
people.”
In March 1986, President Aquino proclaimed a transitional
constitution to last for a year while a Constitutional Commission
drafted a permanent constitution. This transitional constitution,
called the Freedom Constitution, maintained many provisions of
the old one, including in rewritten form the presidential right to
rule by decree. In 1986, a constitutional convention was created,
composed of 48 members appointed by President Aquino from
varied backgrounds and representations. The convention drew
up a permanent constitution, largely restoring the set up
abolished by Marcos in 1972 but with new ways to keep the
president in check, a reaction to the experience of Marcos’s rule.
The new constitution was officially adopted on February 2, 1987.
The Constitution begins with a preamble and 18 self-contained
articles. It established the Philippines as a” democratic-
republican State” where “sovereignty resides in the people and
all government authority emanates from them.” it allocates
governmental powers among the executive, legislative, and
judicial branches of government.
The executive branch is headed by the president and his cabinet
whom he appoints. The president is the head of state and the
chief executive, but his power is limited by significant checks
from the two other co-equal branches of government, especially
during times of emergency. This is put in place to safeguard the
country from the experience of martial law despotism during the
presidency of Marcos. In cases of national emergency, the
president may still declare Martial Law, but no longer than a
period of 60 days. Congress, through a majority vote, can
revoke this decision, or extend it for a period that they
determine. The Supreme Court may also review the declaration
of martial law and decide if there were significant justifying facts
for the act. The president and the vice president are elected at
large by a direct vote serving a single six-year term.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

The legislative power resides in a Congress divided into 2
houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The 24
senators are elected at large by popular vote and can serve no
more than two consecutive six-year terms. The house is
composed of district representatives representing a particular
geographic area and makes up around 80% of the total number
of representatives. There are 234 legislative districts in the
Philippines that elect their representatives to serve three-year
terms. The 1987 constitution created a party-list system to
provide spaces for the participation of underrepresented
community sectors or groups. Party-list representatives May fill
up not more than 20% of the seats in the House.
investigate complaints that pertain to public corruption, unlawful
behavior of public officials, and other public misconduct. The
Ombudsman can charge public officials before the
Sandiganbayan, a special court created for this purpose. Only
the House of Representatives can initiate the impeachment of
the president, members of the Supreme Court, and other
constitutionally protected public officials such as the
Ombudsman. The Senate will then try the impeachment case.
This is another safeguard to promote moral and ethical conduct
in the government.

Aside from the executive power of legislation, Congress may

The 1987 constitution provided for three methods by which the
also declare war, through a 2/3 vote in both upper and lower
constitution can be amended, all requiring ratification by a
houses. The power of legislation, however, is also subject to an
majority vote in a national referendum. These methods we’re
executive check, the president retains the power or to veto or
Constituent Assembly Constitutional Convention, and Peoples
stop a bill from becoming law. Congress may only override this
Initiative. Using these modes, there were efforts to amend or
power with a two-thirds vote in both houses.
change the 1987 Constitution, starting with the presidency of
Fidel V. Ramos who succeeded Corazon Aquino. The first
The Philippine court system is vested with the power of the
attempt was in 1995 when then-Secretary of National Security
judiciary and is composed of a Supreme Court and lower courts
Council Jose Almonte drafted a constitution, but it was exposed
as created by law. The supreme court is a 15-member court
to the media and it never prospered. The second effort
appointed by the President without the need to be confirmed by
happened in 1997 when a group called PIRMA hoped to gather
Congress. The appointment the president makes, however, is
signatures from voters to change the constitution through
limited to a list of nominees provided by a constitutionally
people's initiative. Many we’re against this, including then-
specified Judicial and Bar Council. The Supreme Cort Justices
Senator Miriam Defensor-Santiago, who brought the issue to
may hear, on appeal, any cases dealing with the constitutionality
court and won with the Supreme Court judging that a people's
of any law, treaty, or decree of the government, cases where
initiative cannot push through without an enabling law.
questions of jurisdiction or judicial error are concerned, or cases
where the penalty is sufficiently grave. It may also exercise
The succeeding president, Joseph Estrada, form a study
original jurisdiction over cases involving government or
commission to investigate the issues surrounding charter
international officials. The Supreme Court is also in charge of
change focusing on the economic and judiciary provisions of the
overseeing the functioning and administration of the lower
constitution. This effort was also blocked by different entities
courts and their personnel.
