1.

0 Introduction
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and
application of robots, [Oxford Dictionaries.], as well as computer systems for their control,
sensory feedback, and information processing. These technologies deal with automated
machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing
processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. Many of today's
robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.

The concept of creating machines that can operate autonomously dates back to classical
times, but research into the functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow
substantially until the 20th century. [Nocks, Lisa (2007). The robot: the life story of a
technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.]

Essentially, a robot is a re-programmable machine that is capable of movement in the

completion of a task. Robots use special coding that differentiates them from other machines
and machine tools, such as CNC. Robots have found uses in a wide variety of industries due
to their robust resistance capabilities and precision function.

Throughout history, robotics has been often seen to mimic human behavior, and often
manage tasks in a similar fashion. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological
advances continue; research, design, and building new robots serve various practical
purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots do jobs that are
hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, exploring shipwrecks, and mines.
1.2 A Brief History of Robotics
Although the science of robotics only came about in the 20th century, the history of human-
invented automation has a much lengthier past. In fact, the ancient Greek engineer Hero of
Alexandria produced two texts, Pneumatics and Automata that testify to the existence of
hundreds of different kinds of “wonder” machines capable of automated movement. Of
course, robotics in the 20th and 21st centuries has advanced radically to include machines
capable of assembling other machines and even robots that can be mistaken for human
beings.

The word robotics was inadvertently coined by science fiction author Isaac Asimov in his
1941 story “Liar!” Science fiction authors throughout history have been interested in man’s
capability of producing self-motivating machines and lifeforms, from the ancient Greek myth
of Pygmalion to Mary Shelley’s Dr Frankenstein and Arthur C. Clarke’s HAL 9000.
The history of robots has its roots as far back as ancient myths and legends. Modern concepts
were begun to be developed when the Industrial Revolution allowed the use of more complex
mechanics and the subsequent introduction of electricity made it possible to power machines
with small compact motors. After the 1920s the modern formulation of a humanoid machine
was developed to the stage where it was possible to envisage human sized robots with the
capacity for near human thoughts and movements, first envisaged millennia before.

The first uses of modern robots were in factories as industrial robots – simple fixed machines
capable of manufacturing tasks which allowed production without the need for human
assistance. Digitally controlled industrial robots and robots making use of artificial
intelligence have been built since the 1960s. Chinese accounts relate a history of automata
back to the 10th century BC when Yan Shi is credited with making an automaton resembling
a human in an account from the Lie Zi text.

Western and Eastern civilisations have concepts of artificial servants and companions with a
long history. Many ancient mythologies include artificial people, such as the mechanical
servants built by the Greek god Hephaestus (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of
Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend.

The Industrial Revolution and the increased focus on mathematics, engineering and science
in England in the Victorian age added to the momentum towards actual robotics. Charles
Babbage (1791-1871) worked to develop the foundations of computer science in the early-to-
mid nineteenth century, his most successful projects being the difference engine and the
analytical engine. Industrial automation is characterized by periods of rapid change in
popular methods. Either as a cause or, perhaps, an effect, such periods of change in
automation techniques seem closely tied to world economics. Use of the industrial robot,
which became identifiable as a unique device in the 1960s, along with computer-aided design
(CAD) systems and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems, characterizes the latest
trends in the automation of the manufacturing process. These technologies are leading
industrial automation through another transition, the scope of which is still unknown.

A major reason for the growth in the use of industrial robots is their declining cost. In 1990s,
robot prices dropped while human labour costs increased. Also, robots are not just getting
cheaper, they are becoming more effective (i.e. faster, more accurate, more flexible). If we
factor these quality adjustments into the numbers, the cost of using robots is dropping even
faster than their price tag is. As robots become more cost effective at their jobs and as human
labour continues to become more expensive, more and more industrial jobs become
candidates for robotic automation. This is the single most important trend propelling growth
of the industrial robot market. A secondary trend is that, economics aside, as robots become
more capable they become able to do more and more tasks that might be dangerous or
impossible for human workers to perform. The applications that industrial robots perform are
gradually getting more sophisticated, but it is still the case that, in the year 2000,
approximately 78% of the robots installed in the US were welding or material-handling
robots.

