MODULE 1 Anatomy and Physiology Prelims 1

Anatomy and Physiology
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
BY PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC
MODULE 1 : PRELIMS
1st SEMESTER, SCHOOL YEAR 2020 – 2021
GENERAL
BIOLOGY IPHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
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LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning Outcomes
 Define anatomy and physiology and explain the relationship between them
 Define cell and explain its different functions in the body and its structural properties
 Discuss the process of Cell cycle
 Describe and discuss the parts and functions of cardiovascular system
 Describe and discuss the parts and functions of respiratory system
Learning Activities Instructions

1. Read Information Sheet on Anatomy Read and understand the information sheet
and Physiology and check your self by answering self-check.
2. Answer Self Check on Anatomy and You must answer all questions correctly
Physiology before proceeding to the next activity. Task
Compare your answers with Answer sheet will help you accomplish your work and
key on Anatomy and Physiology Job sheet will help you practice your skills
3. Do Task Sheet on the Organ System
Check your Performance using
Performance Criteria Check list
4. Read Information Sheet on Cells,
Tissues, Glands & Membranes
5. Answer Self Check on Cells, Tissues,
Glands & Membranes
Compare your answer with answers
key on Cells, Tissues, Glands &
Membranes
6. Do Task Sheet on The connective
Tissue
7. Read Information Sheet on The
respiratory system
8. Answer Self Check on The respiratory
System
key on The respiratory system
9. Do Task Sheet on The Respiratory
System
10. Read Information Sheet on The
Cardiovascular System
11. Answer Self Check on The
Cardiovascular System
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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC

key on The Cardiovascular System
12. Do Task Sheet on The Cardiovascular
System
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INFORMATION SHEET
Learning Objectives
After reading this information sheet, the trainee must be able to:
1. Define anatomy and physiology and explain the relationship between them
2. Identify the major systems covered in the study of human physiology.
3. Understand the structural and functional organization.
A. ANATOMY
The study of the structure or morphology of the body and how the body parts are organized.
Types of Study
a) Systemic Anatomy
Systemic anatomy is the study of the structures

that make up a discrete body system—that is,
a group of structures that work together to
perform a unique body function. For example, a
systemic anatomical study of the muscular
system would consider all of the skeletal
muscles of the body.
b) Regional Anatomy
Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a

specific body region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us
appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood
vessels, and other structures work together to serve a particular body region.
c) Surface Anatomy
Surface anatomy is the study of the configuration of the surface of the body, especially
in its relation to deeper parts.
PHYSIOLOGY
The study of the functions of body parts, what they do and how they do it.
a) Cell physiology – studying the way cells work and interact; cell
physiology mostly concentrates on membrane transport and neuron
transmission.
Systems physiology – this focuses on the computational and mathematical

modeling of complex biological systems. It tries to describe the way
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b) individual cells or components of a system converge to respond as a whole. They often

investigate metabolic networks and cell signaling.
c) Evolutionary physiology – studying the way systems, or parts of systems, have adapted
and changed over multiple generations. Research topics cover a lot of ground including
the role of behavior in evolution, sexual selection, and physiological changes in relation
to geographic variation.
d) Defense physiology – changes that occur as a reaction to a potential threat, such as
preparation for the fight-or-flight response.
e) Exercise physiology – as the name suggests, this is the study of the physiology of physical
exercise. This includes research into bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary
function, biomechanics, hematology, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine
function, and nervous system function.
The major systems covered in the study of human physiology are as follows:
a) Circulatory system – including the heart, the blood vessels, properties of the blood, and
how circulation works in sickness and health.
b) Digestive/excretory system – charting the movement of solids from the mouth to the
anus; this includes study of the spleen, liver, and pancreas, the conversion of food into
fuel and its final exit from the body.
c) Endocrine system – the study of endocrine hormones that carry signals throughout the
organism, helping it to respond in concert. The principal endocrine glands – the pituitary,
thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads – are a major focus, but nearly all
organs release endocrine hormones.
d) Immune system – the body’s natural defense system is comprised of white blood cells,
the thymus, and lymph systems. A complex array of receptors and molecules combine to
protect the host from attacks by pathogens. Molecules such as antibodies and cytokines
feature heavily.
e) Integumentary system – the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands
(secreting an oily or waxy substance).
f) Musculoskeletal system – the skeleton and muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage.
Bone marrow – where red blood cells are made – and how bones store calcium and
phosphate are included.
g) Nervous system – the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral
nervous system. Study of the nervous system includes research into the senses, memory,
emotion, movement, and thought.
h) Renal/urinary system – including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, this system
removes water from the blood, produces urine, and carries away waste.
i) Reproductive system – consisting of the gonads and the sex organs. Study of this system
also includes investigating the way a fetus is created and nurtured for 9 months.
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j) Respiratory system – consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. This system
brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.
B. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

Seven Structural Levels
1. Chemical
To study the chemical level of organization,
scientists consider the simplest building blocks of
matter: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules.
All matter in the universe is composed of one or
more unique pure substances called elements,
familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest
unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an
atom. Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and
neutron. Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules,
proteins, and sugars found in living things. Molecules are the chemical building blocks of
all body structures.
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1. Organelle
A human cell typically consists of flexible
membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a
water-based cellular fluid together with
a variety of tiny functioning units called
organelles.
2. Cell
A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living
organism. Even bacteria, which are extremely small,
independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure. Each
bacterium is a single cell. All living structures of human anatomy
contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are
performed in cells or are initiated by cells.
3. Tissues
A tissue is a group of many similar cells
(though sometimes composed of a few
related types) that work together to
perform a specific function.
4. Organ
An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body
composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ
performs one or more specific physiological functions.
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2. Organ System
An organ system is a group of organs that work together to
perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the
body.
3. Organism
An organism is a single individual, or being. While it may have many
separate parts, the organism cannot survive without the parts, as the
parts cannot survive without the organism.
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organization
At all levels of the organizational scheme, there is a division of labor. Each component has
its own job to perform in cooperation with others. Even a single cell, if it loses its integrity
or organization, will die.
2. Metabolism
Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body.
One phase of metabolism is catabolism in which complex substances are broken down
into simpler building blocks and energy is released.
3. Responsiveness
Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or
external environments and reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a stimulus and
responding to it.
4. Growth
Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or
through an increase in the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur,
anabolic processes must occur at a faster rate than catabolic processes.
5. Development
Development in biology is the increase in complexity of an organism. The three main
processes that occur during development are growth, morphogenesis, and
differentiation. As mentioned before, growth is the increase in size and number.
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However, morphogenesis is the acquisition of form and structure. It is responsible for

developing the shape of the organism.
E. HOMEOSTASIS
The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively
constant internal environment is called
homeostasis. The body maintains homeostasis
for many factors in addition to temperature. For
instance, the concentration of various ions in
your blood must be kept steady, along with pH
and the concentration of glucose. If these values
get too high or low, you can end up getting very
sick.
Homeostasis is maintained at many levels, not

just the level of the whole body as it is for
temperature. For instance, the stomach
maintains a pH that's different from that of
surrounding organs, and each individual cell maintains ion concentrations different from those
of the surrounding fluid. Maintaining homeostasis at each level is key to maintaining the body's
overall function.
Maintaining Homeostasis
Biological systems like those of your body are constantly being pushed away from their balance
points. For instance, when you exercise, your muscles increase heat production, nudging your
body temperature upward. Similarly, when you drink a glass of fruit juice, your blood glucose
goes up. Homeostasis depends on the ability of your body to detect and oppose these changes.
Maintenance of homeostasis usually involves negative feedback loops. These loops act to
oppose the stimulus, or cue, that triggers them. For example, if your body temperature is too
high, a negative feedback loop will act to bring it back down towards the set point, or target
value, of 98.6℉/37.0℃.
How does this work? First, high temperature will be detected by sensors—primarily nerve cells
with endings in your skin and brain—and relayed to a temperature-regulatory control center in
your brain. The control center will process the information and activate effectors—such as the
sweat glands—whose job is to oppose the stimulus by bringing body temperature down.
Of course, body temperature doesn't just swing above its target value—it can also drop below
this value. In general, homeostatic circuits usually involve at least two negative feedback loops:
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 One is activated when a parameter—like body temperature—is above the set point and
is designed to bring it back down.
 One is activated when the parameter is below the set point and is designed to bring it
back up.
To make this idea more concrete, let's take a closer look at the opposing feedback loops that
control body temperature.
Homeostatic Responses in Temperature Regulation
If you get either too hot or too cold, sensors in the periphery and the brain tell the temperature
regulation center of your brain—in a region called the hypothalamus—that your temperature
has strayed from its set point.
For instance, if you’ve been exercising hard, your body temperature can rise above its set point,
and you’ll need to activate mechanisms that cool you down. Blood flow to your skin increases to
speed up heat loss into your surroundings, and you might also start sweating so the evaporation
of sweat from your skin can help you cool off. Heavy breathing can also increase heat loss.
On the other hand, if you’re sitting in a

cold room and aren’t dressed warmly, the
temperature center in the brain will need
to trigger responses that help warm you
up. The blood flow to your skin decreases,
and you might start shivering so that your
muscles generate more heat. You may also
get goose bumps—so that the hair on your
body stands on end and traps a layer of air
near your skin—and increase the release
of hormones that act to increase heat
production.
Notably, the set point is not always rigidly fixed and may be a moving target. For instance, body
temperature varies over a 24-hour period, from highest in the late afternoon to lowest in the
early morning. Fever also involves a temporary increase in the temperature set point so that
heat-generating responses are activated at temperatures higher than the normal set point.
Disruptions to Feedback Disrupt Homeostasis
Homeostasis depends on negative feedback loops. So, anything that interferes with the feedback
mechanisms can—and usually will!—disrupt homeostasis. In the case of the human body, this
may lead to disease.
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Diabetes, for example, is a disease caused by a broken feedback loop involving the hormone
insulin. The broken feedback loop makes it difficult or impossible for the body to bring high blood
sugar down to a healthy level.
To appreciate how diabetes occurs, let's take a quick look at the basics of blood sugar regulation.
In a healthy person, blood sugar levels are controlled by two hormones: insulin and glucagon.
Insulin decreases the concentration of glucose in

the blood. After you eat a meal, your blood
glucose levels rise, triggering the secretion of
insulin from β cells in the pancreas. Insulin acts
as a signal that triggers cells of the body, such as
fat and muscle cells, to take up glucose for use
as fuel. Insulin also causes glucose to be converted
into glycogen—a storage molecule—in the liver.
Both processes pull sugar out of the blood,
bringing blood sugar levels down, reducing insulin
secretion, and returning the whole system to
homeostasis.
Glucagon does the opposite: it increases the

