Limpet Mine Imaging Sonar (LIMIS)

Edward 0. Belcher*" and Hien Q. Dinh"

aApplied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington,

1013 NE 40th Street, Seattle WA 98105
bNaval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, Code 50A12,
2008 Stump Neck Road, Indian Head, MD 20640

ABSTRACT
When divers search for limpet mines on ship hulls in turbid or dark water, they must resort to tactile examination. Acoustic
systems that detect objects in turbid water typically suffer from low resolution, a low image refresh rate, a large size, and/or
high power consumption. This paper discusses the design, fabrication, and testing of a small, prototype diver-held sonar that
generates near-photographic quality images at a fast frame rate. Its weight in air (including batteries) is 7.7 kg, and it is 100
g buoyant in seawater. It is 18 cm wide, 20 cm high, and 35 cm long, including a 10-cm handle. The sonar uses acoustic
lenses made from polymethylpentene to form 64 beams, each of which has a beamwidth of 0.3° yielding a 1 .6 cm cross-
range resolution at 3-rn range. The sector display has a 19.2° field of view. The frame rate varies with range, going from 5.5
frames/s at 15 rn to 12.5 frames/s at ranges less than 4 m. The sonar consumes 25 W. The internal batteries provide 3 hours
of operation between charges. External packs and cabled power provide additional power options. The images are seen on a
mask-mounted video display and can also be cabled topside to a video monitor. The sonar operates at 2 MHz and has a
maximum range of 15 m. This sonar allows divers to sweep hulls more efficiently and with greater safety than possible with
current methods.

Keywords: acoustic imaging, acoustic lens, diver-held imaging sonar, hull search, underwater inspection

1. INTRODUCTION
The Applied Physics Laboratory (APL-UW) at the University of Washington and the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Technology Division (NAVEODTECHDIV) at Indian Head, Maryland determined the requirements and specifications of a
small sonar for searching ship hulls. The sonar was built by APL-UW. The sonar allows a diver or the operator of a
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to visualize objects underwater despite zero-visibility conditions. It provides almost
photographic-quality images at the rate of 12 frames/s. This sonar is called the Limpet Mine Imaging Sonar (LIMIS)
because its primary function is to search for and identify limpet mines attached to the hulls of ships.

2. SONAR DESCRIPTION
Divers are extremely conscious of size. A sonar can have lots of nice features, but if it is too large, divers will not use it.
LIMIS (shown in Figure 1) measures 17.8 cm wide, 20 cm high, and 35 cm long, including a 10-cm handle. It weighs 7.7
kg in air and is 100 g buoyant in seawater. A set of acoustic lenses (Figure 2) occupies the upper, rectangular region of the
sonar, and electronics occupy the lower region. The lenses form acoustic images that are almost photographic in quality.
This feature is very important because divers and ROV operators want to easily identify the still or moving objects they are
imaging. LIMIS provides a smooth display of dynamic scenes because the entire field-of-view updates 12 frames/s for
targets 3.6 m or less from the sonar. The maximum range of LIMIS is 15 m, and at that range LIMIS updates 5 frames/s.
The short range of LIMIS makes it an "acoustic flashlight" suitable for close quarters and detailed inspection. Most sonars
are designed to operate out to hundreds of meters and do not have a size or image capability appropriate for scanning hulls
or for other close-range, detailed inspections. Often ROVs are required to work in low visibility or their movement makes
the water so turbid that video cameras cannot image properly. LIMIS could mount on the front of an ROV and monitor the
operation of its manipulators in turbid water.

Part of the SPIE Conference on Information Systems for Navy Divers and Autonomous Underwater
2 Vehicles Operating in Very Shallow Water and Surf Zone Regions • Orlando, Florida • April 1999
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 Fig I. The haiid-held sonar aid mask-mounted Fig. 2. The acoustic lenses. The transducer
display. array fits in the space on the nght side of the
housing. Water fills the spaces between the
lenses and transducer when the sonar is
submerged.
2.1. Functions
The sonar is easy to operate. Thumb switches (Figure 3) on the handle allow the diver to change the range of the display.
focus the image. and store digital Images of interest. The diver images the surface of interest by aiming the sonar as shown
in Figure 4. Each beam (0.3° horizontal by 7° vertical) hits the surface at a small grazing angle. Each of the 64 beams is
responsible for one radial line in the display. For example in Section 3. Figure 11, there is a black radial line between the
little finger and ring finger on the hand at the right side of the image. That black line represents the absence of data from
one sonar beam. Objects in the image appear as if they are seen from above, even though the sonar scans objects from their
side. This can be confusing to first-time users, hut they quickly adjust to the apparent 90° shift in orientation.