In 1920, Karel Capek published his play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots), which
introduced the word robot. It was taken from an old Slavic word that meant something akin to
“monotonous or forced labour.” However, it was thirty years before the first industrial robot
went to work. The robot was originally seen as a curiosity, to the extent that it even appeared
on The Tonight Show in 1966. Soon, robotics began to develop into another tool in the
industrial manufacturing arsenal. Robotics became a burgeoning science and more money
was invested. Robots spread to Japan, South Korea and many parts of Europe over the last
half century, to the extent that projections for the 2011 population of industrial robots are
around 1.2 million. Additionally, robots have found a place in other spheres, as toys and
entertainment, military weapons, search and rescue assistants, and many other jobs.
Essentially, as programming and technology improve, robots find their way into many jobs
that in the past have been too dangerous, dull or impossible for humans to achieve. Indeed,
robots are being launched into space to complete the next stages of extra-terrestrial and extra-
solar research.

Application of Robotics in Military

Broadly defined, military robots date back to World War II and the Cold War in the form of
the German Goliath tracked mines and the Soviet teletanks. The MQ-1 Predator drone was
when "CIA officers began to see the first practical returns on their decade-old fantasy of
using aerial robots to collect intelligence." [Steve Coll, Ghost Wars (Penguin, 2005 edn),
pp.529 and 658 note 6.]

The use of robots in warfare, although traditionally a topic for science fiction, is being
researched as a possible future means of fighting wars. Already several military robots have
been developed by various armies.
Some believe the future of modern warfare will be fought by automated weapons systems.
[Robots and Robotics at the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Centre Pacific] The U.S.
Military is investing heavily in research and development towards testing and deploying
increasingly automated systems. The most prominent system currently in use is the
unmanned aerial vehicle (IAI Pioneer & RQ-1 Predator) which can be armed with Air-to-
ground missiles and remotely operated from a command centre in reconnaissance roles.
DARPA has hosted competitions in 2004 & 2005 to involve private companies and
universities to develop unmanned ground vehicles to navigate through rough terrain in the
Mojave Desert for a final prize of $2 Million.

The field of artillery has also seen some promising research with an experimental weapons
system named "Dragon Fire II" which automates the loading and ballistics calculations
required for accurate predicted fire, providing a 12 second response time to fire support
requests. However, weapons of warfare have one limitation in becoming fully autonomous:
they require human input at certain intervention points to ensure that targets are not within
restricted fire areas as defined by Geneva Conventions for the laws of war.

There have been some developments towards developing autonomous fighter jets and
bombers. The use of autonomous fighters and bombers to destroy enemy targets is especially
promising because of the lack of training required for robotic pilots, autonomous planes are
capable of performing manoeuvres which could not otherwise be done with human pilots
(due to high amount of G-Force), plane designs do not require a life support system, and a
loss of a plane does not mean a loss of a pilot. However, the largest draw back to robotics is
their inability to accommodate for non-standard conditions. Advances in artificial intelligence
in the near future may help to rectify this.
Current Use of Military Robots

The military is unquestionably the first user of new technologies and developments, in
technique, and is also, very often, the booster for new developments, when it becomes
necessary to invent new technologies for military systems. Many basic technologies, which
were used in the military for the first time, have become part of the industrial robot today.
However, the definition of military robotics and industrial robotics is still very different. The
military has specific, robotized equipment, whereas, in industrial terms, the robot is more of
an intelligent, flexible, mass production machine. In the future, the use of industrial robots for
military applications will become ever more possible.
Military robots are autonomous robots or remote-controlled devices designed for military
applications. Such systems are currently being researched by a number of militaries. Today,
almost all the military organizations take the help of military robots to carry out many risky
jobs that cannot be handled manually by soldier. At present, different military robots are
utilized by many military organizations. Given here is a brief description on the present use
of military robots:

Daksh is one of the most current military robots. It is an electrically powered and remote
controlled robot which is used to locate, handle and destroying risky objects safely. The man
role of this military robot is to recover improvised explosive devices. In short it is a vehicle
for defusing bombs. The current use of military robots like Daksh has helped military
organization in many ways. This robot can even climb stairs to reach risky materials.
Moreover, it can also scan objects using its portable X-ray device.