concentration of glucose in the blood. If you
haven’t eaten for a while, your blood glucose
levels fall, triggering the release of glucagon
from another group of pancreatic cells, the α
cells. Glucagon acts on the liver, causing glycogen to be broken down into glucose and released
into the bloodstream, causing blood sugar levels to go back up. This reduces glucagon secretion
and brings the system back to homeostasis.
Diabetes happens when a person's pancreas can't make enough insulin, or when cells in the body
stop responding to insulin, or both. Under these conditions, body cells don't take up glucose
readily, so blood sugar levels remain high for a long period of time after a meal. This is for two
reasons:
 Muscle and fat cells don't get enough glucose, or fuel. This can make people feel tired and
even cause muscle and fat tissues to waste away.
 High blood sugar causes symptoms like increased urination, thirst, and even dehydration.
Over time, it can lead to more serious complications.
Positive Feedback Loops
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Homeostatic circuits usually involve negative feedback loops. The hallmark of a negative
feedback loop is that it counteracts a change, bringing the value of a parameter—such as
temperature or blood sugar—back towards it set point.
Some biological systems, however, use positive feedback loops. Unlike negative feedback loops,
positive feedback loops amplify the starting signal. Positive feedback loops are usually found in
processes that need to be pushed to completion, not when the status quo needs to be
maintained.
A positive feedback loop comes into play during childbirth. In childbirth, the baby's head presses
on the cervix—the bottom of the uterus, through which the baby must emerge—and activates
neurons to the brain. The neurons send a signal that leads to release of the hormone oxytocin
from the pituitary gland.
Oxytocin increases uterine contractions, and thus pressure on the cervix. This causes the release
of even more oxytocin and produces even stronger contractions. This positive feedback loop
continues until the baby is born.
F. TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN

1. Directional Terms
Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or
locations in the body.
a) Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is
part of the superior extremity).
b) Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior
extremity).
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c) Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the
leg).
d) Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior
side of the body).
e) Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the
medial side of the foot).
f) Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the
lateral side of the foot).
g) Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the
proximal end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone).
h) Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example,
the hand is located at the distal end of the forearm).
2. Planes/Sections
a) Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body
or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions.
b) Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the
body or any of its parts into right and left sides.
c) Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane;
divides the body or any of its parts into upper and
lower parts.
d) Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of
the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right
and left halves.
3. Body Regions
The entire human body is divided into regions, an approach called regional anatomy. Each
main area (head, neck, thorax, abdomen, upper, and lower extremities) are divided into
several smaller regions that aid compartmentalization.
a) Head regions
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Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, auricular,

orbital, infraorbital, buccal, parotid, zygomatic,
nasal, oral, and mental regions
b) Neck regions
Submandibular, submental, carotid, muscular, lesser
supraclavicular, occipital, omoclavicular,
suboccipital triangles/regions
c) Posterior trunk regions
Deltoid, suprascapular, interscapular, scapular,
infrascapular, vertebral, lumbrar, sacral, gluteal, and
anal regions
d) Anterior trunk regions (thorax and abdomen)
Presternal, pectoral, inframammary, hypochondriac,
epigastric, lumbar, inguinal, umbilical, and pubic
regions
e) Upper limb regions
Infraclavicular, clavipectoral, axillary, deltoid, scapular, anterior arm, posterior arm,
anterior forearm, posterior forearm, anterior cubital, posterior cubital, anterior
carpal, posterior carpal, palm of hand, dorsum of hand
f) Lower limb regions
Femoral, anterior thigh, posterior thigh, anterior knee, posterior knee, anterior leg
region, posterior leg region, calcaneal, retromalleolar, dorsum of foot, and sole of foot
regions.
4. Body Cavities
The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain the internal organs, or viscera. The two main
cavities are called the ventral and dorsal cavities. The ventral is the larger cavity and is
subdivided into two parts (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) by the diaphragm, a
dome-shaped respiratory muscle.
a) Thoracic cavity
The upper ventral, thoracic, or chest cavity contains the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus,
large blood vessels, and nerves. The thoracic cavity is bound laterally by the ribs (covered
by costal pleura) and the diaphragm caudally (covered by diaphragmatic pleura).
b) Abdominal and pelvic cavity
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The lower part of the ventral

(abdominopelvic) cavity can be further
divided into two portions: abdominal
portion and pelvic portion. The abdominal
cavity contains most of the gastrointestinal
tract as well as the kidneys and adrenal
glands. The abdominal cavity is bound
cranially by the diaphragm, laterally by the body
wall, and caudally by the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity contains most of the urogenital
system as well as the rectum. The pelvic cavity is bounded cranially by the abdominal
cavity, dorsally by the sacrum, and laterally by the pelvis.
c) Dorsal cavity
The smaller of the two main cavities is called the dorsal cavity. As its name implies, it
contains organs lying more posterior in the body. The dorsal cavity, again, can be divided
into two portions. The upper portion, or the cranial cavity, houses the brain, and the lower
portion, or vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.
5. Serous Membranes
The pleura, pericardium and peritoneum are serous membranes. This section explains the terms
'serous membrane', 'serosa', 'mesothelium', which are often used in close relation with each
other.
Serous membranes are membranes lining closed internal body cavities. The pleura, pericardium
and peritoneum are serous membranes that line respectively the pleural, pericardial and
peritoneal cavities.
Serous membranes secrete a slight amount of lubricating fluid. This allows the layers of the
pleura, pericardium and peritoneum to move in relation to each other, and hence provides a
certain amount of mobility to the ensheathed organs (resp. lung, heart, intestine). The secreted
fluid is called serous fluid. A serous fluid is a watery fluid, resembling (blood-)serum. This also
explains the name 'serous membrane'.
Serous membranes consist of a single layer of epithelium, named mesothelium, attached to a

supporting layer of connective tissue, with a small layer in between, the basal membrane.
Epithelia are covering tissues. The type of epithelium that lines the internal body cavities, is called
mesothelium. It is the mesothelium that secretes the lubricating fluid.
The largest part of the gut tube is unsheathed in peritoneum. Histologically, this can be seen as
a layer on the outside of the gut. In histology this layer is called serosa after serous membrane.
Serosa thus is the same as visceral peritoneum.
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SELF-CHECK Anatomy and Physiology
Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
Multiple Choice. Write your letter of your choice on the space provided. Write capital letter
only.
1. These are covering tissues.
A. Epithelia B. Mesothelium C. Pleura
2. Transverse Plane is also known as:
A. Transverse Plane B. Sagittal Plane C. Axial Plane
3. Away from the midline of the body is also known as:
A. Medial B. Lateral C. Dorsal
4. It increases the concentration of glucose in the blood.
A. Glucagon B. Insulin C. Somatostatin
5. It happens when a person's pancreas can't make enough insulin, or when cells in the body
stop responding to insulin, or both.
A. Diabetes B. Hypertension C. Asthma
6. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called?
A. Negative Feedback B. Homeostatis C. Positive Feedback
7. It is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or external environments and
reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a stimulus and responding to it.
A. Organization B. Metabolism C. Responsiveness
8. It refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or through
an increase in the size of each individual cell.
A. Development B. Metabolism C. Growth
9. It is a single individual, or being.
A. Organism B. Organ system C. Tissues
10. This focuses on the computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological
systems.
A. Anatomy B. Physiology C. System Physiology
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ANSWER KEY Anatomy and Physiology

1. A
2. C
3. B
4. A
5. A
6. B
7. C
8. C
9. A
10. C
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TASK SHEET The Organ System

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
TASK SHEET
Title: The Organ System
Performance Objective: Given the knowledge that you have, You should be able to
draw the organ system of your choice with label
Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, bon paper, pencil, etc…
Equipment: working Table, Computer with internet.
Steps/Procedure:
1. Choose the organ system of your choice.
2. Draw the organ system and label its parts
3. Make sure that you draw it clear.
4. Make it more colorful and interesting
5. Present your work with your Trainer
6. Discuss it in class.
Assessment Method:
Assessment using the Performance Criteria Checklist
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PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CHECKLIST
CRITERIA
Did you … YES NO
1. Choose the organ system of your choice.
2. Draw the organ system and label its parts
3. Make sure that you draw it clear.
4. Make it more colorful and interesting
5. Present your work with your Trainer
6. Discuss your portfolio in class.
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INFORMATION SHEET
CELLS, TISSUES, GLANDS & MEMBRANES
Learning Objectives
1. Define cell and explain its different functions in the body and its structural properties
2. Discuss the process of Cell cycle
A. CELLS
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions of
cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients
into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the body’s hereditary material
and can make copies of themselves.
Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these parts, called organelles, are
specialized structures that perform certain tasks within the cell. Human cells contain the
following major parts, listed in alphabetical order:
1. Cell Structure and Function

a) Cytoplasm
Within cells, the cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like fluid (called the cytosol) and other
structures that surround the nucleus.
b) Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of long fibers that make up the cell’s structural
framework. The cytoskeleton has several critical functions, including determining cell
shape, participating in cell division, and allowing cells to move. It also provides a track-
like system that directs the movement of organelles and other substances within cells.
c) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

This organelle helps process molecules created by the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum
also transports these molecules to their specific destinations either inside or outside
the cell.
d) Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus packages molecules processed by the endoplasmic reticulum to
be transported out of the cell.
e) Lysosomes and peroxisomes

These organelles are the recycling center of the cell. They digest foreign bacteria that
invade the cell, rid the cell of toxic substances, and recycle worn-out cell components.
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f) Mitochondria
Mitochondria are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form that
the cell can use. They have their own genetic material, separate from the DNA in the
nucleus, and can make copies of themselves.
g) Nucleus
The nucleus serves as the cell’s command center, sending directions to the cell to
grow, mature, divide, or die. It also houses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the cell’s
hereditary material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear
envelope, which protects the DNA and separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell.
h) Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell. It separates the cell from its
environment and allows materials to enter and leave the cell.
i) Ribosomes
Ribosomes are organelles that process the cell’s
genetic instructions to create proteins. These
organelles can float freely in the cytoplasm or be
connected to the endoplasmic reticulum
2. Whole Cell Activity