after president Estrada was replaced by another People Power
and succeeded by his Vice President, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
The constitution also established three independent
then House Speaker Jose de Venecia endorsed constitutional
Constitutional Commissions, namely, the Civil Service
change through a Constituent Assembly, which entails a 2/3
Commission, a central agency in charge of government
vote of the house to propose amendments or revision to the
personnel; the Commission on Elections, mandated to enforce
Constitution. This initiative was also not successful since the
and administer all election laws and regulations; and the
term of President Arroyo was mired in controversy and scandal,
Commission on Audit, which examines all funds, transactions,
including the possibility of Arroyo extending her term as
and property accounts of the government and its agencies. To
president, which the constitution does not allow.
further promote the ethical and lawful conduct of the
government, the office of the Ombudsman was created to
RAI | 23
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
The administration of the succeeding president Benigno Aquino
III had no marked interest in charter change except those
emanating from the different members of Congress, including
the speaker of the house, Feliciano Belmonte Jr., who
attempted to introduce amendments to the constitution that
concern economic provisions that aim toward liberalization. This
effort did not see the light of day.
In an upsurge of populism, President Rodrigo Duterte won the
2016 presidential elections in a campaign centering on law and
order, proposing to reduce crime by killing tens of thousands of
criminals. He is also a known advocate of federalism, a
compound mode of government combining a central or federal
government with regional governments in a single political
system. This advocacy is in part an influence of his background,
being a local leader in Mindanao that has been mired in poverty
and violence for decades. On December 7, 2016, President
Duterte signed an executive order creating a consultative
committee to review the 1987 constitution.
Reform implies the existence of a defect that something is
deformed or malformed and does not suit existing conditions.
• In a broad sense, land reform refers to the full range of
measures that may or should be taken to improve or
remedy that defect in the relations among men (eg.
Between the tiller and owner of the land, employee and
employer in a farm) with respect to their rights to land.
• The term has also been defined as an integrated set of
measures designed to eliminate obstacles to economic
and social development arising out of defects in the
agrarian structure. Land reform thus involves the
“transformation of agrarian structure.”
*de Leon, Hector. Textbook on Agrarian Reform and Taxation
(Q.C.: Rex Publishing, 2012), 1.
• In the strict sense, ‘land reform’ can be said to refer to
a change in the legal or customary institution of
property rights and duties, which define the rights of
those who own or use agricultural land.
*Putzel, James. A Captive Land: The Politics of Agrarian Reform
in the Philippines (QC: Ateneo Press, 1992), 3.
• “Land reform” is often used interchangeably with
“agrarian reform” but in actuality, the latter is much
broader than the former.
• Agrarian reform involves the restructuring of tenure,
production and support services structures.
*de Leon, Hector. Textbook on Agrarian Reform and Taxation
(Q.C.: Rex Publishing, 2012), 2.