The sonar images appear on the mask-mounted color LCD video display. In addition, the images can be sent topside by
coaxial cable. Viewers topside need only a monitor to see the images and can record them on a standard VCR if desired. The
diver can also store up to 50 images in the sonar. These "still shots" arc stored as raw digital data and can be downloaded to
a PC at the end of the dive.

The sonar operates for 3 hours on its internal, rechargeable nickel metal hydride batteries. An auxiliary power pack
approximately 2.5 cm by 8 cm by 15 cm snaps on the bottom of the unit to give 1.5 hours of additional operation.
Alternatively. IS Vdc can be cabled to the unit from topside for indefinite operation.

LIMIS can operate as an ROV-mounted sonar. Operator commands can be sent to the sonar through a serial link instead of
thumb switches. At this time, focusing remains manual. The focus can he preset at the range interval of interest for the ROV
or a small focus motor can be installed.

Fig. 3. Five thumb switches control LIMIS. The four labeled Fl-F4 control software
commands. The fifth, between Fl and F3 controls focus. The COM port is an RS-232
link to download commands that duplicate Fl— F4 controls and to upload stored
digital images. The HUDDS port connects to the mask-mounted display.

Fig. 4. LIMIS is held near the hull to get a

small grazing angle. Targets are displayed as if
seen from above with a "light" source
illuminating the target from the side.

HULL

LiMiS

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 2.2. Specifications
Cross-range resolution: 1.6 cm at a 3-rn range
Beamwidth: 0.3° horizontal by 70 vertical
Number of beams: 64
Field of View 19.20
Range settings: 3—15 m, 1.5—8 rn, 1—3.6 rn, 0.6—2 rn
Down-range resolution: 2.5 cm, 1 .25 crn, 0.6 cm, or 0.3 cm depending on range setting
Frame rate: 5.5, 11, 12.5, or 12.5 images/s, depending on range setting
Source level 207 dB j.tPa
Operating Frequency 2MHz
Power consumption: 25 W (1.75 A at 14.4 V)
Power Options: Internal batteries, nominal 3-hour duration
External battery pack, 1.5 hours duration per pack
Cabled power, indefinite duration
Weight: 7.7 kg in air, including internal batteries; and 100 g positive in seawater
Dimensions: 17.8 cm wide, 20 cm high, and 35 cm long, including a 10-cm handle.
Output format: NTSC video on a mask-mounted video monitor and/or cabled topside.
Control: Switches on back of unit or an RS-232 downlink.
Uplink: RS-232 to transfer up to 50 "digital snapshots" stored in sonar.

E
0U)
>.
C,)
U)
0
-J
C)
U,
0
C)