Goalkeeper – As far as the current use of robots in military is concerned, we cannot leave
behind Goalkeeper. This military robot is a Dutch close-in weapon system that helps to
defends ships from incoming missiles as well as ballistic shells. This system generally
comprises of autocannon and advanced radar that tracks incoming fires. It is an automatic
system that can be also be deployed to protect airfields.

PackBot is basically a series of military robots. The most recent base model of this robot is
PackBot 510. This model utilizes a videogame-style hand controller make handier to young
women and man. Configurations in this recent model include PackBot 510 with EOD bomb
disposal, PackBot 510 with fast Tactical Manoeuvring Kit; PackBot 510 with first responder
kit, PackBot 510 with HazMat Detection Kit, PackBot 510 with Fido and PackBot 510 with
REDOWL Sniper Detection Kit.

MARCbot: This is also one type of military robots that has been used to inspect suspicious
objects. It is a low cost robotic platform, and it has been used in Iraq for the inspection of
suspicious objects. This robot is one amongst the smallest and the most commonly used
military robots. It looks like a small toy truck with an elevated mast on which a camera is
mounted. The camera is utilized for looking behind the doors. It has the capacity to run 6
hours on a set of fully charged batteries and was developed with the input of soldiers in Iraq
to meet their needs. However, the use of military robots today has helped the soldier to detect
hazardous materials and objects.
Besides above mentioned military robots, there are also other kinds of military robots often
used by the military organizations. These robots include Guargium, RQ-9 Predator B, RQ-1
Predator, TALON, Samsung SGR-A1 and Gladiator Tactical Unmanned Ground Vehicle.
The above information on the current use of military robots will let you know the kinds of
military robots used in recent era.

Broadly defined, military robots date back to World War II and the Cold War in the form of
the German Goliath tracked mines and the Soviet teletanks. The MQ-1 Predator drone was
when "CIA officers began to see the first practical returns on their decade-old fantasy of
using aerial robots to collect intelligence". [1 Steve Coll, Ghost Wars (Penguin, 2005 edn),
pp.529 and 658 note 6] (Schafer, Ron (July 29, 2003), "Robotics to play major role in future
war fighting:" United States Joint Forces Command, Retrieved 2013-04-30.)

The use of robots in warfare, although traditionally a topic for science fiction, is being
researched as a possible future means of fighting wars. Already several military robots have
been developed by various armies.

Some believe the future of modern warfare will be fought by automated weapons systems.
The U.S. Military is investing heavily in research and development towards testing and
deploying increasingly automated systems. The most prominent system currently in use is the
unmanned aerial vehicle (IAI Pioneer & RQ-1 Predator) which can be armed with Air-to-
ground missiles and remotely operated from a command center in reconnaissance roles.
DARPA has hosted competitions in 2004 & 2005 to involve private companies and
universities to develop unmanned ground vehicles to navigate through rough terrain in the
Mojave Desert for a final prize of $2 Million.
Predator Drone

Advantages of Military Robots

Major Kenneth Rose of the US Army's Training and Doctrine Command outlined some of the
advantages of robotic technology in warfare: "Machines don't get tired. They don't close their
eyes. They don't hide under trees when it rains and they don't talk to their buddies. A human's
attention to detail on guard duty drops dramatically in the first 30 minutes, Machines know
no fear."

Increasing attention is also paid to how to make the robots more autonomous, with a view of
eventually allowing them to operate on their own for extended periods of time, possibly
behind enemy lines. For such functions, systems like the Energetically Autonomous Tactical
Robot are being tried, which is intended to gain its own energy by foraging for plant matter.

Application of Robotics in Space Exploration

Space robots come in all shapes and sizes, and have a wide variety of functions. These
include planetary flyby probes (e.g. Voyagers 1 and 2), orbiters (e.g. Galileo, Cassini),
atmospheric probes (e.g. Huygens Titan probe), landers (e.g. Mars Pathfinder), rovers (e.g.
Sojourner), robot arms (e.g. the Space Shuttle Remote Manipulator System), and robots
currently under development for the International Space Station.
Space probes hurtling through the solar system may not seem like robots, but they fully merit
that name by performing programmed tasks over long periods without direct human
supervision. Operating in the vacuum of space and withstanding exposure to radiation and
extremes of temperature, they explore places not yet accessible to humans.