A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the types of proteins it produces. The
proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic information in the nucleus. In order to
understand how a cell functions, we must consider the relationship between genes and proteins.
For example, the transport of many food molecules into the cell requires cell membrane proteins.
Amino acids are assembled to synthesize proteins, including the transport proteins of the cell
membrane. Information contained in DNA
within the nucleus determines which amino
acids are combined at ribosomes to form
proteins. As you learned in the beginning, the
human body is composed of trillions of cells,
with many different characteristics\. Each
human begins life as a single cell. Through cell
division and cell differentiation, the cells that
make up the human body are formed. The
following sections illustrate the whole-cell
activities that determine the characteristics of a
functioning cell and the growth and
maintenance of the human body.
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Gene Expression
DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis. This process is called gene
expression. The proteins produced in a cell include those that serve as structural components
inside the cell, proteins secreted to the outside of the cell, and enzymes that regulate chemical
reactions in the cell. DNA influences the structural and functional characteristics of the entire
organism because it directs protein synthesis. Whether an individual has blue eyes, brown hair,
or other inherited traits is determined ultimately by DNA.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide strands. The
two strands are connected and resemble a
ladder that is twisted around its long axis. The
nucleotides function as chemical “letters” that
form chemical “words.” A gene is a sequence of
nucleotides (making a word) that provides a
chemical set of instructions for making a specific
protein. Each DNA molecule contains many
different genes.
Recall that proteins consist of amino acids. The

unique structural and functional characteristics
of different proteins are determined by the
kinds, numbers, and arrangement of their amino
acids. The nucleotide sequence of a gene deter-mines the amino acid sequence of a specific
protein.
Gene expression involves two steps—transcription and translation. This process can be
illustrated with an analogy. Suppose a chef wants a cake recipe that is found only in a cookbook
in the library. Because the book cannot be checked out, the chef makes a copy, or transcription,
of the recipe. Later in the kitchen, the information contained in the copied recipe is used to make
the cake. The changing of something from one form to another (from recipe to cake) is called
translation.
In terms of this analogy, DNA (the cookbook) contains many genes (recipes) for making different
proteins (food items). DNA, however, is too large a molecule to pass through the nuclear pores
to the ribosomes (kitchen) where the proteins are made. Just as a book stays in the library, DNA
remains in the nucleus. Therefore, through transcription, the cell makes a copy of the gene
necessary to make a particular protein. The copy, which is called messengerRNA (mRNA), travels
from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where the information in the copy is used
to construct a protein by means of translation. Of course, the actual ingredients are needed to
turn a recipe into a cake. The ingredients necessary to synthesize a protein are amino acids.
Specialized molecules, called transfer RNAs (tRNAs), carry the amino acids to the ribosome.
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In summary, gene expression involves transcription

(making a copy of a gene) and translation (converting that
copied information into a protein). Next, we consider the
details of transcription and translation.
Transcription
The first step in gene expression, transcription, takes place

in the nucleus of the cell (figure 3.22, steps 1 and 2). DNA
determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
The double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA
nucleotides pair with RNA nucleotides (figure 3.23, steps
1 and 2). Each nucleotide of DNA contains one of the
following organic bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or
guanine; each nucleotide of mRNA contains uracil,
adenine, cytosine, or guanine. The number and sequence
of nucleotides in the DNA serve as a template to
determine the number and sequence of nucleotides in the
mRNA. DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA
nucleotides: DNA’s thymine with RNA’s adenine, DNA’s
adenine with RNA’s uracil, DNA’s cytosine with RNA’s
guanine, and DNA’s guanine with RNA’s cytosine.
After the DNA nucleotides pair up with the RNA

nucleotides, an enzyme catalyzes reactions that form
chemical bonds between the RNA
nucleotides to form a long mRNA
segment. Once the mRNA segment has
been transcribed, portions of the mRNA
molecule may be removed.
The information in mRNA is carried in

groups of three nucleotides called codons,
which specify a particular amino acid. For
example, the nucleotide sequence uracil,
cytosine, and adenine (UCA) specifies the
amino acid serine. There are 64 possible
mRNA codons, but only 20 amino acids. As
a result, more than 1 codon can specify
the same amino acid. For example, CGA, CGG, CGU, and CGC code for the amino acid arginine;
UUU and UUC code for phenylalanine. Some codons do not specify a particular amino acid but
perform other mRNA. The ribosome aligns the mRNA with tRNA molecules so that the anti-
23
codons of tRNA can pair with the appropriate codons on the mRNA. An enzyme associated with
the ribosome causes the formation of a peptide bond between the amino acids bound to the
tRNAs. The ribosome moves down the mRNA one codon at a time, releasing one of the tRNA and
allowing the next tRNA to move into position. As the process continues, a polypeptide chain is
formed. Translation ends when the ribosome reaches the stop codon on the mRNA. The
polypeptide chain is released and becomes folded to form the three-dimensional structure of the
protein molecule. A protein can consist of a single polypeptide chain or two or more polypeptide
chains that are joined after each chain is produced on a separate ribosome.
Cell Life Cycle
During growth and development, cell division allows

for a dramatic increase in cell number after
fertilization of an oocyte. The same process allows
for the replacement and repair of damaged tissue.
The cell life cycle includes two major phases: a non-
dividing phase, called interphase, and cell division. A
cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase
performing its normal functions. During interphase,
the DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s
nucleus) is replicated. The two strands of DNA
separate from each other, and each strand serves as
a template for the production of a new strand of DNA (figure 3.25). Nucleotides in the DNA of
each template strand pair with nucleotides that are subsequently joined by enzymes to form a
new strand of DNA. The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template determines the sequence
of nucleotides in the new strand of DNA because adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs
with guanine. The two new strands of DNA combine with the two template strands to form two
double strands of DNA.
At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of genetic material. The DNA is dispersed
throughout the nucleus as thin threads called chromatin
Cell division is the formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell. The new cells necessary
for growth and tissue repair are formed through mitosis (discussed next), and the sex cells
necessary for reproduction are formed through meiosis.
24
Each cell of the human body, except for sex cells, contains 46 chromosomes. Sex cells have half
the number of chromosomes as other cells (see “Meiosis”). The 46 chromosomes are the diploid
(dip′loyd) number of chromosomes and are organized to form 23 pairs of chromosomes. Of the
23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes, which consist of 2 X chromosomes if the person is a
female or an X chromosome and a Y chromosome if the person is a male. The remaining 22 pairs
of chromosomes are called autosomes\ (aw′tō-sōmz). The sex chromosomes determine the
individual’s sex, and the autosomes determine most other characteristics.
Mitosis
Most cells of the body, except those that give rise to sex cells, divide by mitosis (mı ̄-tō′sis). During
mitosis, a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells with the same amount and type of DNA
as the parent cell. Because DNA determines the structure and function of cells, the daughter cells,
which have the same DNA as the parent cell, can have the same structure and perform the same
functions as the parent cell.
For convenience, mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. Although each stage represents certain major events, the process of mitosis is
continuous. Learning each of the stages is helpful, but the most important concept to understand
is how each of the two cells produced by mitosis obtains the same number and type of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
 Prophase. During prophase (figure 3.26, step 2), the chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes. After interphase, each chromosome is made up of two genetically
identical strands of chromatin, called chromatids (krō′mă-tidz), which are linked at one
point by a specialized region called the centromere (sen′trō-mēr; kentron, center + meros,
part). Replication of the genetic material during interphase results in the two identical
chromatids of each chromosome. Also during prophase, microtubules called spindle
fibers extend from the centrioles to the centromeres (see figures 3.1 and 3.21). The
centrioles divide and migrate to each pole of the cell. In late prophase, the nucleolus and
nuclear envelope disappear.
 Metaphase. In metaphase (figure 3.26, step 3), the chromosomes align near the center
of the cell.
 Anaphase. At the beginning of anaphase (figure 3.26, step 4), the chromatids separate.
When this happens, each chromatid is then called a chromosome. At this point, two
identical sets of 46 chromosomes are present in the cell. Each of the two sets of 46
chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the poles of
the cell. At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole
of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
25
 Telophase. During telophase (tel′ō-fāz) (figure 3.26, step 5), the chromosomes in each of
the daughter cells become organized to form two separate nuclei. The chromosomes
begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced (figure 3.26, step 6).
Differentiation
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a

