 The downward flow of water from the land surface into the soil medium is

called infiltration.

 The rate of this movement is called the infiltration rate ft.

 The process of infiltration of water and subsequent water movement is an
extremely complex process.
 If water is ponded at the surface (an ample supply), then infiltration occurs at
the potential infiltration rate. If the rate of supply is less than the potential
rate, then the actual infiltration rate is somewhat less than the potential
rate. Most infiltration equations describe the potential rate.

 The cumulative infiltration rate is the accumulated depth of water

infiltrated and is the integral of the rate with time.

Ft   f t dt
t
0 1
Infiltration Capacity

Total precipitation i

Infiltration f

Rainfall i
Infiltration rate f

Infiltration
capacity

Time t

The area under the infiltration curve for any time interval represents the depth
of water infiltrated during that interval.
Ft = cumulative infiltration at time t, mm

The downward movement of water and the resulting change in soil

moisture is shown in Figure 1 and 2.
2
 Moisture Content
0 i s

Saturation zone

Transition zone

Transmission zone
Depth

Wetting zone
Wetting front

Figure 1: Moisture zones during infiltration.

3
 Moisture Content
0 i s

Ground
t1 surface
t2

t3

t4
Depth

t5

Figure 2: Moisture profile as a function of time during infiltration.

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 Factors Affecting Infiltration

In general, the infiltration rate is dependent on

Soil Physical Properties

Vegetative Cover
Antecedent Soil Moisture Conditions
Rainfall Intensity
Slope of the Infiltrating Surface.

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 Factors Affecting Infiltration

Soil Physical Properties

Soil Type, porosity, hydraulic conductivity

Soil Type Sand Silt Clay

Runoff Potential

Infiltration Potential

Vegetative Cover
Bare soils tend to have lower infiltration rates than soil protected by a vegetative
cover. On bare soil, the impacting raindrops tend to puddle the soil. The energy of
the falling rain breaks down soil aggregates and small particles are carried into the
soil pores. The net result is a lowering of the infiltration rate.
6
 Factors Affecting Infiltration

Antecedent soil moisture conditions

The antecedent soil water content also alters the infiltration rate. Generally, a
wet soil has a lower infiltration rate than a dry one.

Rainfall Intensity

Rainfall intensity affects the infiltration rates in two ways. For high-intensity
rains, the raindrops tend to be larger and have more energy when they strike
the soil. Thus high-intensity rains are more effective in sealing the soil surface
than are low-intensity rains.

Slope of the infiltrating surface.

The infiltration opportunity time is a function of the slope of the infiltration
surface. On a steep slope, the water tends to run off rapidly and thus have less
opportunity for infiltration than on a gentle slope.

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 Infiltrometers
Single Ring Double Ring

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltrometer
 Infiltration Models
1. Approximate Models

The approximate and analytical equations can be used to characterize the infiltration
process with rather simple, straight-forward methods.
1.1 Empirical Models
Kostiakov (1932) Horton (1939) Holtan(1961)
1.2 Simplified Models
Models derived by application of the theory of soil water movement with certain
simplifications and assumptions. Examples include:
Green and Ampt (1911) Philip (1957) Smith (1972)
2. Numerical Models
Numerical procedures (finite difference and finite element) for solving Richards
equation have been developed by many researchers such as:
Rubin (1968) Amerman (1969) Freeze (1971) Khan (1996)

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 Horton's Model
Horton (1933) suggested: ft   
fc  f0  fc e  kt

ft = infiltration rate at any time t, mm hr-1

t = time from beginning of rain, hr
f0 = initial infiltration rate (at t=0), mm hr-1
fc = final infiltration rate (infiltration capacity), mm hr-1
k = empirical constant, hr-1
i = rainfall rate, mm hr-1
Note: i > ft at all times.
 f  fc 
The cumulative infiltration rate Ft  f c t   0  1 e 
 kt

 k 

A difficulty with the Horton equation is that it makes infiltration rate a function
of time and does not account for variations in rainfall intensity. The equation
has no provision for a recovery of infiltration capacity during periods of low or
no rainfall.
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 Holtan’s Model
• Holton (1961) has advanced an empirical infiltration equation based on the
concept that the infiltration rate is proportional to the unfilled capacity of the
soil to hold water. The Holton model for infiltration is

f = a Fp n + f c
• Where f is the infiltration rate, fc is the final infiltration rate, Fp is the
unfilled capacity of the soil to store water, and a and n are constants.

• The exponent n has been found to be about 1.4 for many soils.

• The value of Fp ranges from a maximum of the available water capacity

(AWC) to zero. Values of AWC are given for many soils in the US
Agricultural Research Service Publication (1968).