The Roots of the Agrarian Problem
• The Nature of Land Distribution in the Philippines
o *Pre-Colonial Patterns
o *Spanish Period
o *American Period
o *Post War Period
Agrarian Unrest
• *Friar Lands
• *Rice and Corn Lands
• *All Public and Private Lands
EARLY CAUSES OF AGRARIAN UNREST- Social
and Economic Factors
1. Post First World War Financial Crisis
2. Typhoons and Drought
3. General Improvement of Quality of Life – Cash needed
4. Breakdown of the “Kasama System”
5. Socialism/Hukbalahap
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Land Reform/ Agrarian Reform Programs
• Rice Share Tenancy Law
• Social Justice Program
• Agricultural Tenancy Act and Land Reform Law of
1955
• RA No. 3844: Agricultural Land Reform Code
• P.D. No. 2: Land Reform for all Rice and Corn Lands
• P.D. No. 27: Emancipation of Peasants
• RA No. 6657: Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP)
RICE SHARE TENANCY LAW (ACT NO. 4054) February 27, 1933
COMMONWEALTH SOCIAL JUSTICE PROGRAM (TENANCY
FRONT)
• Redistribution of Private Landed Estates- “Land to the
Tiller” Rural Progress Administration
• Distribution of Public Land- “Land to the Landless”
o *Public Lands Act
o *National Land Settlement Administration
(NLSA)
SOCIAL JUSTICE PROGRAM (TENANCY FRONT)
• Protection of the Rights and Welfare of Peasants
o *Court of Industrial Relations
• Support Services
o *Agricultural and Industrial Bank (AIB)
o *National Relief Administration
o *National Rice and Corn Corporation
MAGSAYSAY’S LAND REFORM PROGRAM
• Agricultural Tenancy Act (R.A. 1199)
o *Agricultural Tenancy Commission
o *Court of Industrial Relations
• Land Reform Act of 1955
o *Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing
Administrationn (ACCFA)
o *National Resettlement and Rehabilitation
Administration (NARRA)
’
• AN ACT TO ORDAIN THE AGRICULTURAL LAND
REFORM CODE AND TO INSTITUTE LAND
REFORMS IN THE PHILIPPINES, INCLUDING THE
ABOLITION OF TENANCY AND THE CHANNELING
OF CAPITAL INTO INDUSTRY, PROVIDE FOR THE
NECESSARY IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES,
APPROPRIATE FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES
’
- REPUBLIC ACT No. 6389
AN ACT AMENDING REPUBLIC ACT NUMBERED THIRTY-
EIGHT HUNDRED AND FORTY-FOUR, AS AMENDED,
OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE AGRICULTURAL LAND
REFORM CODE, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
- Created the Department of Agrarian Reform
- P.D. No. 2
PROCLAIMING THE ENTIRE COUNTRY AS A LAND
REFORM AREA
- P.D. No. 27
DECREEING THE EMANCIPATION OF TENANTS FROM THE
BONDAGE OF THE SOIL, TRANSFERRING TO THEM THE
OWNERSHIP OF THE LAND THEY TILL AND PROVIDING
THE INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISM THEREFOR
CARP: Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
• AN ACT INSTITUTING A COMPREHENSIVE
AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM TO PROMOTE
SOCIAL JUSTICE AND INDUSTRIALIZATION,
PROVIDING THE MECHANISM FOR ITS
IMPLEMENTATION, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
• Extended Agrarian Reform to all agricultural lands.
RAI | 25
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9700 (August 7, 2009)
• AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE COMPREHENSIVE
AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM (CARP), EXTENDING THE
ACQUISITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ALL AGRICULTURAL
LANDS, INSTITUTING NECESSARY REFORMS, AMENDING
FOR THE PURPOSE CERTAIN PROVISIONS OF REPUBLIC
ACT NO. 6657, OTHERWISE, KNOWN AS THE
COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM LAW OF 1988, AS
AMENDED, AND APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR
• Counter Insurgency
• Agriculture as starting point of development
• Social Justice
• The right of all the people to human dignity, reduce
social, economic, and political inequalities, and remove
cultural inequities by equitably diffusing wealth and
political power for the common good. (Article XIII of the
1987 Constitution)
• Constitutional Limitations
• Support Services
• Non-Transferability of Lands
• Viability of Agrarian Reform
• CARP- 7.8 million hectares has been covered. 751,514
hectares have been distributed.
(http://www.dar.gov.ph/q-and-a-on-carp/english)
The Concept of Taxation, its Importance, Principles, and
Classifications
• Tax – enforced proportional contributions from persons
and property levied by the state for the support of its
public needs.
• Taxation – a rate by which government makes
exactions for revenue in order to support its existence
and carry out legitimate purpose for general welfare.
• The Importance of taxation derives from the
unavoidable obligation of the government to protect the
people and extend them benefits in the form of public
projects and services.
• In exchange, persons are subjected to the reciprocal
duty of sharing the expenses to be incurred therefore
through the payment of tax.
• Similarities
• Inherent and need no express constitutional grant.
• Not just necessary but indispensable
• Modes by which the state interferes with private rights.
• They presupposes equivalent compensation though
not necessarily determined in pecuniary.
• Exercised primarily by the legislative department or law
makers.
• Intended only for the general welfare and public
purpose.