Types of Robots in Space

Today, two types of devices exist which can be considered space robots. One is the ROV
(Remotely Operated Vehicle) and the other is the RMS (Remote Manipulator System).
Typically, ROVs are used in nuclear facilities for inspection and repair in areas too dangerous
for humans, and by police bomb squads for removal of potentially hazardous materials. Space
researchers are especially interested in this type of robot for terrain exploration in space. An
ROV can be an unmanned spacecraft that remains in flight, a lander that makes contact with
an extra-terrestrial body and operates from a stationary position, or a rover that can move
over terrain once it has landed. It is difficult to say exactly when early spacecraft evolved
from simple automatons to robot explorers or ROVs. Even the earliest and simplest
spacecraft operated with some pre-programmed functions monitored closely from Earth.

The most common type of existing robotic device is the crane-like RMS (Remote
Manipulator System), or robot arm, most often used in industry and manufacturing. This
mechanical arm recreates many of the movements of the human arm, having not only side-to-
side and up-and-down motion, but also a full 360-degree circular motion at the wrist, which
humans do not have. Robot arms are of two types. One is computer-operated and
programmed for a specific function. The other requires a human to actually control the
strength and movement of the arm to perform the task. To date, a robot arm has performed a
number of tasks on several NASA space missions-serving as a grappler, a remote assembly
device, and also as a positioning and anchoring device for astronauts working in space.

A robotic spacecraft is a spacecraft with no humans on board, usually under telerobotic

control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often
called a space probe. Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed
operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations
such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current
technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with
current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore
them. Many artificial satellites are robotic spacecraft, as are many landers and rovers.
Robots and Unmanned Space Exploration

Robotic spacecraft are especially useful in space exploration where distances are too long and
environments too hostile and dangerous to send humans. Before astronauts were sent to the
Moon, a series of Surveyor spacecraft soft-landed on the lunar surface between 1966 and
1968. Triggered by electronic signals from earthbound humans, four Surveyors transmitted
thousands of images back to Earth and analysed solid samples gathered with an extendible
claw. Based on this information, the United States was able to plan its manned Apollo Moon
missions.

The Soviet Lunokhod 1 lunar rover can be called the first mobile robot to explore an extra-
terrestrial body. In 1970 it rolled out onto the Moon's surface from the Luna 17 spacecraft
and was remotely controlled by Soviet scientists through television viewers. One of its
autonomous functions was the ability to sense when it was going to tip over and
automatically stop and wait for signal from Earth to help it proceed. The two Viking
spacecraft, launched in 1975 parachuted landers to the Martian surface with television
cameras, soil scoops and analysers, and weather stations. Some of these devices transmitted
valuable information to Earth until 1982. If humans are ever to explore or even inhabit Mars,
additional robotic probes similar to these are essential.

An exciting and practical use for ROVs is as unmanned deep space probes. The Voyager 2
proves are excellent examples of how unmanned space missions can greatly increase our
understanding of the universe. They are programmed automatically to make adjustments in
operations far from direct human interaction. The Voyager missions, launched in 1977, have
provided scientists with opportunities to view Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, and they
continue to provide thought-provoking new data. They have already traveled over 2.8 billion
miles, and if they continue to operate, the Voyager proves will hurtle on past the edge of the
solar system to interstellar space, sending back signals that are still unfeasible for a manned
mission to gather at this point in our space development.

Robots and Manned Space Exploration

To date, the Space Shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (RMS) is the only robotic device
which has been used on manned space missions. The robot arm made its test debut in space
aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia Mission STS-2 in 1981. Then in 1983, on Space Shuttle
Challenger Mission STS-7, when Sally Ride made her historic flight as the first American
woman in space, the robot arm was used to release and recover a pallet satellite.