Fig. 5. Block Diagram of LIMIS

2.3. Sonar Technology

Figure 5 shows a block diagram of the sonar. The 64 acoustic beams are formed, transmitted, and received by the set of
acoustic lenses and the 64-element array. During a ping cycle, the sonar transmits and then receives eight beams in parallel.
A complete image integrates information from eight ping cycles. This allows a reduction in electronics and power
consumption but still allows complete frames (eight ping cycles) to be formed between 5 and 12 times per second. The sets
of simultaneously active channels and the sequence of the eight sets of channels were selected to minimize acoustic
crosstalk. First, the eight simultaneously active beams are spaced eight beams apart (8x0.3° =2.4°). The next set of
transducers to fire forms beams that are approximately 1 .2° away from the closest beams in the previous set. For example, if
the set (0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56) is active on ping cycle 1, then set (4, 12, 20. . 60) is active on ping cycle 2. The third
ping cycle excites the set (1, 9, 17. ..57), and the fourth excites (5, 13, 21. . .61). After passing through a 64-to-8 channel
multiplexer, each received beam passes through a receiver that includes a bandpass filter and log detector. The outputs are
the log amplitudes of the received beam envelopes. The envelopes are sampled at a low rate, which is dictated by the down-
range resolution, not by frequency of the transmitted signal. This is a great benefit of acoustic lenses. The beams are formed
acoustically at the speed of sound. Signal digitization occurs at a much lower rate than would be required if the beams were
formed digitally. The reduction in required workload and speed simplifies the electronics. Even so, the maximum sampling
rate per channel is 250 kHz, which is equivalent to sampling every 3 mm in range. The display shows 512 samples in range,
so at the maximum resolution, the display would cover over 1 .5 m in range. The single-board computer is a Ziatech
ZT8902X STD32 486 DX4-100 MHz. It decodes user commands, controls the sonar, and displays the sonar data. The VGA
output converts to NTSC for output to the mask-mounted display and/or a topside display.

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 2.3.1 . Lens Technology
An optical lens refracts light reflected or radiated from the surface of an object and focuses it on an image surface. A point
source of light on the object plane will appear as a point (or very small spot) of light on the image plane. In a similar
fashion, an acoustic lens refracts sound reflected or projected from an object and focuses it on an "image" surface.

Designing an acoustic lens begins with optical lens design techniques. Two optical design programs 1,2 that run on PCs were
used as part of the design of our acoustic lenses. It is easier to reach the design goal of optimum resolution (i.e. resolution
limited by diffraction) in an acoustic lens system than in an optical lens system. Waves collected through a finite aperture
are diffracted. As the wavelength A. of the propagated wave decreases in comparison to the physical dimensions of the
aperture (i.e., as aperture/A approaches infinity), the focal spot decreases in size. This diffraction limitation is much more
evident in acoustic systems where 2 is approximately 10,000 times longer than it is in optical ones. As a result, good
acoustic lens designs are diffraction limited whereas optical designs may first be limited by coma, spherical, or other
aberrations.

After a candidate design is found with the optical design program, a wave analysis is needed to predict the beamwidth and
sidelobes of the formed beams and how these beams change with the salinity and temperature of the ambient water. Wave
analysis may indicate that the beampatterns need improvement.3'4 Designs are changed by using different prescriptions and
sometimes different lens materials. After several iterations between candidate designs and wave analysis, a successful
design prescription is found and the lenses are fabricated.

2.3.2. Point-Focus and Line-Focus Systems

Acoustic lenses generally are either point-focus or line-focus systems. A point-focus system maps a point on the object plane
to a point on the image plane. The lenses have circular apertures and surfaces with circular symmetry, similar to those in
familiar optical systems such as cameras and telescopes. A point-focus system interrogates the object plane and acquires a
single pixel per beam, as shown in Figure 6. A line-focus system maps a line in the object plane to a line on the imageplane,
as shown in Figure 7(a). The beams are narrow in azimuth and wide in elevation, forming thin lines of sound. As shown in
Figure 7(b) the object plane is slanted with respect to the beam axis such that the acoustic beam interrogates the plane along
a line as a function of time. The cross-range resolution is a function of beamwidth, and the down-range resolution is a
function of channel bandwidth (resolution of echoes in time). The beams are formed in azimuth by the curvature and width
of the lenses and in elevation by the transducer element and the height of the lens aperture. LIMIS is a line-focus system.

2.3.3. Beamforming
Figure 2 shows a photograph of the lenses used in LIMIS. Sound first enters the front of the sonar through the plastic-fluid-
plastic lens shown on the left side of the photograph. It then enters a single plastic convex-planar lens, and finally enters a
biconcave lens. The 64-element transducer array is not shown but would mate with the lens housing on the right side.
Figure 8 is a diagram of the lenses showing ray traces resulting from plane waves arriving at six different azimuthal
directions with respect to the front of the sonar. Each plane wave focuses sound at a unique location on the transducer array.
There are 64 elements in the array. Thus the system is capable of transmitting and receiving 64 beams. In LIMIS, the
elements and lenses are designed so the beams are 0.3° wide and spaced 0.3° apart in azimuth.