• POLICE - The power to control everything for general
welfare
• Lawful means and Lawful subject
o Salus populi est suprema lex
o Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas
• EMINENT DOMAIN - The power to expropriate
properties for public use for Just compensation
• TAXATION - The power to demand contributions from
anyone enjoying its protection and benefits
o Life-blood Theory
o Equal, Uniform and Equitable
o Public purpose
RAI | 26
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

Taxation - the power to demand from the members of the • Progressive

society of their proportionate share or contribution in the - those are taken whose rates increase as the entity being taxes
maintenance of the state as a whole; it is also the act of also increases.
imposing and collecting a tax. • Regressive
Characteristics of Taxes: - opposite of progressive.
• Taxes are enforced contribution.
• Taxes are generally payable in money.
• Taxes are imposed on persons or property.
• Taxes are levied by the national and local government. • Income Tax - these earnings are taxed by the
• It takes a congressional act to put up taxes. national government and are progressive in
• Taxes are imposed solely for public purposes. nature.
• Donor’s Tax - the act of a certain person in
disposing without consideration of money or giving
certain thing in favor of another who accepts it.
As to subject matter or object • Estate Tax - tax imposed on the right of a
• Personal, poll or capitation deceased person to transfer the estate to his
- fixed amount taxes imposed on people residing in a specified lawful heir or beneficiary.
territory without regard to properties or earnings. • Value Added Tax - tax imposed on the sale
• Property and/or exchange of goods and services.
- taxes imposed on real and personal property. • Excise Tax - tax imposed on specific goods
• Excise produced in the Philippines for local consumption.
- tax imposed on consumption and engagement in the practice
of a profession Other Percentage Taxes
• Documentary Stamp Tax - tax on legal documents
As to purpose and papers.
• General, fiscal or revenue. • Customs duties and tariffs - customs duties are
• Special or regulatory taxes imposed on the importation and exportation
of goods in and out of the country.
As to scope • Travel Tax - tax imposed on travel whether local
• National or foreign.
• Municipal or Local • Energy Tax - tax imposed on the use of petroleum
products.
As to determination of account • Private motor vehicle tax - tax imposed on the
• Specific owners of private motor vehicles.
- Taxes imposed no specific amounts on a specific standard of
measurement. Other terms
• Ad valorem • Tax Levying - act of putting up taxes on persons,
- this is a tax which is added into the assessed value of a taxable activities and products.
entity. • Tax Assessment - is the official action of an officer
duty authorized by law in determining the amount of tax
As to graduation or rate due.
• Proportional • Tax Collection - process of getting the taxes imposed
- taxes that are computed as a fixed proportion of the value of by the proper government agencies.
an entity being taxed in the rate of consumption.
RAI | 27
LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
• Tax Avoidance - the use by a taxpayer of legally and
permissible means or methods in order to avoid or
reduce tax liability. It is not punishable by law.
• Tax Evasion - is the use by a taxpayer of illegal or
fraudulent means to defeat or reduce the payment of a
tax; it is punishable by law.
• Principle of due process of land.
• Rule of Uniformity
• Equal protection of the laws.
• Nobody can be imprisoned for non – payment of a poll
tax.
• No taxes shall be imposed which would impair religious
freedom.
• No appropriation or use for religious purpose can be
done.
• Religious, charitable, educational entities, non-profit
cemeteries and churches are exempted from taxes.
• Non-stock, Non-profit educational or other institutions
are exempted from paying taxes.
• Tax exemption cannot be done outright.
• The President has the authority to veto a particular
item or items in a revenue or tariff bill.
• Taxes cases in all levels of the courts will be under the
final jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
• Seizure by the government of personal property to
enforce the payment of taxes.
• Levy of real property.
• Enforcement of forfeiture
• Entering into a compromise tax liability
• Filing of bonds.
• For the late payments and delinquent taxpayers,
surcharge and interest can be imposed.
• Giving of rewards to informers.
• Certain officers of BIR are allowed to make arrests,
searches and seizures.
• Aliens may be deported if they willingly refuse to pay
taxes.
• Inspection of book of accounts.
• Inquiring into bank accounts.