Space Shuttle Mission STS-41C, a 1984 Challenger flight, illustrates some of the advantages
of using remote manipulators in space. One of the mission's goals was to capture the
malfunctioning Solar Maximum Mission Satellite (Solar Max) for repair and re-orbit. During
an extravehicular activity (EVA), astronaut George D. Nelson was unsuccessful in trying to
grab the satellite by hand in an untethered spacewalk, but later, Nelson and astronaut James
van Hoften used the Shuttle's giant robot arm to grapple the satellite; then they repaired it in
the Shuttle's giant robot arm to grapple the satellite; then they repaired it in the Shuttle's
payload bay. Once the repair was successfully completed, the RMS was used to redeploy the
satellite.

On the same Challenger mission, human intervention was required to help the robot arm
deploy the largest payload yet handled by a Shuttle. The Long Duration Exposure Facility
(LDEF) weighing 21,300 pounds (9700 kilograms) was so large it blocked the vision of
Astronaut Terry Hart who was manipulating the robot arm. Using a remote TV monitor for
visual feedback, Hart first used the RMS to latch onto a grapple fixture on the LDEF to
activate its power sources, and then used the RMS to lift, steady, and release the LDEF into
orbit. The LDEF contained 57 experiments and was the first satellite specifically designed to
be returned to Earth; so, in 1990, the RMS was again used to grapple the satellite and lower it
into the Shuttle's payload bay for the return trip to Earth.

A second satellite retrieval mission was accomplished in 1984 during Space Shuttle
Discovery Mission STS-51A. This time, a manual retrieval and berthing procedure was
accomplished by an astronaut positioned in a restraint system located at the end of the RMS.
This foot restraint device, which functions like a "cherry picker," holds and positions the
astronaut, operated the robot arm from inside the Shuttle's cabin.

On Space Shuttle Atlantis Mission STS-61B, launched in 1985, two important construction
experiments were conducted using the RMS. These experiments, referred to as EASE and
ACCESS, tested space assembly of two different structures consisting of beams and nodes
and evaluated the roles EVA might play in building the planned Space Station.

Future Robots in Space

NASA's current plans for development of space robots concentrates on three main uses of
remote manipulation in space: servicers, cranes, and rovers. Servicers are human sized, multi-
arm, remote manipulators which are used for servicing and assembly. Cranes, like the RMS
currently operated on Space Shuttle missions, are long single arms used for repositioning
larges masses. Rovers are mobile platforms for transporting payloads on planetary servicers
and extra-terrestrial surfaces.

In its research, NASA's approach is to focus on remote manipulation systems which

demonstrate robustness, or the ability to cope with problems; versatility, or the ability to do a
variety of tasks; and simplicity, offering the operator a sophisticated system in a package that
reduces complexity - much in the same way a powerful software package allows a non-expert
to manipulate the capabilities of a computer. The strategy is to develop remote manipulation
technology where humans and machines have both redundant and complementary roles.

Today's space robots operate either by teleoperation (continuous remote control of a

manipulator) or robotics (pre-programmed control of a manipulator). Both are really
controlled by humans. The distinction is that the teleoperators are controlled by human’s
remote in distance, and robots are controlled by humans in time (by way of computer
programs). NASA's goal is to develop a system of telerobotics where teleoperation and robots
are combined. The future of robots in space is not a question of human versus machine, but
rather a combination of the best capabilities of human and machine to achieve something
which surpasses the capabilities of either alone. Robots using Artificial Intelligence (AI)
along with computers will eventually be capable of "learning" how to perform complex tasks.

A number of telerobotic devices are currently under development. The Goddard Space Flight
Center in Maryland is the lead NASA center for developing robots like the Flight Telerobotic
Servicer which will assemble and service the Space Station. Similar projects are under way at
the Johnson Space Center in Texas and the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in support of
crew activities and ground processing of STS. These devices will fetch tools and astronauts,
perform hazardous launch duties, and even tend crops in orbiting gardens. Planetary rovers
and walkers also are being designed both with wheels and leg-like appendages.

On May 24, 1989, President George Bush spoke on America's space agenda for the 21st
century. "I want to reaffirm my support for the quest to create a spacefaring civilization. That
objective is not just our ambition, but our destiny..."NASA's work with robotics is sure to
play and important role in that destiny.
Fig. 2 Space technology advancements like NASA's Robonaut 2 (left) can help humanity
launch more ambitious space exploration missions.