single cell, and a new individual begins. The
single cell formed during fertilization divides
by mitosis to form two cells, which divide to
form four cells, and so on. The trillions of cells
that ultimately make up the body of an adult,
as a result, stem from that single cell.
Therefore, all the cells in an individual’s body
contain the same amount and type of DNA.
But even though the genetic information
contained in cells is identical, not all cells look
and function alike. Bone cells, for example,
do not look like or function the same as
muscle cells, nerve cells, or red blood cells
(figure 3.27).
The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation. During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others are
inactive. The active and inactive sections of DNA differ with each cell type. For example, the
portion of DNA responsible for the structure and function of a bone cell is different from that
responsible for the structure and function
of a muscle cell. Differentiation, then,
results from the selective activation and
inactivation of segments of DNA. The
mechanisms that determine which
portions of DNA are active in any one cell
type are not fully understood, but the
resulting differentiation produces the
many cell types that function together to
make a person. Eventually, as cells differentiate and mature, the rate at which they divide slows
or even stops.
26
Apoptosis
Apoptosis (ăp′\op-tō′\sis), or programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and controlled. In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the developing fingers and toes. In some adult tissues,
apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant number of cells within the tissue.
Damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus-infected cells, and potential cancer cells are also
eliminated by apoptosis.
Apoptosis is regulated by specific genes. The proteins coded for by those genes initiate events
within the cell that ultimately lead to the cell’s death. As apoptosis begins, the chromatin within
the nucleus condenses and fragments. This is followed by fragmentation of the nucleus and
finally by death and fragmentation of the cell. Specialized cells called macrophages phagocytize
the cell fragments.
B. TISSUES
Basic Tissue Types
A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Epithelial tissue is composed of cells laid together in sheets with the cells tightly
connected to one another. Epithelial layers are avascular, but innervated.
 Epithelial cells have two surfaces that differ in both structure and function.
 Glands, such as exocrine and endocrine, are composed of epithelial tissue and classified
based on how their secretions are released.
Functions of the Epithelium
Epithelia tissue forms boundaries between different environments, and nearly all substances
must pass through the epithelium. In its role as an interface tissue, epithelium accomplishes
many functions, including:
1. Protection for the underlying tissues from radiation, desiccation, toxins, and physical
trauma.
2. Absorption of substances in the digestive tract lining with distinct modifications.
3. Regulation and excretion of chemicals between the underlying tissues and the body
cavity.
4. The secretion of hormones into the blood vascular system. The secretion of sweat, mucus,
enzymes, and other products that are delivered by ducts come from the glandular
epithelium.
5. The detection of sensation.
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Characteristics of Epithelial Layers
Epithelial tissue is composed of cells laid out in sheets with strong cell-to-cell attachments. These
protein connections hold the cells together to form a tightly connected layer that is avascular but
innervated in nature.
The epithelial cells are nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the underlying
connective tissue. One side of the epithelial cell is oriented towards the surface of the tissue,
body cavity, or external environment and the other surface is joined to a basement membrane.
The basement layer is non-cellular in nature and helps to cement the epithelial tissue to the
underlying structures.
Types of Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues are identified by both the number of layers and the shape of the cells in the
upper layers. There are eight basic types of epithelium: six of them are identified based on both
the number of cells and their shape; two of them are named by the type of cell (squamous) found
in them. Epithelial tissue is classified based on the number of cells, the shape of those cells, and
the types of those cells.
Most epithelial tissue is described with two names. The first name describes the number of cell
layers present and the second describes the shape of the cells. For example, simple squamous
epithelial tissue describes a single layer of cells that are flat and scale-like in shape.
1. Simple Epithelia
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells. They are typically where absorption,
secretion and filtration occur. The thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.
Simple epithelial tissues are generally classified by the shape of their cells. The four major
classes of simple epithelium are: 1) simple squamous; 2) simple cuboidal; 3) simple columnar;
and 4) pseudostratified.
2. Simple Squamous
Simple squamous epithelium cells are flat in shape and arranged in a single layer. This single
layer is thin enough to form a membrane that compounds can move through via passive
28
diffusion. This epithelial type is found in the walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardium,
and the linings of the alveoli of the lungs.
3. Simple Cuboidal
Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer cells that are as tall as they are wide. The
important functions of the simple cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption. This
epithelial type is found in the small collecting ducts of the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary
glands.
4. Simple Columnar
Simple columnar epithelium is a single row of tall, closely packed cells, aligned in a row. These
cells are found in areas with high secretory function (such as the wall of the stomach), or
absorptive areas (as in small intestine). They possess cellular extensions (e.g., microvilli in the
small intestine, or the cilia found almost exclusively in the female reproductive tract).
5. Pseudostratified
These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at different heights, giving the
misleading (hence pseudo) impression that the epithelium is stratified when the cells are
viewed in cross section.
Pseudostratified epithelium can also possess fine hair-like extensions of their apical (luminal)
membrane called cilia. In this case, the epithelium is described as ciliated pseudostratified
epithelium. Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the
uterus and fallopian tubes of females, where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.
6. Stratified Epithelium
Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium by being multilayered. It is therefore
found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insults.
Stratified epithelia are more durable and protection is one their major functions. Since
stratified epithelium consists of two or more layers, the basal cells divide and push towards
the apex, and in the process flatten the apical cells.
Stratified epithelia can be columnar, cuboidal, or squamous type. However, it can also have
the following specializations:
 Keratinized Epithelia
In keratinized epithelia, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are dead and lose their
nucleus and cytoplasm. They contain a tough, resistant protein called keratin. This
specialization makes the epithelium waterproof, and it is abundant in mammalian skin. The
lining of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or moist stratified epithelium.
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 Transitional Epithelia
Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch and it can appear to be stratified
cuboidal when the tissue is not stretched, or stratified squamous when the organ is distended
and the tissue stretches. It is sometimes called the urothelium since it is almost exclusively
found in the bladder, ureters, and urethra.
B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed of the primary tissues.
 Connective tissue has three main components: cells, fibers, and ground substance.
Together the ground substance and fibers make up the extracellular matrix.
 Connective tissue is classified into two subtypes: soft and specialized connective
tissue.
 Major functions of connective tissue include: 1) binding and supporting, 2) protecting,
3) insulating, 4) storing reserve fuel, and 5) transporting substances within the body.
 Connective tissues can have various levels of vascularity. Cartilage is avascular, while
dense connective tissue is poorly vascularized. Others, such as bone, are richly
supplied with blood vessels.
Connective tissue (CT) is a one of the four main classes of tissues. Although it is the most
abundant and widely distributed of the primary tissues, the amount of connective tissue in a
particular organ varies. Like to the timber framing of a house, the connective tissue provides
structure and support throughout the body.
Structure of Connective Tissue
Connective tissue has three main components:
 Ground substance
 Fibers
 Cells
Together the ground substance and fibers make up the
extracellular matrix. The composition of these three
elements vary tremendously from one organ to the other.
This offers great diversity in the types of connective tissue.
Ground substance is a clear, colorless, viscous fluid that fills the space between the cells and
fibers. It is composed of proteoglycans and cell adhesion proteins that allow the connective tissue
to act as glue for the cells to attach to the matrix. The ground substance functions as a molecular
sieve for substances to travel between blood capillaries and cells.
Connective tissue fibers provide support. Three types of fibers are found in connective tissue:
 Collagen
30
 Elastic fibers
 Reticular fibers
Collagen Fibers
Collagen fibers are fibrous proteins and are secreted into the
extracellular space and they provide high tensile strength to the
matrix.
Elastic Fibers
Elastic fibers are long, thin fibers that form branching network in the
extracellular matrix. They help the connective tissue to stretch and
recoil.
Reticular Fibers
Reticular fibers are short, fine collagenous fibers that can branch extensively to form a delicate
network.
Function of Connective Tissue
The major functions of connective tissue include:
 Binding and supporting.

 Protecting.
 Insulating.
 Storing reserve fuel.
 Transporting substances within the body.
Types of Connective Tissue
Connective tissues encompass a diverse array of tissue types that are involved in binding and
supporting body structure and tissues.
Connective tissue is divided into four main categories:
1. Connective proper
2. Cartilage
3. Bone
4. Blood
Connective tissue proper has two subclasses: loose and dense. Loose connective tissue is divided
into 1) areolar, 2) adipose, 3) reticular. Dense connective tissue is divided into 1) dense regular,
2) dense irregular, 3) elastic.
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Loose Connective Tissue
1. Areolar Connective Tissue

These tissues are widely distributed and serve as a universal packing material between
other tissues. The functions of areolar connective tissue include the support and binding
of other tissues.
It also helps in defending against infection. When a body region is inflamed, the areolar
tissue in the area soaks up the excess fluid as a sponge and the affected area swells and
becomes puffy, a condition called edema.
2. Adipose Tissue or Body Fat

This is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is
technically composed of roughly only 80% fat. Its main role is to store
energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates
the body.
The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT) and
brown adipose tissue (BAT). Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, referred to as
adipose depots.
3. Reticular Connective Tissue

This tissue resembles areolar connective tissue, but the only fibers in its matrix are the
reticular fibers, which form a delicate network. The reticular tissue is limited to certain
sites in the body, such as internal frameworks that can support lymph nodes, spleen, and
bone marrow.
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Dense Regular Connective Tissue

This consists of closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction.
These collagen fibers are slightly wavy and can stretch a little bit.
With the tensile strength of collagen, this tissue forms tendons, aponeurosis and
ligaments. This tissue forms the fascia, which is a fibrous membrane that wraps around
the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.
2. Dense Irregular Tissue

This has the same structural elements as dense regular tissue, but the bundles of collagen
fibers are much thicker and arranged irregularly. This tissue is found in areas where
tension is exerted from many different directions. It is part of the skin dermis area and in
the joint capsules of the limbs.
32
3. Elastic Connective Tissue

The main fibers that form this tissue are elastic in nature. These fibers allow the tissues
to recoil after stretching. This is especially seen in the arterial blood vessels and walls of
the bronchial tubes.
Cartilage
This is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other
animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee,
the ankle, the bronchial tubes, and the intervertebral discs.
Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called chondroblasts and, unlike other connective
tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels. Cartilage is classified in three types: 1) elastic
cartilage, 2) hyaline cartilage, and 3) fibrocartilage, which differ in the relative amounts of these
three main components.
1. Elastic Cartilage
This is similar to hyaline cartilage but is more elastic in nature. Its function is to maintain
the shape of the structure while allowing flexibility. It is found in the external ear (known
as an auricle) and in the epiglottis.
2. Hyaline Cartilage
This is the most abundant of all cartilage in the body. Its matrix appears transparent or
glassy when viewed under a microscope. It provides strong support while providing pads
for shock absorption. It is a major part of the embryonic skeleton, the costal cartilages of
the ribs, and the cartilage of the nose, trachea, and larynx.
3. Fibrocartilage
This is a blend of hyaline cartilage and dense regular connective tissue. Because it is
compressible and resists tension well, fibrocartilage is found where strong support and
the ability to withstand heavy pressure are required. It is found in the intervertebral discs
of the bony vertebrae and knee meniscus.
Bone tissue is also called the osseous tissue. The osseous tissue is relatively hard and
lightweight in nature. It is mostly formed of calcium phosphate in the chemical
arrangement termed calcium hydroxyapatite, which gives bones their rigidity. It has
relatively high compressive strength, but poor tensile strength, and very low shear stress
strength.
The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due to its
minimal gaps and spaces. Its porosity is 5–30%. This tissue gives bones their smooth,
white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult
skeleton.
33
Filling the interior of the bone is the trabecular bone tissue (an open cell porous network
also called cancellous or spongy bone), which is composed of a network of rod and plate-
like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and
marrow.
Blood
This is considered a specialized form of connective tissue. Blood is a bodily fluid in animals
that delivers necessary substances, such as nutrients and oxygen, to the cells and
transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.
It is an atypical connective tissue since it does not bind, connect, or network with any
body cells. It is made up of blood cells and is surrounded by a nonliving fluid called plasma.
C. MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle is a soft tissue that is highly specialized for the production of tension which results in the
generation of force. Muscle cells, or myocytes, contain myofibrils comprised of actin and myosin
myofilaments which slide past each other producing tension that changes the shape of the
myocyte. Numerous myocytes make up muscle tissue and the controlled production of tension
in these cells can generate significant force.
Types of Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue can be classified functionally, voluntary or involuntary and morphologically striated
or non-striated. Voluntary refers to whether the muscle is under conscious control, striation
refers to the presence of visible banding within myocytes which occurs due to organization of
myofibrils to produce a constant direction of tension.
By applying the above classifications, it is possible to describe three forms of muscle tissue which
perform the wide range of functions described.
1. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle mainly attaches to the skeletal system via tendons to maintain posture
and control movement for example contraction of the biceps muscle, attached to the
scapula and radius, will raise the forearm. Some skeletal muscle can attach directly to
other muscles or the skin, as seen in the face where numerous muscles control facial
expression.
Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, although this can be subconscious for example
when maintaining posture or balance. Morphologically skeletal myocytes are elongated
and tubular and appear striated with multiple peripheral nuclei.
34
2. Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart where cardiac contractions pump blood
throughout the body and maintain blood pressure
As with skeletal muscle cardiac muscle is striated, however it is not consciously controlled
and so is involuntary. Cardiac muscle can be further differentiated from skeletal muscle
by the presence of intercalated discs which control the synchronized contraction of
cardiac tissues. Cardiac myocytes are shorter than skeletal equivalents and contain only
one or two centrally located nuclei.
3. Smooth Muscle Tissue