For a long time, Philippine history as an academic field has been
dominated by thinkers who are focused on national history that
is criticized by some as very Manila-centric. Historians such as
Teodoro Agoncillo, Gregorio Zaide, Renato Constantino, and
Horacio dela Costa are some familiar names in this kind of
national historical writing. Yet, despite of this, there have been
a gradual growth in the publication of local history books
throughout our national history. Scholars traced the beginning
of local history writing in the Philippines to Isabelo delos Reyes,
a fellow propagandist of Jose Rizal who wrote the Historia de
Ilocos or History of Ilocos in 1890.
After delos Reyes, the succeeding decades are marked with the
absence of serious academic work on local history. It is during
the postwar period that academic local history writing continued,
particularly by American historians such as John Larkins who
published The Pampangans: Colonial society in a Philippine
Province (1963). In the 70s, Filipinos began to replace American
scholars in the field. Pangasinan, 1572-1800 by Rosario Cortes
(1974) is one of the first local history book written by Filipinos in
the contemporary period.
The Department of History of the University of the Philippines
became a leading institution in producing works on local history.
Some of these works includes Katutubo, Muslim, Kristyano:
Palawan, 1621-1901 by Nilo Ocampo (1985), Kasaysayan ng
Bulakan by Jaime Veneracion (1986), and Kasaysayan
Pampook: Pananaw, Pananaliksik, Pagtuturo edited by Atoy
Navarro and Ma. Florina Orillos-Juan (2012). Historians from
other institutions also contributed in the field. Some of the works
by these historians are the following: Kasaysayan: Studies on
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
Local and Oral History by Marcelino Foronda (1991), From
Ibalon to Sorsogon: A Historical Survey of Sorsogon Province
to 1905 by Luis Dery (1992), La Union: The Making of a
Province by Adriel Meimban (1997), Cavite in Focus: Essays on
Local Historiography by Emmanuel Calairo (2001), Kasaysayan
ng mga Pamayanan ng Mindanao at Arkipelago ng Sulu, 1596-
1898 by Rudy Rodil (2017), and the most recent ABAKADA ng
Kasaysayang Pampook: Kartilya sa Pananaliksik at Pagsusulat
ng Kasasyayan ng Bayan by Wensley Reyes (2020).
The rise of local historical books is paralleled with the
emergence of local organizations which seek to promote the
history of their own localities. Usually housed by local
universities, these organizations facilitate the linkages between
local historians, researchers, and students who are interested in
local history and culture of their own locality. Some of the
examples of these organizations are Cavite Historical Society,
Center for Tarlaqueño Studies (Tarlac State University),
Cebuano Studies Center (University of San Carlos),
Marindukanon Studies Center, Tayabas Studies and Creative
Writing Center, Center for Kapampangan Studies (Holy Angel
University), Center for Bulacan Studies (Bulacan State
University), Samahang Pangkasaysayan ng Tondo, Taguig
Heritage Society, and Kapisanan ng mga Mananaliksik sa
Kasaysayan ng Marikina.
As an additional information on local history, please watch this
short clip in Youtube by Michael Charleston “Xiao” Chua
entitled “Ang 'kasaysayang pampook' na tumatalakay sa
kuwento ng bawat bayan at lalawigan sa bansa”.
The writing of traditional local history in the Philippines is
largely characterized by the following:
1. Positivist – Positivism is a philosophical view in
history wherein it is insisted that the only legitimate
source for the study of the past are written documents.
Early local historians in the Philippines are generally
positivists. They believe that it is impossible to study
local history without documents, and that other sources
such as artifacts, geographical information, and oral
traditions are not legitimate sources in local history.
2. Elitist and Political – This political characteristic of
traditional local history also stems from its positivist
nature. Since earlier local historians are positivists,
they only rely on written documents which are largely
produced by the powerful people of the society in terms
of class (rich), gender (men), and race (colonizers).
There is a consensus among scholars that written
document generally reflects the voice of the elites,
while it marginalizes the voice of the weak in the
society (e.g. poor, women, and colonized). This is the
reason why traditional local history in the Philippines
has been very elitist and political (since politics is
generally a power struggle among the elites). Several
traditional historians only focus on the political side of
local history, which is basically elitist, patriarchal, and
colonial. Traditional local history narrates events which
are centered on military leaders, politicians, rich
families, and other powerful elements in the society.
3. Foreign – Foreign historians (particularly Americans)
dominated local history as a field in the Philippines for
a long time. Because of this, Filipino historians who
succeeded them adopted many of their ways in writing
local history. This is best manifested in the language
dominantly used in the field: the English language.