Image Plane
Fig. 6. A point-focus lens system with circular
aperture maps a point on the object plane to a point
on the image plane.
Fig. 7(a). A line-focus lens system uses a rectangular
lens and curved element to form a focused line of
sound. (b). When the line of sound is directed to a
slanted object plane, it interrogates a line segment on
the object plane as a function of time.

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 2.3.4. Shading
Shading (also called "windowing" or "apodization") can reduce the height of the sidelobes in the beampattern. In digital
processing, the shading attenuation curve looks bell shaped and may be formed by a cosine function, a Gaussian function, or
other similarly shaped curve. The largest sidelobes of a beampattern formed from a rectangular aperture with no shading
would be 13 dB down from the main lobe. The LIMIS design uses shading by having an absorptive biconcave lens as the
first element in the lens set. The sound passing through the center of the lens aperture is least absorbed. As the sound passes
through the lens nearer the edge, it passes through more material and experiences greater attenuation. Figure 9 shows a set
of eight beampatterns. The sidelobes are typically down 16 dB to 18 dB. If we had used a material with greater absorption,
such as low-density polyethylene, rubber, or an epoxy compound, the sidelobes would be lOs of decibels lower. The down
side is that the lens system would be less efficient. At 2 MHz the sound suffers significant absorption in the water, and we
chose to have minimal absorption in the lens. Even so, the sidelobes are small enough that images show great detail and
structure. We have used rubber and epoxy compounds in lenses that operate at 750 kHz and obtained side lobes down 30 dB
from the main lobe.

Fluid
Fig. 8. A diagram of the LIMIS lens system. Li is a lens
triplet consisting of a biconcave plastic lens, a fluid, and
a second thin plastic lens. L2 is a convex-planar plastic
lens that moves closer and farther from Li to change
focus. L3 is the third and last lens before the transducer
array, T. Ray traces show rays from six plane waves with
azimuth angles ranging from 0° to 90 A plane wave
perpendicular to lens Li focuses on the array at "0°." A
plane wave 9° off from perpendicular focuses on the
array at position "9°." Each element in the array
transmits to and receives from a single beam.
L2
L3 T

0
-10
Fig. 9. Eight beampatterns of LIMIS
-20 'LAA'A AJV\ collected at our Acoustic Measurements
Facility. Sidelobes are down between 16
-30 dBandi8dB.

-
-40

—20 —15 —10 —5 0 5 10 15

DEC

UM5 beams 412.205O 8apr96

2.3.5. Reverberation
We chose a plastic, TPX RT- 1 8, for the lens material in part because its acoustic impedance is close to that of water. Less
than 1 % of acoustic energy is reflected as the sound passes through each water/plastic interface. This is important from the
viewpoint of efficiency but even more important from the viewpoint of reverberation within the lens. Two major drawbacks
of acoustic lenses are (1 ) the lenses and the spaces between the lenses add volume in front of the transducer array, and (2)
multiple reflections between lens surfaces cause reverberation. To measure internal reflections, we sent a 10 is acoustic
pulse into the sonar. The transducer array received the focused pulse, and then it received a series of pulses delayed because
of multiple reflections in the lens set. The reflected pulses were down 40 dB or more from the focused pulse and continued
to arrive for 0.3 ms after the first pulse arrived. That means there is the potential of ghosting in the image up to 23 cm
behind the target image. Ghosting is not a problem, as seen in the Figures 11—16, Section 3. One reason is that the

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amplitudes of the ghosts are down 4() dB from the amplitudes of the real image. Second. the lens reverberation scatters and
blurs the ghosts. so they manifest as a slightly brighter noise floor, not as a range-delayed image of the object.

2.3.6. Sonar Transducer Array

The transducer array is a linear array. It has 64 elements with a pitch of 1.37 mm and a height of 46 mm. The elementsare
made with PZT 3-1 composIte constructed by the dice-and-fill method. The 3-I composite allows us to have a wide
bandwidth, shape the transducers without much concern about unwanted resonances, and curve the element surfaces. The
array is curved in the height direction to assist in the formation of the elevation heampattern of each beam. The transducer
elements operate at 2 MHz and transmit as well as receive acoustic energy. The receive sensitivity of the elements without
lens gain is —210 dBv/re lflPa. The transmit sensitivity of the elements without lens gain is 164 dB iPa1re I Vrms. Lens
gain adds 10dB to the transmit and receive sensitivities.