Industrial robotics is an automation technology that has received considerable attention since
about 1960. This section will discuss the development of industrial robotics, the design of the
robot manipulator, and the methods of programming robots. An industrial robot is defined by
ISO as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator
programmable in three or more axes. The field of robotics may be more practically defined as
the study, design and use of robot systems for manufacturing (a top-level definition relying
on the prior definition of robot).

Typical applications of robots include welding, painting, assembly, pick and place (such as
packaging, palletizing and SMT), product inspection, and testing; all accomplished with high
endurance, speed, and precision.

Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations; the applications can be divided into
three categories:
 1. Material handling,
2. Processing operations, and
3. Assembly and Inspection.

Material Handling

Material-handling applications include material transfer and machine loading and unloading.
Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work parts from one
location to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple, requiring robots to pick up
parts from one conveyor and place them on another. Other transfer operations are more
complex, such as placing parts onto pallets in an arrangement that must be calculated by the
robot. Machine loading and unloading operations utilize a robot to load and unload parts at a
production machine. This requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper that can grasp
parts. Usually the gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry

Processing operations

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on the
work part. Examples of such applications include spot welding, continuous arc welding, and
spray painting. Spot welding of automobile bodies is one of the most common applications of
industrial robots in the United States. The robot positions a spot welder against the
automobile panels and frames to complete the assembly of the basic car body. Arc welding is
a continuous process in which the robot moves the welding rod along the seam to be welded.
Spray painting involves the manipulation of a spray-painting gun over the surface of the
object to be coated. Other operations in this category include grinding, polishing, and routing,
in which a rotating spindle serves as the robot’s tool.

Assembly and Inspection

The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and inspection. The use of robots in
assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual labour common in these
operations. Since robots are programmable, one strategy in assembly work is to produce
multiple product styles in batches, reprogramming the robots between batches. An alternative
strategy is to produce a mixture of different product styles in the same assembly cell,
requiring each robot in the cell to identify the product style as it arrives and then execute the
appropriate task for that unit.
The design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly methods that
are satisfactory for humans are not necessarily suitable for robots. Using a screw and nut as a
fastening method, for example, is easily performed in manual assembly, but the same
operation is extremely difficult for a one-armed robot. Designs in which the components are
to be added from the same direction using snap fits and other one-step fastening procedures
enable the work to be accomplished much more easily by automated and robotic assembly
methods.

Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing.
In a typical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and
determines whether the part is consistent with the quality specifications.

In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labour.
There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans that identify the
work as a potential application for robots:

1. The operation is repetitive, involving the same basic work motions every cycle;
2. The operation is hazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (e.g., spray
painting, spot welding, arc welding, and certain machine loading and unloading
tasks);
3. The task requires a work part or tool that is heavy and awkward to handle; and
4. The operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.

Flexible manufacturing systems

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a form of flexible automation in which several

machine tools are linked together by a material-handling system, and all aspects of the system
are controlled by a central computer. An FMS is distinguished from an automated production
line by its ability to process more than one product style simultaneously. At any moment,
each machine in the system may be processing a different part type. An FMS can also cope
with changes in product mix and production schedule as demand patterns for the different
products made on the system change over time. New product styles can be introduced into
production with an FMS, so long as they fall within the range of products that the system is
designed to process. This kind of system is therefore ideal when demand for the products is
low to medium and there are likely to be changes in demand. The components of an FMS
include:
  Processing machines usually CNC machine tools that perform machining
operations although other types of automated workstations such as inspection
stations are also possible.
 A material-handling system, such as a conveyor system, which is capable of
delivering work parts to any machine in the FMS, and
 A central computer system that is responsible for communicating NC part
programs to each machine and for coordinating the activities of the machines and
the material-handling system.
 In addition, a fourth component of an FMS is human labour. Although the flexible
manufacturing system represents a high level of production automation, people
are still needed to manage the system, load and unload parts, change tools, and
maintain and repair the equipment.

Taylor, Griffith P. (1995). Robin Johnson, ed. The Robot Gargantua. Sheffield: Constructor
Quarterly. pp. 6–13.