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 Green-Ampt Equation
In 1911, Green and Ampt developed an approximate infiltration model based
on Darcy’s law. They assumed vertical flow, a uniform water content, a sharp
boundary between the dry and wetted soil zones, and the water movement
occurs as piston or slug flow.

 
f (t )  K   1
 F (t ) 

 F(t) 
F(t) = K t +  ln  1 + 
   

Given K, t, ψ, and Δθ, a value of F is calculated by successive

substitution from Equation 2, which is then substituted into Equation 1 to
determine the corresponding potential infiltration rate f.

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 Philip’s Equation
Philip’s Equation – derived from 1-D solution of Richard’s equation

1
F (t )  S t 2
 At
Where S is a parameter called sorptivity, which is a function of moisture
content (θ) and the soil suction potential (ψ), and A is called
transmissivity. Both S and A depend on soil properties and initial
moisture content.

Differentiating the above equation with respect to t yields infiltration rate

f(t) as:
1 1
f (t )  St 2  A
2

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 SCS Curve Number Method
(Indirect Method)

Q 
P  0.2 S 2

P  0.8 S
1000
S   10
CN

• Q = runoff (in)
• P = rainfall (in)
• S = potential maximum retention after runoff begins (in)
• CN = Curve number – reflects soil and cover conditions (0-100)

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 Richard’s Equation
Richard's equation (1931) for one-dimensional flow of water in porous
media is a combination of Darcy's law with the continuity equation as:

     K(  )
=  D(  )  -
t z  z  z
where:
θ = volumetric moisture content [vol/vol]
K(θ) = unsaturated hydraulic conductivity [L/T]
D(θ) = diffusivity coefficient [L2/T] ( = -K(θ)(ψ/θ) )
ψ = suction head [L]
z = medium depth (positive downward) [L]

Difficult to solve and are usually solved with numerical analyses procedures
2-space derivatives (two boundary conditions)
1-time derivative (initial condition)
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 Infiltration Indexes
 Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in
excess of that rate will be equal to direct runoff.

 Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having heterogeneous

infiltration and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of infiltration indexes.

 Infiltration indexes assume that infiltration rate is constant throughout the

storm duration. This assumption tends to underestimate the higher initial rate
of infiltration while overestimating the lower final rate.

 Infiltration indexes are best suited for applications involving either long-
duration storms or a catchment with high initial moisture content. Under
such conditions, the neglect of the variation of infiltration rate with time
generally justified on practical grounds.

 Two types of indexes: Phi-index and W-index are used.

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 Rainfall
Runoff

Index

Time

17
  Index Method
A simpler method because it assumes no variation in f(t) with
time. Hence, an infiltration index is used which assumes
infiltration to be constant through time (at  mm hr-1).

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W-index
The W-index is the average infiltration rate averaged over the whole storm
period, and is given by;

W-index = F/Tr = (P - Q) / Tr

Where
W = W-index in mm/hr
F = Total infiltration including initial basin recharge in mm
P = rainfall depth in mm
Q = runoff depth in mm
Tr = duration of rainfall in hour.

The W-index considers the initial abstraction of rainwater as well. Since it is

difficult to determine the correct values of the initial abstraction, the W-index
method is not very popular.
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Example 1
A storm with 20 cm of precipitation produced a surface runoff of 11.6 cm. Estimate
the  index of the storm if the data recorded is as follows:
Storm time (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rainfall intensity (cm/h) 0.8 1.8 3.0 4.6 3.6 3.2 2.0 1.0
Solution
From the rainfall distribution, the total rainfall is 20 cm. Therefore, the depth
abstracted by infiltration is (20 - 11.6) = 8.4 cm.
With reference to Figure 1, the  index is calculated by trial and error.
Trial #1
A value of  between 0.8 and 1 cm/h is assumed. A mass balance leads to

(1.8 - ) x 1 + (3.0 - ) x 1 + (4.6 - ) x 1 + (3.6 - ) x 1

+ (3.2 - ) x 1 + (2.0 - ) x 1 + (1.0 - ) x 1 = 11.6

19.2 - 7  = 11.6
Solving gives  = 1.085 cm/h, which does not lie within assumed range of 0.8 and
1. 20
Trial #2
A value of  between 1 and 1.8 cm/h is assumed. A mass balance
leads to

(1.8 - ) x 1 + (3.0 - ) x 1 + (4.6 - ) x 1 +

(3.6 - ) x 1 + (3.2 - ) x 1 + (2.0 - ) x 1 = 11.6

18.2 - 6  = 11.6

Solving gives  = 1.1 cm/h, which lies between 1 and 1.8,

verifying that the assumed range for f was correct.

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 6.0

5.0

4.0
Intensity cm/h

3.0

phi -index = 1.1 cm/h

2.0

1.0

0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time, h

Figure. Rainfall hyetograph and phi-index.

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