Because of the supremacy of English in local historical
writing, not only is the national language marginalized,
but local historians are also unable to utilize the very
local language of their own localities.
4. Dependent on National Periodization – Since
traditional local historical writing is generally positivist
and political, it has no autonomy from the way national
history is being written. It merely copies and reflects
the events that happened in the national level. Its
periodization is based on “national events” such as
colonization, World War II, EDSA People Power
Revolution, etc., without taking into account the
specificity of events in the localities that are different
from the so-called national events. So for instance,
when the local history of Palawan is being written, it
merely follows the traditional periodization of the
national history: Palawan during the Spanish
colonization, Palawan during the American
colonization, Palawan during World War II, etc.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
All of these four are the basic characteristics of traditional local
history, which is sometimes labeled in Filipino as “Kasaysayang
Pampook.” During the 1980s in UP Department of History, a
criticism against this kind of local historical writing began to
emerge. It primarily came from the writings of the nationalist
historian Zeus Salazar, who proposes an alternative way of local
historical writing. He called this alternative way of local historical
writing as “Kasaysayang Bayan.” Contrary to Kasaysayang
Pampook which is the traditional way of writing local history,
Kasaysayang Bayan is marked by the following characteristics:
1. – Contrary to positivist local
history, Kasaysayang Bayan utilizes not just
documents but also various sources such as artifacts,
oral traditions, material culture, language, among
others. Thus, it does not limit itself in history, but
borrow knowledge from other academic disciplines
such as archaeology, anthropology, linguistics, and
others. It also utilize other methods in data gathering
that is not limited to archival method (i.e. used in
gathering written documents), such as excavation
(from archaeology), participative observation (from
anthropology), and metalinguistic analysis (from
linguistics). By virtue of its interdisciplinary approach,
Kasaysayang Bayan gives more depth to the study of
local history.
2. – Since
it is not positivist, and therefore not limited to written
documents, Kasaysayang Bayan is not elitist and
merely political. It is focused not to the powerful but to
the people themselves who are the real makers of local
history. And due to its interdisciplinary character,
Kasaysayang Bayan does not dwell only on the
political, but also encompasses topics which belong to
the real of the cultural, economic, social,
environmental, etc. Thus, when studying the history of
Batanes, for instance, it will not only look at political
events, but will also analyze the cultural traditions,
social classes, environmental problems, and other
aspects of Batanes history and society.
3. – Kasaysayang Bayan promotes a
nationalist study of local history. It emphasizes the fact
that local history must not be antithetical but supportive
to national history. This goal toward nation-building
implies that local historical writing must be written in
the national language, or other local languages of the
Philippines (especially the mother-tongue of the
locality which the historian seeks to study).
4. –
The fact that local history must be supportive to
national history does not mean that local history must
be a mere branch of national history that copies its own
national periodization. Kasaysayang Bayan
acknowledges the uniqueness of the historical
experience of each locality that might be different from
the national historical experience. It means that local
history must be guided by an autonomous
periodization which springs from the unique
experience and identity of the locality.
When studying local history, it is unavoidable to come across
the topic of cultural heritage. It is because cultural heritages are
the most visible expression of local culture. As mentioned in the
introduction of this module, cultural heritage refers to things
which are repositories of memories and culture of a particular
community such as monuments, public parks, archaeological
sites, natural wonders, museums, libraries, archives, among
many others. As the term suggests, cultural heritage is a cultural
creation that is preserved, enriched, and passed on subsequent
generations, who also participate in this process of preservation
and enrichment. Through cultural heritage, the present
generation becomes partakers of the memories and cultural
legacy of the past generations. In turn, this present generation
would also contribute to the enrichment of the cultural heritage,
which they would also pass on to the next generation. In this
sense, there is a clear continuity in the way of life of every
generation of a community. Thus, cultural heritage is
instrumental in the strengthening of the community’s cultural
identity, which makes them unique from any other community.
Each locality has its own set of cultural heritage which make
them unique. The following are some of the cultural heritage
which can be seen in each locality:
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Dubbed as the House of History, the Aguinaldo Mansion is the
locus of a focal point in the unfolding of Philippine history.