2.4. Mask-Mounted Display

Looking for limpet mines generally means diving in harbors and bays where water visibility is very low. Having a display
on the sonar won't do the diver much good when visibility is zero or only a few inches. LIMIS uses a mask-mounted
display that incorporates a commercial Seiko Epson 0.7-in. diagonal. color LCD in a I .25-in.' by 2-in-deep housing
mounted on the mask. Figure 10 shows a diver with the display mounted on his mask. The housing includes optical lenses
that form a magnified virtual iniage of the display at a comfortable distance for eye focus. The display mounts over one eye
so the diver always has one eye available to observe his immediate surroundings. The diver can pull the display out of the
way or quickly detach it from the mask in an emergency. The mask-mounted display requires 5 V and a NTSC video signal
from the sonar. LIMIS has an optional "Y" connector that connects to the sonar with one end going to the mask-niounted
display and the other end connecting to a coaxial cable that feeds the video signal topside for monitoring and recording
LIMIS images.

Fig. II. LIMIS images two hands positioned between 5 ft and 6 ft

from the sonar.

Fig. 10. A diver, exiting the water, views

images through the display mounted on his
mask.

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 3. FIELD RESULTS
LIMIS had it first in-water test in May 1998. in a small, indoor tank. It was tested a number of times in Puget Sound, and
then taken to the Naval Amphibious Base at Little Creek. Virginia. Navy divers tested LIMIS in their training pooi and
under the hull of a Whidhey Island class, amphibious landing ship in Little Creek Naval Amphibious Base harbor. Figure
11 is an example of the text and image format of the images stored by the divers during these tests. In this image. the sonar
range is from 3 ft to 7.5 ft (0.9 ni to 2.3 ml marked in I-ft intervals. The top line of text is an abbreviation of the filename of
the stored image. The second line gives the internal temperature, T. in Fahrenheit to check heat build-up in the unit. The
third line gives the depth. D. in feet. The fourth and fifth lines were reserved for the diver's (x.y) location relative to sonic
known point. Tracking has not been implemented. and thus these lines always read zero. The palette shows the relationship
between the strength of a return and its color on the display. The bottom two lines on the left tell what nienu is active and
what item is currently selected. The bottom line on the right gives the time the sonar has been on and is expressed in
hours:minutes. The rectangle above the time is color coded to give battery status.

3.1. Small-Tank Tests

We placed LIMIS in a tank that measured 1.2 m by 3.6 m by 0.6 m high and was filled with water to a depth of0.45 m.
Figures 11 and 12 are images taken in the tank. Figure 11 shows two hare hands resting on the bottom of the tank
approximately 6 ft (1.8 m) from the sonar. The black line passing between the little linger and ring linger is due to one dead
channel during this test. Figure 12 shows a limpet mine between 6 ft and 7 ft (1.8 m and 2.1 m) from the sonar. The mine is
a half-cylinder approximately 10 cm wide by 23 cm long with the flat side of the half-cylinder resting on the bottom of the
tank. Protruding from the left side of the mine is a circular fuse 2.5 cm in diameter and 5 cm long. On the right side of the
mine is a canvas holding strap 15 cm long. LIMIS provides enough detail to identify this mine at a range of 10 ft (3 m.

Fig. 12. An image of a limpet mine positioned between 6 ft Fig. 13. An intake on the hull. These "suctions" are hazardous
and 7 ft from the sonar. The fuse protrudes on the near end of to divers. They want to identify them at a safe distance.
the mine and the holding strap connects to the far end.

Although the images look good. the small tank does generate appreciable reverberation. To form 12 images/s.. LIMIS pings
96 times/s. The 2-MHz sound from previous pings is scattered and picked up as a brightened background. The dark lines
that are evenly spaced between the 3-ft and 4-ft marks are returns from the first set of eight beams in the burst of eight ping
cycles. Reverberation is lower alter the delay between bursts than between ping cycles in a burst. As a result, the first eight
beam returns in the burst have a darker background. The dark lines end when true returns are brighter than the reverberation.
The lines do not appear in larger volumes of water where reverberation is low, as in Figure 13 at ranges less than 6 ft.