Smooth muscle tissue is found associated with numerous other organs and tissue systems
such as the digestive system or respiratory system. It plays an important role in the
regulation of flow in such tissues for example aiding the movement of food through the
digestive system via peristalsis.
Smooth muscle is non-striated, although it contains the same myofilaments they are just
organized differently, and involuntary. Smooth muscle myocytes are spindle shaped with
a single centrally located nucleus.
D. NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous tissue is one of four major classes of tissues. It is specialized tissue found in the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. It consists of neurons and supporting cells
called neuroglia.
The nervous system is responsible for the control of the body and the communication among its
parts. Nervous tissue contains two categories of cells—neurons and neuroglia.
Neurons
Neurons are highly specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses. A typical
neuron consists of dendrites, the cell body, and an axon.
35
Dendrites
Dendrites are responsible for responding to stimuli; they

receive incoming signals towards the cell body. The axons are
responsible for transmitting impulses over long distances from
cell body. The cell body is like a factory for the neuron. It
produces all the proteins and contains specialized organelles
such as nucleus, granules and Nissl bodies.
Dendrite
The axon is surrounded by a whitish, fatty layer called the myelin sheath. Outside the myelin
sheath there is a cellular layer called the neurilemma.
Schwann Cells
In the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells are neuroglia cells that
support neuronal function by increasing the speed of impulse propagation.
The Schwann cells are underlain by the medullary sheath. The medullary
sheath is interrupted at intervals by the nodes of Ranvier.
Types of Nervous Tissue
The nervous system consists of nervous tissue, which is composed of two principal types of cells
called neuron and neuroglia.
1. Neuroglia
There are six types of neuroglia—four in the central nervous system and two in the PNS.
These glial cells are involved in many specialized functions apart from support of the
neurons. Neuroglia in the CNS include astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells and
oligodendrocytes. In the PNS, satellite cells and Schwann cells are the two kinds of
neuroglia.
Astrocytes
Astrocytes are shaped like a star and are the most abundant glial cell in the CNS. They
have many radiating processes which help in clinging to the neurons and capillaries. They
support and brace the neurons and anchor them to the nutrient supply lines. They also
help in the guiding the migration of young neurons. Astrocytes control the chemical
environment around the neurons.
Microglial Cells
Microglial cells are small and ovoid un shape with thorny processes. They are found in the
CNS. When invading microorganism or dead neurons are present, the microglial cells can
transform into a phagocytic macrophage and help in cleaning the neuronal debris.
36
Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells are ciliated and line the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord where
they form a fairly permeable barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid that fills these
cavities and the tissue cells of the CNS.
Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes line up along the nerves and produce an insulating cover called myelin
sheath. They are found in the CNS.
Satellite Cells
Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). They
are analogous to the astrocytes in the CNS.
Schwann Cells
Schwann cells surround all nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system and form myelin
sheaths around the nerve fibers. They are found in the PNS. Their function is similar to
oligodendrocytes.
2. Neurons
Neurons consist of cell body and one or more slender processes. The neuronal cell body
consists of a nucleus and rough endoplasmic reticulum or Nissl Bodies. The cell body is
the major biosynthetic center of a neuron and contains the usual organelles for the
synthesis of proteins and other chemicals. Arm like processes extend from the cell body
to all neurons.
The two types of neuron processes are called dendrites and axons. Dendrites are motor
neurons that are short and have a large surface area for receiving signals from other
neurons. Dendrites convey incoming messages towards the cell body and are therefore
called the receptive input region.
The axon arises from the cone shaped portion of the cell body called the axon hillock.
Functionally, the axon is the conducting region of the neuron and is responsible for
generating and transmitting impulses typically away from the cell body. A single axon
routes the nerve impulse from the cell body to another neuron or an effector organ. The
axon can have many terminal branches, so each time the nerve fires, it can stimulate more
than one cell.
E. MEMBRANES
 The mucous membranes are linings of ectodermal origin. It consists of an epithelium layer
and an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue.
 The mucus membranes are involved in absorption and secretion.
37
 Most mucosal membranes contain stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelial

tissue types.
 Submucosal exocrine glands secrete mucus to facilitate the movement of particles along
the body’s various tubes, such as the throat and the intestines.
The mucous membranes are linings of ectodermal origin. It consists of an epithelium layer and
an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue. These mucus membranes are involved
in absorption and secretion. They line cavities that are exposed to the external environment and
internal organs. These membranes exist in the hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory, and
urogenital tracts.
The term “mucous membrane” refers to where they are found in the body; not every mucous
membrane secretes mucus. Secreted mucous traps the pathogens in the body, preventing any
further progression of microbes.
Most mucous membranes contain stratified

squamous or simple columnar epithelial tissue.
The epithelial tissue sheet lies directly over the
layer of loose connective tissue called lamina
propria. In some mucosa, the lamina propria rests
on a deeper, third layer of smooth muscle.
The submucosa is the tissue that connects the

mucosa to the muscle outside the tube.
Submucosal glands consist of exocrine glands that
secrete mucus. These glands excrete mucus to facilitate the movement of particles along the
body’s various tubes, such as the throat and intestines. The submucosal glands are a companion
to unicellular goblet cells, which also produce mucus, and are found lining the same tubes.
Synovial Membrane
The synovial membrane (or synovium) is the connective tissue which lines the inner surface of
the capsule of a synovial joint and secretes synovial fluid which serves a lubricating function,
allowing joint surfaces to smoothly move across each other.
The morphology of synovial membranes may vary, but it often consists of two layers. The outer
lay layer, or subintima, is a thicker and fibrous protecting the single cell initma layer which is
composed of synoviocytes.
Synoviocytes
The intimal cells are termed synoviocytes and are of two types: fibroblastic (type B) and
macrophagic (type A). It is the lack of epithelial cells within the initma which defines the synovial
membrane as connective rather than epithelial.
38
The type B synoviocytes manufacture a long-chain sugar polymer called hyaluronan, which makes
the synovial fluid together with a molecule called lubricin, which lubricates the joint surfaces. The
water component of synovial fluid is effectively trapped in the joint space by the hyaluronan, due
to its large, highly negatively charged moeties.
The type A synoviocytes are responsible for the removal of undesirable substances from the
synovial fluid.
Structure of Synovium
The surface of synovium may be flat or may be covered with finger-like

projections (villi), to allow the soft tissue to change shape as the joint
surfaces move on one another.
Just beneath the intima, most synovium has a dense net of small blood
vessels that provide nutrients, not only for synovium, but also for the
avascular cartilage. In any one position, much of the cartilage is close
enough to get nutrition directly from the synovium.
Meninges
The meninges are the system of membranes that envelopes the central nervous system. In
mammals, the meninges consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the
pia mater. The primary function of the meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the
central nervous system.
Dura Mater
The dura mater is a thick, durable membrane which lies closest to the skull. It consists of two
layers, the periosteal layer which lies closest to the calvaria, and the inner meningeal layer which
lies closer to the brain. It is composed of dense fibrous tissue, and its inner surface is covered by
flattened cells like those present on the surfaces of the pia mater and arachnoid.
Arachnoid Mater
The middle layer of the meninges is the arachnoid mater, so named because of its spider web-
like appearance. It provides a cushioning effect for the central nervous system. The arachnoid
mater is a thin, transparent membrane composed of fibrous tissue and, like the pia mater, is
covered by flat cells also thought to be impermeable to fluid.
Pia Mater
39
The pia mater is the innermost layer of the meninges. It firmly adheres
to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, following the brain’s minor
contours. As such it is a very thin, delicate membrane composed of
fibrous tissue covered on its outer surface by a sheet of flat cells
thought to be impermeable to fluid.
The subarachnoid space is the space that normally exists between the
arachnoid and the pia mater, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Normally, the dura mater is attached to the skull or to the bones of
the vertebral canal in the spinal cord. The arachnoid is attached to the
dura mater, while the pia mater is attached to the central nervous system tissue.
F. INFLAMMATION
Inflammation happens in everyone, whether you’re aware of it or not. Your immune system
creates inflammation to protect the body from infection, injury, or disease. There are many
things you wouldn’t be able to heal from without inflammation.
Sometimes with autoimmune diseases, like certain types of arthritis and inflammatory bowel
disease, your immune system attacks healthy cells.
Inflammation is classified into two main types:
 Acute inflammation usually occurs for a short (yet often severe) duration. It often
resolves in two weeks or less. Symptoms appear quickly. This type restores your body to
its state before injury or illness.
 Chronic inflammation is as lower and generally less severe form of inflammation. It
typically lasts longer than six weeks. It can occur even when there’s no injury, and it
doesn’t always end when the illness or injury is healed. Chronic inflammation has been
linked to autoimmune disorders and even prolonged stress.
G. TISSUE REPAIR
Wound Healing
Wound healing is the process by which the skin, or any injured organ, repairs itself after injury.
The main aim of wound healing is to prevent or limit further damage, to clean and seal the wound
against infection, to restore tissue strength, and, if possible, tissue function.
Wounds in the skin can either be classed as epidermal (shallow, in which the dermis remains
intact) or deep (in which the dermis is damaged; this is sometimes referred to as a full thickness
wound)
40
Phases of the Wound Healing Process
The wound healing process can be characterized by four overlapping phases:
 An initial response to maintain homoeostasis.

 An inflammatory response to prevent infection.
 A proliferative phase to reconstitute the wound site.
 A remodelling phase where tissue strength and function are restored.
Epidermal Wound Healing
Epidermal wound healing refers to the repair of the epidermis in response to wounding.
Epidermal only wounds are typically less severe than those affecting the dermis and so stages of
the wound healing response may be missed.
As the epidermis is itself not vascularised—it is receiving blood from the dermis—a clotting and
vasoconstrictive response is often not necessary. Immune cells may still be recruited to the
wound site because the removal of the epidermal barrier makes the wound susceptible to
infection.
Since the dermis is intact, local fibroblasts are able to contribute to the formation of a new
basement membrane, upon which the epidermis sits. In very minor wounds even the basement
membrane might remain intact, allowing for rapid re-epithelialization.
Keratinocytes—epidermal epithelial cells—around the wound site migrate across the wound and
close it. Additionally, epidermal cells from dermal appendages, such as hair follicles, can
contribute to wound closure.
Since the dermis and underlying tissue have not been damaged very little remodelling is required.
As such, small wounds only in the epidermis typically heal rapidly and are often not observable
(e.g., via the formation of scar tissue) within a period of months.
Deep Wound Healing
Deep wounds that damage the dermis, or even the underlying muscle and fat, are more difficult
to heal than shallow, epidermal-only wounds. The wound healing processes may be extended
and scar tissue is likely to form due to improper re-epithelialization.
Additionally, deep wounds are more susceptible to infection, and also to the development of
systemic infection through the circulatory system, as well as dysregulation that results in chronic
wounds such as ulcers.
The wound healing process for deep wounds is similar to that of shallow wounds. However, with
the removal of the dermis and its associated skin appendages, re-epithelialization can only occur
from the wound edge, with no contribution from the dermal compartment.
41
Therefore, proper reconstitution of the epidermis is often only seen at the edge of the wound,
with fibrous scar tissue—formed from the extracellular matrix (ECM) deposited during the
proliferative phase—covering the rest of the wound site.
With the formation of a scar, the original physiological properties of the tissue are lost. For
example scars are less flexible than skin, and do not feature sweat glands or hair follicles.
The ECM formed during wound healing may also be weaker in deep wounds, making the site
susceptible to additional later wounding. The provisional ECM laid down during the proliferative
phase is rich in fibronectin and collagen III that combine to allow quicker cell movement through
the wound, which is very important during wound healing.
However, the ECM of mature skin is rich in collagen I. In large, deep wounds the remodelling of
a fibronectin and collagen III-rich ECM to a collagen-I rich ECM may not occur, leading to a
weakening of the tissue.
42
SELF- CHECK CELLS, TISSUES, GLANDS & MEMBRANES

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
1. It refers to the repair of the epidermis in response to wounding.