Constructed in 1845, the original structure of the house was of
nipa-and-thatch material. It was reconstructed four years later
using a variety of Philippine hardwood. By the 1920s, major
renovation saw the construction of the tower and the symbolic
balcony of the house. It was also during this period that the
house was refurbished with architectural details of nationalistic
themes, masonic symbols, and art nouveau and art deco’s
artistic style prevalent during the early 20th century. The house
where the president lived was donated to the Filipino people in
1963, a year before he passed away. In 1964, the house was
placed under the care of the National Museum of the Philippines
and was declared a national shrine through Republic Act No
4039. By 1972, Executive Order No 370 transferred the shrine
under the care and maintenance of the National Historical
Commission. Today, the house continues to emanate the vision
of a free and proud nation as it perpetuates the i
Kabayan, one of the municipalities of Benguet in the Cordillera
Mountain Ranges, is home to a total of 200 man-made burial
caves, 15 of which contain perfectly preserved human
mummies. The Kabayan burial caves are remnants of a colorful
tradition and practices of the Ibaloi, a dominant indigenous
group from the said municipality. Mummifying process was
based on social status. During the pre-Hispanic era,
mummification was a rampant practice among the Ibaloi. The
length and delicateness of mummification were determined by
the dead person’s social status.The body was usually first
treated with salt and herbs. It would then set under fire for up to
two years, hence the name “fire mummies”. Once the body
fluids completely dried up, the mummy was “placed inside a
pinewood coffin and laid to rest in a man-made cave or in niche
dug-out from solid rock.” Mummification was a traditional
practice among the Ibaloi until the Spaniards entered the scene.
When Christianity took over the whole mountain region in
Benguet, practices of both mummification and cave burial were
abandoned by the indigenous group.
A national cultural treasure
Through the proclamation of the Presidential Decree No. 374,
the Kabayan burial caves officially became one of the country’s
national cultural treasures.
It is known that the Ibaloi of Benguet was the only
ethnolinguistic group in the country that practiced
mummification during ancient times. Although the Bontocs of
the Mountain Province shared the same practices, these are
believed to be the only extension from Kabayan, Benguet.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Anthropology is the scientific study of humans and human
behavior and societies in the past and present. So, the National
Museum of Anthropology covers a lot about ancient and modern
Filipino culture and lifestyles. In case you haven’t been in the
National Museum of Anthropology in Manila’s Rizal Park, allow
us to give you a sneak peek of what’s inside. This museum has
five floors of Filipino heritage. It’s quite large, so it can take about
3 hours to fully appreciate every attraction.
Traces its history to the establishment of the Museo-Biblioteca
de Filipinas, established by a Royal Order of the Spanish
Government on August 12,1887 but was abolished in 1900 at
the onset of the American occupation of the Philippines. And by
October 29, 1901, the Insular Museum of Ethnology, Natural
History and Commerce is considered to be the direct precursor
of the National Museum.
It is an educational, scientific and cultural institution that
acquires, documents, preserves, exhibits, and fosters scholarly
study and public appreciation of works of art, specimens, and
cultural and historical artifacts representative of the unique
cultural heritage of the Filipino people and the natural history of
the Philippines. It is mandated to establish, manage and
develop museums comprising the National Museum Complex
and the National Planetarium in Manila, as well as regional
museums in key locations around the country.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
Generally, it is not open to non-Muslims, we had special
permission to explore the inside of the mosque thanks to our
military guide who befriended the local imam. The most
prominent landmark in Jolo town – whether viewed from the
plane or the boat to Marungas Island – this grand place of
worship pierces a skyline of iron-roofed houses and rickety
shanties with its four minarets. At dawn, it is a particularly
wondrous sight when seen from out at sea, as the morning mist
shrouds the town with the mountains behind. With a capacity of
more than 5,000 people, Masjid Tulay is the largest mosque in
the province of Sulu, where 90% of the population is Muslim.