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3.2. Tests Under a Ship's Hull in Chesapeake Bay
Divers from the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Fleet Liaison Unit (NAVEODFLTLAU) and EOD Training and
Evaluation Unit TWO (EODTEU TWO) participated in tests in the Little Creek Naval Amphibious Base harbor. Divers
stored Figures 13 and 14 while under the hull of an amphibious landing ship. Figure 13 shows an intake that measures 1.5 Ii
(0.45 m) in diameter and is 9 ft (2.7 m) from the sonar. Divers are very concerned about intakes. If intakes are operating.
they could pin the diver to the hull. Figure 14 shows another type of limpet mine approximately 7 ft (2.1 ni) from the sonar.
This particular mine has a long handle and can he easily identified at ranges up to 10 ft (3 rn). Water in Chesapeake Bay
during these tests had a visibility of 6 in.

Fig. 14. A limpei mine on the hull of a ship and 7

ft from the sonar. The long handle makes it easy to
identity

3.3. Puget Sound Tests

As part of the initial checkout, APL-UW divers took LIMIS out in Puget Sound and swam close to the bottom at 30- to 50-
foot depths taking "sonar snapshots" of targets of opportunity and recording them on a small recorder. Figures IS and 16 are
two examples. Figure 15 is a cinder block at a 6-ft range. Figure lôis a railroad wheel with a chain coming out of the center
hole. The wheel is 12 ft (3.6 m) from the sonar. The diver reported that the wheel was not visible optically because
underwater plants covered it and the surrounding bottom. The diver was surprised to see the wheel in the sonar image and
then verified its existence.

Fig. 15. A cinder block on the bottom of Puget Fig. 16. A railroad car wheel with a chain
Sound. The diver was 29 feet below the surface. coming out from the huh found on the bottom
of Puget Sound in 45 feet of water.

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 3_4. On-going Tests at EODTEU TWO
Diving with LIMIS is currently included as part of detachment training at EODTEU TWO.Responses have been varied,
with many initially negative reactions to having a mask-mounted display. However, after one dive and almost always after
two dives, divers become comfortable with the display and realize its advantage in very turbid water. LIMIS is currently
being evaluated not only on its ability to detect and identify limpet mines on the hulls of ships but also to identify bottom
mines at night and in turbid water.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Office of Special Technology (Fort Washington, Maryland) sponsored this work under the direction of Larry Tierney.
Don Folds, Ultra-Acoustics, Inc. (Woodstock, GA) provided the prescriptions for the acoustic lens designs. Dennis
Gallagher, Coastal Systems Station, Diving and Life Support Division (Panama City, FL) provided the mask-mounted
display. John Siegel, American Medical Design, (Paso Robles, CA) fabricated the transducer array. The Naval Explosive
Ordnance Disposal Fleet Liaison Unit helped determine operational requirements and organized the test for LIMIS at the
Naval Amphibious Base, Little Creek, VA. Bill Hanot, APL-UW, developed the software and electronics for LIMIS, and
Joe Burch, APL-UW, created the mechanical design and assembled LIMIS.

REFERENCES

1. BEAM3 Optical Ray Tracer, Stellar Software, P.O. Box 10183, Berkeley, California 94709.
2. ZEMAX Optical Design Program, Focus Software, Incorporated, P.O. Box 18228, Tucson, Arizona 85731.
3. D. Folds, "Acoustic Lens Performance Analysis," Technical Report, ARINC Research Corporation, Panama City Beach,
Florida, December 1993.
4. K. Fink, "Computer simulation of pressure fields generated by acoustic lens beamformers," M.S. Thesis, University of
Washington, 1994.
5. D.G. Gallagher and R.C. Dorch, "Diver's Head Mounted Display," ASME 95-PET-i, February 1994.

*Correspondence: Email: ed@apl.washington.edu, Telephone: (206) 685 2149

10

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