A. Epidermal wound healing B. Deep wound healing C. Wound healing
2. It is as lower and generally less severe form of inflammation.
A. Acute Inflammation B. Chronic inflammation C. Inflammation
3. It is the process by which the skin, or any injured organ, repairs itself after injury.
A. Epidermal wound Healing B. Deep wound healing C. Wound healing
4. These are responsible for the removal of undesirable substances from the synovial fluid.
A. Type A synoviocytes B. Type B syoviocyte C. Synoviocytes
5. These are the system of membranes that envelopes the central nervous system.
A. Meninges B. Dura mater C. Sub dura mater
6. These are motor neurons that are short and have a large surface area for receiving signals
from other neurons.
A. Axon B. Cell body C. Dendrites
7. These are shaped like a star and are the most abundant glial cell in the CNS.
A. Astrocytes B. Microglial cells C. Neuron
8. It is found only in the heart where cardiac contractions pump blood throughout the body
and maintain blood pressure.
A. Smooth muscle B. Cardiac muscle C. Skeletal muscle
9. This is the most abundant of all cartilage in the body.
A. Fibro cartilage B. Hyaline cartilage C. Elastic cartilage
10. This is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes.
A. Adipose tissue B. Areolar tissue C. Reticular tissue
43
ANSWER KEY CELLS, TISSUES, GLANDS & MEMBRANES
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. B
10. A
44
TASK SHEET The connective Tissue

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
TASK SHEET
Title: The connective Tissue
draw the different connective tissue and its functions to
our body
Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, bond paper, pencil, etc…
Steps/Procedure:
1. Draw the different connective tissue
2. Label it with its functions
3. Make your work more colorful and artistic
4. Present your work to your trainer
Assessment Method:
45
CRITERIA
Did you … YES NO
1. Draw the different connective tissue
46
Information Sheet
The Respiratory System
Objectives:
1. Describe and discuss the parts and functions of respiratory system
2. Understand the gas exchange
A. ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The cells of the human body require a constant stream of oxygen to stay alive. The respiratory
system provides oxygen to the body’s cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that
can be lethal if allowed to accumulate. There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the
airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The airway, which includes the nose, mouth,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body’s
exterior. The lungs act as the functional units of the respiratory system by passing oxygen into
the body and carbon dioxide out of the body. Finally, the muscles of respiration, including the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles, work together to act as a pump, pushing air into and out of
the lungs during breathing.
1. Nose and Nasal Cavities

 The nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening for
the respiratory system and are the first section of the body’s
airway—the respiratory tract through which air moves.
 The nose is a structure of the face made of cartilage, bone,
muscle, and skin that supports and protects the anterior
portion of the nasal cavity.
 The nasal cavity is a hollow space within the nose and skull
that is lined with hairs and mucus membrane.
 The function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisturize, and
filter air entering the body before it reaches the lungs. Hairs and
mucus lining the nasal cavity help to trap dust, mold, pollen and
other environmental contaminants before they can reach the
inner portions of the body. Air exiting the body through the nose returns moisture and
heat to the nasal cavity before being exhaled into the environment.
2. Pharynx
 The pharynx, also known as the throat, is a muscular funnel that extends from the
posterior end of the nasal cavity to the superior end of the esophagus and larynx.
 The pharynx is divided into 3 regions: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx.
 The nasopharynx is the superior region of the pharynx found in the posterior of the nasal
cavity.
47
 Inhaled air from the nasal cavity passes into the nasopharynx and descends through the
oropharynx, located in the posterior of the oral cavity.
 Air inhaled through the oral cavity enters the pharynx at the oropharynx.
 The inhaled air then descends into the laryngopharynx, where it is diverted into the
opening of the larynx by the epiglottis.
 The epiglottis is a flap of elastic cartilage
that acts as a switch between the trachea
and the esophagus. Because the pharynx
is also used to swallow food, the epiglottis
ensures that air passes into the trachea by
covering the opening to the esophagus.
During the process of swallowing, the
epiglottis moves to cover the trachea to
ensure that food enters the esophagus and
to prevent choking.
3. Larynx
 The larynx, also known as the voice box, is
a short section of the airway that connects the laryngopharynx and the trachea.
 The larynx is located in the anterior portion of the
neck, just inferior to the hyoid bone and superior
to the trachea.
 Several cartilage structures make up the larynx and
give it its structure. The epiglottis is one of the
cartilage pieces of the larynx and serves as the
cover of the larynx during swallowing.
 Inferior to the epiglottis is the thyroid cartilage,
which is often referred to as the Adam’s apple as it is most commonly enlarged and visible
in adult males.
 The thyroid holds open the anterior end of the larynx and protects the vocal folds.
 Inferior to the thyroid cartilage is the ring-shaped cricoid cartilage which holds the larynx
open and supports its posterior end.
 In addition to cartilage, the larynx contains special structures known as vocal folds, which
allow the body to produce the sounds of speech and singing. The vocal folds are folds of
mucous membrane that vibrate to produce vocal sounds. The tension and vibration speed
of the vocal folds can be changed to change the pitch that they produce.
4. Trachea
48
 The trachea, or windpipe, is a 5-inch long tube made

of C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings lined with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
 The trachea connects the larynx to the bronchi and
allows air to pass through the neck and into the
thorax.
 The rings of cartilage making up the trachea allow it to remain open to air at all times. The
open end of the cartilage rings faces posteriorly toward the esophagus, allowing the
esophagus to expand into the space occupied by the trachea to accommodate masses of
food moving through the esophagus.
 The main function of the trachea is to provide a clear airway for air to enter and exit the
lungs.
 In addition, the epithelium lining the trachea produces mucus that traps dust and other
contaminants and prevents it from reaching the lungs. Cilia on the surface of the
epithelial cells move the mucus superiorly toward the pharynx where it can be swallowed
and digested in the gastrointestinal tract.
5. Bronchi & Bronchioles
 At the inferior end of the trachea, the airway splits
into left and right branches known as the primary
bronchi.
 The left and right bronchi run into each lung
before branching off into smaller secondary
bronchi.
 The secondary bronchi carry air into the lobes of
the lungs—2 in the left lung and 3 in the right lung.
 The secondary bronchi in turn split into many
smaller tertiary bronchi within each lobe.
 The tertiary bronchi split into many smaller
bronchioles that spread throughout the lungs.
 Each bronchiole further splits into many smaller branches less than a millimeter in
diameter called terminal bronchioles.
 Finally, the millions of tiny terminal bronchioles conduct air to the alveoli of the lungs.
 As the airway splits into the tree-like branches of the bronchi and bronchioles, the
structure of the walls of the airway begins to change.
 The primary bronchi contain many C-shaped cartilage rings that firmly hold the airway
open and give the bronchi a cross-sectional shape like a flattened circle or a letter D.
 As the bronchi branch into secondary and tertiary bronchi, the cartilage becomes more
widely spaced and more smooth muscle and elastin protein is found in the walls.
49
 The bronchioles differ from the structure of the bronchi in that they do not contain any
cartilage at all. The presence of smooth muscles and elastin allow the smaller bronchi and
bronchioles to be more flexible and contractile.
 The main function of the bronchi and bronchioles is to carry air from the trachea into the
lungs.
 Smooth muscle tissue in their walls helps to regulate airflow into the lungs.
 When greater volumes of air are required by the body, such as during exercise, the
smooth muscle relaxes to dilate the bronchi and bronchioles.
 The dilated airway provides less resistance to airflow and allows more air to pass into and
out of the lungs.
 The smooth muscle fibers are able to contract during rest to prevent hyperventilation.
 The bronchi and bronchioles also use the mucus and cilia of their epithelial lining to trap
and move dust and other contaminants away from the lungs.
6. Lungs
 The lungs are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the
heart and superior to the diaphragm.
 Each lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that provides the lung with
space to expand as well as a negative pressure space relative to the body’s
exterior.
 The negative pressure allows the lungs to passively fill with air as they
relax.
 The left and right lungs are slightly different in size and shape due to the
heart pointing to the left side of the body. The left lung is therefore
slightly smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2 lobes while the
right lung has 3 lobes.
 The interior of the lungs is made up of spongy tissues containing many capillaries and
around 30 million tiny sacs known as alveoli.
 The alveoli are cup-shaped structures found at the end of the terminal bronchioles and
surrounded by capillaries. The alveoli are lined with thin simple squamous epithelium that
allows air entering the alveoli to exchange its gases with the blood passing through the
capillaries.
7. Pleural Cavities
 The pleural cavity is a fluid filled space that surrounds the lungs.
 It is found in the thorax, separating the lungs from its surrounding structures such as the
thoracic cage and intercostal spaces, the mediastinum and the diaphragm.
 The pleural cavity is bounded by a double layered serous membrane called pleura.
50
 Pleura is formed by an inner visceral pleura

and an outer parietal layer. Between these
two membranous layers is a small amount of
serous fluid held within the pleural cavity.
This lubricated cavity allows the lungs to
move freely during breathing.
51
Parietal Pleura
The parietal pleura is the layer of pleura associated with the walls of the pleural cavity. It lines
the internal aspect of the thoracic wall, the thoracic surface of the diaphragm and separates the
pleural cavity from the mediastinum.
Visceral Pleura
The visceral pleura is the serous membrane that is directly adhered to the outer surface of each
lung. It extends into the horizontal and oblique fissure of the lungs, lining the opposing surfaces
of these fissures. It is much thinner than the parietal pleura, making it more delicate.
B. GAS EXCHANGE
 The gas exchange surface of a mammal is the alveolus.
 There are numerous alveoli - air sacs, supplied with gases via a system of tubes (trachea,
splitting into two bronchi - one for each lung - and numerous bronchioles) connected to
the outside by the mouth and nose.
 These alveoli provide a massive surface area
through which gases can diffuse. These
gases diffuse a very short distance between
the alveolus and the blood because the
lining of the lung and the capillary are both
only one cell thick.
 The blood supply is extensive, which means
that oxygen is carried away to the cells as
soon as it has diffused into the blood.
Ventilation movements also maintain the
concentration gradients because air is
regularly moving in and out of the lungs.
52
SELF CHECK The Respiratory System

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
only.
1. It is a structure of the face made of cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin that supports and
protects the anterior portion of the nasal cavity.
A. Nose B. Nasal Cavities C. Mouth
2. It is also known as the throat.