Established in 1884, the original mosque was destroyed in 1974
at the height of the war between government forces and
separatist group, Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). In
2001, the present-day Masjid Tulay was rebuilt using $2 million
donation from the Sheik Zayed Al-Nahayan Foundation in the
United Arab Emirates.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
RIZAL's LANDING SITE. The site where Rizal disembarked
from the steamer “S.S. Cebu” located at Santa Cruz Beach. In
1565 with the arrival of Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, a 20 feet cross
was erected to symbolize the propagation of Christianity in the
area. Dr. Jose P. Rizal landed 7:00 o’clock P.M. on July 17,
1892 to begin the life of an exile in Dapitan. With Captain
Delgras and three artillery men, they walked through Sta. Cruz
Street with a “Farol de Combate” to the Casa Real where he
was presented to Don Ricardo Carnicero, Spanish Military
Governor of the District. RIZAL's SHRINE. This is the major
historical landmark of the city. It is the original estate of national
hero Dr. Jose P. Rizal which he acquired by purchase during his
exile in Dapitan from 1892 to 1896. The Rizal Shrine is
approximately two kilometers from the Dapitan City Hall. Its land
area has been considerably restored to its original size of 16
hectares with the reclamation of 10,974 square meters.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
Known as “the pride of the Ifugaos”. Located at the foot of the
Cordillera, mountain ranges, lies the province of Ifugao. And
whenever Filipino locals hear the word Ifugao, the striking image
of the Rice Terraces (also known as Mga Hagdang-Hagdang
Palayan) comes to mind. These terraces are reported to cover
around 4,000 miles and its length is roughly half of the Earth’s
circumference – approximately 12,500 miles. Ancestors of the
Ifugao tribe carved thousands of these step-like terraces in
the mountains with their bare hands – thus, creating a
beautiful sight that people often refer to as the “Eighth Wonder
of the World.” The Ifugao tribe belongs to the bigger group of the
Igorots, which comprises numerous tribes in the northern part of
the country.
They are popularly known as rice cultivators and their tribe has
lived on these mountains for more than 2,000 years. The
presence of these historic terraces is said to be among the few
monuments that were not influenced by colonial cultures. Since
the Igorots lived in the mountains, they were not reached by
Spanish or American colonizers because of the difficult terrains.
Hence, they were able to retain their customs, culture and
traditional practices. ccording to historical accounts, it is
believed that the Rice Terraces have been carved by the
Ifugaos between 1,000 to 2,000 years ago. To carefully carve
the contours of the mountains and construct these terraces, they
had to use stone or mud walls. Such practice was handed down
from generation to generation yet according to reports, there
were no written records on how they structurally built the
terraces. Apart from that, they also established an irrigation
system to water these terraces.
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LESSON | FIRST SEMESTER 2nd BLOCK

It is usually believed by some people that cultural preservation

and economic development are two contradictory
advocacies. It is as if you have to sacrifice one in order to
achieve the other. They maintain that we are in a crossroad,
wherein we have to choose either of these two: 1. We have to
sacrifice cultural spaces in order to put up malls, bridges,
dams, mining and logging sites, factories of multinational
companies, and other infrastructures that are necessary for
economic growth, or 2. We have to resist developmental
projects in order to preserve the environment and cultural
spaces. But in fact, we are presented with a false dilemma.
There are already a body of literature which established the fact
that any developmental plan that excludes the cultural aspect
will inevitably fail. Cultural development must be put side by side
with economic, social, and political development. For instance,
cultural preservation is an essential element of the tourism
industry, which leads to greater foreign investment. Aside from
the United States which spreads its own culture in the process
of globalization, we also saw the regional spread of Asian
cultures which helped to boost their economic development
(e.g. anime industry of Japan, and film and music industry of
South Korea). Thus, instead of the perpetual localization of
foreign cultures, it would be good for the Philippines to capitalize
with its own culture, which it can use as a dynamic player of
international economy.

It is in this context that cultural heritages in local histories are

pivotal in the process of national development. When
preservation, enrichment and promotion of cultural heritage are
done, the localities are not only ones that becomes its
beneficiaries. As parts of a wider unit called nation, the cultural
and economic flourishing of each locality serves as factors that
strengthen national growth. In fact, the enrichment of local
heritage leads to the growth of national identity, since
nationalism does not imply that unity requires uniformity. The
uniqueness of each locality gives more dynamism to national
identity, as there can be unity within diversity. In short, local
heritage and local history boosts the cultural growth of localities,
which in turn helps in the achievement of national development.

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