A. Larynx B. Pharynx C. Thyroid gland
3. It is a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as a switch between the trachea and the
esophagus.
A. Pharynx B. Trachea C. Epiglottis
4. It connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows air to pass through the neck and into the
thorax.
A. Trachea B. Voice box C. Oropharynx
5. It is also known as windpipe.
A. Pharynx B. Trachea C. Larynx
6. These are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the heart and
superior to the diaphragm.
A. Heart B. Brain C. Lungs
7. It is a fluid filled space that surrounds the lungs.
A. Pleura B. Pleural cavity C. Pericardium
8. It is the serous membrane that is directly adhered to the outer surface of each lung.
A. Pleural B. Parietal pleura C. Visceral pleura
9. These are air sacs, supplied with gases via a system of tubes.
A. Lungs B. Alveoli C. All of the above
10. The trachea is made up of what type of epithelium?
A. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
B. Columnar epithelium
C. All of the above
53
ANSWER KEY: The Respiratory System

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. C
7. B
8. C
9. B
10. A
54
TASK SHEET The Respiratory System

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
TASK SHEET
Title: The Respiratory System
draw and label the respiratory system
Steps/Procedure:
1. Draw the respiratory system
Assessment Method:
55
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you …
1. Draw the Respiratory System
56
Information Sheet
The Cardiovascular System
Objectives:
1. Describe and discuss the parts and functions of cardiovascular system
2. Understand the heart circulation
3. Identify the blood types
A. THE HEART
The Blood Vessels and Circulation of Blood
a) STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

 The Circulatory System is responsible for transporting materials throughout the entire
body.
 It transports nutrients, water, and oxygen to your billions of body cells and carries away
wastes such as carbon dioxide that body cells produce.
 It is an amazing highway that travels through your entire body connecting all your body
cells.
Parts of Circulatory System
1. Heart
 The heart is the organ at the centre of the circulatory system. It pumps blood around
the body.
 The inside of the heart is divided into two sections so that the two types of blood
(oxygenated and deoxygenated) are kept apart.
Heart Coverings
Pericardium
 Covers the heart and large blood vessels attached to the
heart
 Protective sac of connective tissue
 Surrounds the heart
 Filled with fluid
a. Visceral pericardium
o Innermost layer
o Directly on the heart
57
b. Parietal pericardium
o Layer on top of the visceral
pericardium
o
Heart Walls
a. Epicardium
o Outermost layer
o Fat to cushion heart
b. Myocardium
o Middle layer
o Primarily cardiac muscle
c. Endocardium
o Innermost layer
o Thin and smooth
o Stretches as the heart
pumps
Heart Chambers
 The right and left sides of the heart are separated by a septum, or wall.
 The septum prevents the mixing of oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood.
 On each side of the septum are two chambers.
 The upper chamber (receives blood) is the atrium.
 The lower chamber (pumps blood out of heart) is the ventricle.
a. Left Atrium
 The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the four pulmonary veins, and
pumps it through the left ventricle.
b. Left Ventricle
 The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium, and pumps it
into the aorta.
c. Right Atrium
 The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena
cavae, and from the coronary veins. It pumps this blood into the right ventricle.
58
d. Right Ventricle
 The right ventricle receives
deoxygenated blood from the right
atrium, and pumps into the pulmonary
artery.
Heart Valves
 The heart has 4 chambers, 2 upper chambers (atria) and 2 lower chambers
(ventricles).
 Blood passes through a valve before leaving each chamber of the heart. The valves
prevent the backward flow of blood.
 Valves are actually flaps (leaflets) that act as one-way inlets for blood coming into a
ventricle and one-way outlets for blood leaving a ventricle.
 Normal valves have 3 flaps (leaflets), except the mitral valve. It only has 2 flaps.
a. Tricuspid Valve
 This valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
b. Pulmonary Valve
 The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary
artery.
c. Mitral Valve
 This valve is located between the
left atrium and the left ventricle.
It has only 2 leaflets.
d. Aortic Valve
 The aortic valve is located
between the left ventricle and
the aorta.
2. Blood Vessels
 Blood vessels may be tiny but they cover a lot of ground.
 The smallest blood vessels measure only five micrometers. To give you some
perspective, a strand of human hair measures about 17 micrometers.
 But if you took all the blood vessels out of an average child and laid them out in one
line, the line would stretch over 60,000 miles. An adult’s would be closer to 100,000
miles long.
 There are three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Each of these
plays a very specific role in the circulation process.
a. Arteries
59
 Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. They’re tough on the
outside but they contain a smooth interior layer of epithelial cells that allows
blood to flow easily. Arteries also contain a strong, muscular middle layer that
helps pump blood through the body.
 An arteriole is a very small artery that leads to a capillary. Arterioles have the same
three tunics as the larger vessels, but the thickness of each is greatly diminished.
b. Veins
 Veins carry the blood back to the heart. They’re similar to arteries but not as
strong or as thick. Unlike arteries, veins contain valves that ensure blood flows in
only one direction. (Arteries don’t require valves because pressure from the heart
is so strong that blood is only able to flow in one direction.) Valves also help blood
travel back to the heart against the force of gravity.
 A venule is an extremely small vein, generally 8–100 micrometers in diameter.
Postcapillary venules join multiple capillaries exiting from a capillary bed. Multiple
venules join to form veins.
c. Capillaries
 Capillaries connect the arteries to veins. The arteries deliver the oxygen-rich blood
to the capillaries, where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs.
The capillaries then deliver the waste-rich blood to the veins for transport back to
the lungs and heart.
Large Blood Vessels
a. Aorta
 The aorta is the main artery that carries blood away
from your heart to the rest of your body. After the
blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, it
travels through the aorta, making a cane-shaped
curve that connects with other major arteries to
deliver oxygen-rich blood to the brain, muscles, and
other cells.
b. Superior Vena Cava
 This large vein brings de-oxygenated blood
from the head, neck, arm, and chest regions of
the body to the right atrium.
c. Inferior Vena Cava
 This vein brings de-oxygenated blood from the lower body regions (legs, back,
abdomen and pelvis) to the right atrium.
b) BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION
60
 Pulmonary circulation is the movement of

blood from the heart to the lungs for
oxygenation, then back to the heart again.
 Oxygen-depleted blood from the body leaves
the systemic circulation when it enters the
right atrium through the superior and
inferior venae cavae. The blood is then
pumped through the tricuspid valve into the
right ventricle.
 From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the pulmonary valve and into the
pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries
and travel to each lung.
 At the lungs, the blood travels through capillary beds on the alveoli where gas exchange
occurs, removing carbon dioxide and adding oxygen to the blood.
 Gas exchange occurs due to gas partial pressure gradients across the alveoli of the lungs
and the capillaries interwoven in the alveoli.
 The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins, which returns it to
the left atrium, completing the pulmonary circuit. As the pulmonary circuit ends, the
systemic circuit begins.
Blood Vessels of Pulmonary Circuit
a. Pulmonary Artery
 The pulmonary artery is a blood vessel which delivers deoxygenated blood to the
lungs.
 Like all arteries, the pulmonary artery pumps blood away from the heart—in contrast
to veins, which deliver blood to the heart. However, unlike most arteries, which carry
blood with a relatively high oxygen content, the pulmonary artery transports blood
whose oxygen content is relatively low.
 Blood with little oxygen content is delivered to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
 In the lungs, the blood takes on oxygen and then is pumped back to the heart to be
circulated throughout the rest of the body.
61
b. Pulmonary Veins
 The pulmonary veins drain
oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the left atrium. A small amount of
blood is also drained from the lungs
by the bronchial veins
 There are typically four pulmonary
veins, two draining each lung:
o right superior: drains the right
upper and middle lobes
o right inferior: drains the right
lower lobe
o left superior: drains the left upper lobe
o left inferior: drains the left lower lobe
c) BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

 Systemic circulation is the movement of
blood from the heart through the body
to provide oxygen and nutrients to the
tissues of the body while bringing
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium
from the pulmonary veins.
 The blood is then pumped through the
mitral valve into the left ventricle.
 From the left ventricle, blood is pumped
through the aortic valve and into the
aorta, the body’s largest artery.
62
 The aorta arches and branches into

major arteries to the upper body before
passing through the diaphragm, where
it branches further into the illiac, renal,
and suprarenal arteries which supply
the lower parts of the body.
 The arteries branch into smaller
arteries, arterioles, and finally
capillaries.
 Gas and nutrient exchange with the
tissues occurs within the capillaries that
run through the tissues.
 Metabolic waste and carbon dioxide
diffuse out of the cell into the blood,
while oxygen and glucose in the blood
diffuses out of the blood and into the
cell.
 Systemic circulation keeps the
metabolism of every organ and every
tissue in the body alive, with the
exception of the parenchyma of the lungs, which are supplied by pulmonary circulation.
 The deoxygenated blood continues through the capillaries which merge into venules,
then veins, and finally the venae cavae, which drain into the right atrium of the heart.
 From the right atrium, the blood will travel through the pulmonary circulation to be
oxygenated before returning gain to the system circulation, completing the cycle of
circulation through the body.
 The arterial component of systemic circulation the highest blood pressures in the body.
 The venous component of systemic circulation has considerably lower blood pressure in
comparison, due to their distance from the heart, but contain semi-lunar valves to
compensate.
 Systemic circulation as a whole is a higher pressure system than pulmonary circulation
simply because systemic circulation must force greater volumes of blood farther through
the body compared to pulmonary circulation.
d) THE PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION

Roles of Capillaries
In addition to forming the connection between the arteries and veins, capillaries have a vital role
in the exchange of gases, nutrients, and metabolic waste products between the blood and the
tissue cells. Substances pass through the capillary wall by diffusion, filtration, and osmosis.
63
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the capillary wall by diffusion. Fluid movement across a
capillary wall is determined by a combination of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure. The net result
of the capillary microcirculation created by hydrostatic and osmotic pressure is that substances
leave the blood at one end of the capillary and return at the other end.
Blood Flow
Blood flow refers to the movement of blood through the vessels from arteries to the capillaries
and then into the veins. Pressure is a measure of the force that the blood exerts against the vessel
walls as it moves the blood through the vessels. Like all fluids, blood flows from a high pressure
area to a region with lower pressure. Blood flows in the same direction as the decreasing pressure
gradient: arteries to capillaries to veins.
The rate, or velocity, of blood flow varies inversely with the total cross-sectional area of the blood
vessels. As the total cross-sectional area of the vessels increases, the velocity of flow decreases.
Blood flow is slowest in the capillaries, which allows time for exchange of gases and nutrients.
Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of a fluid. In blood vessels, most of the resistance is
due to vessel diameter. As vessel diameter decreases, the resistance increases and blood flow
decreases.
Very little pressure remains by the time blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules. Blood
flow through the veins is not the direct result of ventricular contraction. Instead, venous return
depends on skeletal muscle action, respiratory movements, and constriction of smooth muscle
in venous walls.
Pulse and Blood Pressure
Pulse refers to the rhythmic expansion of an artery that is caused by ejection of blood from the
ventricle. It can be felt where an artery is close to the surface and rests on something firm.
In common usage, the term blood pressure refers to arterial blood pressure, the pressure in the
aorta and its branches. Systolic pressure is due to ventricular contraction. Diastolic pressure
occurs during cardiac relaxation. Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic pressure and
diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer and is recorded as the
systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. Four major factors interact to affect blood pressure:
cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, and viscosity. When these factors increase,
blood pressure also increases.
Arterial blood pressure is maintained within normal ranges by changes in cardiac output and
peripheral resistance. Pressure receptors (barareceptors), located in the walls of the large
arteries in the thorax and neck, are important for short-term blood pressure regulation.
64
B. THE BLOOD
Blood is a constantly circulating fluid providing the body with nutrition, oxygen, and waste
removal. Blood is mostly liquid, with numerous cells and proteins suspended in it, making blood
"thicker" than pure water. The average person has about 5 liters (more than a gallon) of blood.
A liquid called plasma makes up about half of the content of blood. Plasma contains proteins that
help blood to clot, transport substances through the blood, and perform other functions. Blood
plasma also contains glucose and other dissolved nutrients.
About half of blood volume is composed of blood cells:
 Red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the tissues

 White blood cells, which fight infections
 Platelets, smaller cells that help blood to clot
Blood is conducted through blood vessels (arteries and veins). Blood is prevented from clotting
in the blood vessels by their smoothness, and the finely tuned balance of clotting factors.
Blood Cells
a. Red Blood Cells

 Red blood cells also called as erythrocytes carry fresh oxygen throughout the body.
This is important to your health.
 Red blood cells are round with a flattish, indented center, like doughnuts without a
hole. Your healthcare provider can check on the size, shape, and health of your red
blood cells using a blood test.
 Hemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells. It carries oxygen. Red blood cells also
remove carbon dioxide from your body, transporting it to the lungs for you to exhale.
 Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow. They typically live for about 120 days,
and then they die.
b. White Blood Cells
 Your white blood cells account for only about 1% of your blood, but their impact is
big. White blood cells are also called leukocytes. They protect you against illness and
disease.
 Think of white blood cells as your immunity cells. In a sense, they are always at war.
They flow through your bloodstream to fight viruses, bacteria, and other foreign
invaders that threaten your health. When your body is in distress and a particular area
is under attack, white blood cells rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and
prevent illness.
65
 White blood cells are made in the bone marrow. They are stored in your blood and
lymph tissues. Because some white blood cells have a short life of 1 to 3 days, your
bone marrow is always making them.
Types of white blood cells
Among your white blood cells are:
 Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break
down bacteria.
 Lymphocytes. They create antibodies to fight against bacteria, viruses, and other
potentially harmful invaders.
 Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous type
of white blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.
 Basophils. These small cells seem to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade
your blood. They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease,
that help control the body's immune response.
 Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells, and help with allergic
responses.
 Macrophages. When there is tissue damage or infection, the monocytes leave the
bloodstream and enter the affected tissue or organ and undergo a series of changes
to become macrophages. These macrophages can modify themselves to form
different structures in order to fight various different microbes and invaders. In this
way, macrophages provide the first line of defense in protecting the host from
infection.
c. Platelets
 Platelets are tiny blood cells that help your body form clots to stop bleeding.
 If one of your blood vessels gets damaged, it sends out signals to the platelets. The
platelets then rush to the site of damage. They form a plug (clot) to fix the damage.
 The process of spreading across the surface of a damaged blood vessel to stop
bleeding is called adhesion. This is because when platelets get to the site of the injury,
they grow sticky tentacles that help them stick (adhere) to one another. They also
send out chemical signals to attract more platelets. The additional platelets pile onto
the clot in a process called aggregation.
d. Plasma
 Plasma is the clear, straw-colored liquid portion of blood that remains after red blood
cells, white blood cells, platelets and other cellular components are removed.
 It is the single largest component of human blood, comprising about 55 percent, and
contains water, salts, enzymes, antibodies and other proteins.
66
 Composed of 90% water, plasma is a transporting medium for cells and a variety of
substances vital to the human body.
 Plasma carries out a variety of functions in the body, including clotting blood, fighting
diseases and other critical functions.
 Source plasma is plasma that is collected from healthy, voluntary donors through a
process called plasmapheresis and is used exclusively for further manufacturing into
final therapies (fractionation). Source plasma donors may be compensated for their
time and effort.
 Recovered plasma is collected through whole blood donation in which plasma is
separated from its cellular components. Recovered plasma may be used for
fractionation.
Blood Groups
There are 4 main blood groups (types of blood) – A, B, AB and O. Your blood group is determined
by the genes you inherit from your parents.
Each group can be either RhD positive or RhD negative, which means in total there are 8 blood
groups.
Antibodies and antigens
Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in liquid called plasma. Your
blood group is identified by antibodies and antigens in the blood.
Antibodies are proteins found in plasma. They're part of your body's natural defenses. They
recognize foreign substances, such as germs, and alert your immune system, which destroys
them.
Antigens are protein molecules found on the surface of red blood cells.
The ABO system
67
There are 4 main blood groups defined by the ABO system:
 blood group A – has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the plasma
 blood group B – has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma
 blood group O – has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma
 blood group AB – has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies
The Rh system
Red blood cells sometimes have another antigen, a protein known as the RhD antigen. If this is
present, your blood group is RhD positive. If it's absent, your blood group is RhD negative.
This means you can be 1 of 8 blood groups:
 A RhD positive (A+)

 A RhD negative (A-)
 B RhD positive (B+)
 B RhD negative (B-)
 RhD positive (O+)
 RhD negative (O-)
 AB RhD positive (AB+)
 AB RhD negative (AB-)
68
SELF CHECK: The Cardiovascular System

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
only.
1. It is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in liquid called plasma.
A. Blood B. Rh Blood C. Platelets
2. It is the clear, straw-colored liquid portion of blood that remains after red blood cells, white
blood cells, platelets and other cellular components are removed.
A. Plasma B. White blood cell C. Red blood cell

3. The process of spreading across the surface of a damaged blood vessel to stop bleeding is
called?
A. Cohesion B. Adhesion C. Plasma
4. They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells, and help with allergic responses.
A. Macrophage B. Eosinophil C. Basophil
5. They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the
body's immune response.
A. Eosinophil B. Basophil C. Macrophage
6. They are also called as erythrocytes.
A. Red blood cells B. White blood cells C. Platelets
7. They fight infections.
A. Leucocytes B. Erythrocytes C. Platelets
8. It refers to the rhythmic expansion of an artery that is caused by ejection of blood from the
ventricle.
A. Blood pressure B. Pulse pressure C. Pulse
9. It refers to the movement of blood through the vessels from arteries to the capillaries and
then into the veins.
A. Blood clot B. Pulse C. Blood flow
10. It is a blood vessel which delivers deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
A. Pulmonary artery B. Pulmonary veins C. Aorta
69
ANSWER KEY: The Cardiovascular System

1. A
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. B
6. A
7. A
8. C
9. C
10. A
70
TASK SHEET The Cardiovascular System

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________
TASK SHEET
Title: The Cardiovascular System
draw and label the Cardiovascular system
Steps/Procedure:
1. Draw the cardiovascular system
Assessment Method:
71
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you …
1. Draw the Caardiovascular System
72

MODULE 1 Anatomy and Physiology Prelims 1

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MODULE 1 Anatomy and Physiology Prelims 1

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Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Activities Instructions

Compare your answer with answers

Systemic anatomy is the study of the structures

Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a

Systems physiology – this focuses on the computational and mathematical

b) individual cells or components of a system converge to respond as a whole. They often

B. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

However, morphogenesis is the acquisition of form and structure. It is responsible for

Homeostasis is maintained at many levels, not

Homeostatic Responses in Temperature Regulation

On the other hand, if you’re sitting in a

Disruptions to Feedback Disrupt Homeostasis

Insulin decreases the concentration of glucose in

Glucagon does the opposite: it increases the

F. TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, auricular,

b) Abdominal and pelvic cavity

The lower part of the ventral

Serous membranes consist of a single layer of epithelium, named mesothelium, attached to a

SELF-CHECK Anatomy and Physiology

Student Number : ____________

ANSWER KEY Anatomy and Physiology

TASK SHEET The Organ System

Student Number : ____________

Title: The Organ System

Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, bon paper, pencil, etc…

Equipment: working Table, Computer with internet.

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CHECKLIST

1. Choose the organ system of your choice.

2. Draw the organ system and label its parts

3. Make sure that you draw it clear.

4. Make it more colorful and interesting

5. Present your work with your Trainer

6. Discuss your portfolio in class.

1. Cell Structure and Function

c) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

e) Lysosomes and peroxisomes

2. Whole Cell Activity

Recall that proteins consist of amino acids. The

In summary, gene expression involves transcription

The first step in gene expression, transcription, takes place

After the DNA nucleotides pair up with the RNA

The information in mRNA is carried in

Cell Life Cycle

During growth and development, cell division allows

A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a

Characteristics of Epithelial Layers

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Structure of Connective Tissue

Connective tissue has three main components:

Function of Connective Tissue

The major functions of connective tissue include:

 Binding and supporting.

Connective tissue is divided into four main categories:

Loose Connective Tissue

1. Areolar Connective Tissue

2. Adipose Tissue or Body Fat

3. Reticular Connective Tissue

Dense Connective Tissue

1. Dense Regular Connective Tissue

2. Dense Irregular Tissue

3. Elastic Connective Tissue