Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine

K. Adithya, Fareed Ahmed, P. Padmanathan, C.G. Mohan, R. Prakash ⇑
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This research is aimed to analyse and optimize the inlet manifold of biogas diesel dual fuel engine to
Received 11 November 2019 improve the mass flow rate of air and gas mixture and hence improving volumetric efficiency of the dual
Received in revised form 15 February 2020 fuel engine. Runner length of the inlet manifold is calculated using Chrysler Ram Theory and Helmholtz
Accepted 19 February 2020
Resonator Theory and new runner length is replaced in the existing inlet manifold and it is observed that
Available online xxxx
new runner length gives a considerable increase in mass flow rate of air and hence improving the volu-
metric efficiency. The biogas was collected from biogas plant of Vellore Institute of Technology and the
Keywords:
diesel engine was operated with diesel and bio gas with the help of a T-section joint which allowed
Diesel engine
Inlet manifold design
the air and bio gas to enter the engine together and then we performed the experiment to calculate
Biogas the mass flow rate of air and bio gas entering the engine. The experiment was done for the existing runner
Emission length of 1 m and the new runner length of 1.58 m, as calculated by Chrysler Ram Theory and improve-
ments were observed in mass flow rates and volumetric efficiency. Emission testing was also done by
using the AVL emission system, emission-parameters-like-carbon-monoxide-(CO),-nitric-oxide-(NOx)-
and hydrocarbon-(BSHC)-emissions-are-measured.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advances in Materials Research – 2019.

1. Introduction
Carbon dioxide is one of the main pollutants which increase the
Global warming. Many more pollutants like burned hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, sulphur oxides and the partic-
ulate matters released during the combustion also affects the envi-
ronment and human health. Renewable energy sources are the
future of power generation and is hoped to reduce the CO2 and
other pollutants. Biomass energy source is one of the cheapest
and readily available source of energy compared to other renew-
able energy (see Fig. 1).
The biogas fuel is a renewable gaseous fuel. The biogas fuel also
is an alternative gaseous fuel. The biogas is formed by the degrada-
tion done anaerobically of the organic wastes that is cheaper of
cost compared to that of non-renewable fuels. Organic feed stock
such as cow’s dung, edible and non-edible oil seed cakes, animal
wastes, waste food are some of the inputs for the production of
biogas. In villages, electricity generation through biomass will help
them to maintain their economic stability by cost cutting. Methane
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: prakasu2000@yahoo.com (R. Prakash).
and CO2 are the primary compositions of biogas. The composition
of the biogas changes with the type of raw material and production
type.
At present, the CI engines are used mainly due to their energy
productions, because of their higher thermal efficiency, durability
and reliability. The dual fuel operation of biogas and gasoline in
CI engine is a propitious one, which will help in the reduction of
nitric oxides and smoke emission. The cetane number of biogas
is very low therefore it is not used in the diesel engines directly
for which an ignition spark plug is inserted so as to set the auto
ignition temperature high.
The dual fuel engines work very poorly for low load conditions
due to flammability limit of the lean homogenous charge. The igni-
tion timing is usually delayed when compared to that of diesel
engines. This delay depends on several factors such as oxygen
availability, inlet air temperature, the fuel’s cetane number, com-
pression ratio and the auto ignition temperature of the fuel. The
ways to improve these poor characteristics are by the following
ways like increasing the inlet air temperature, exhaust gas recircu-
lation, throttle device and a supercharger. There should be neces-
sary engine modifications done to place the pilot injection timer.
The main objective of this experiment was to optimize the
design if the intake manifold of the dual fuel engine and to check

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advances in Materials Research – 2019.

Please cite this article as: K. Adithya, F. Ahmed, P. Padmanathan et al., Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
2 K. Adithya et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Experimental setup. 1 Filter (Biogas), 2 Flow meter (Biogas), 3 Temperature sensor (Biogas), 4 Fuel air mixing kit, 5 Airbox, 6 Air temperature sensor, 7 Flowmeter
(Air),8 Filter (Air), 9 Fuel injector, 10 Low fuel level opticalsensor, 11 High fuel level optical sensor, 12 Fuel tank, 13 Analyzer (Exhaust gas), 14 Smoke meter, 15 Exhaust
manifold, 16 Main panel, 17 Exhaust gas sensor, 18 Engine, 19 Speed sensor, 20 Dynamometer, 21 system.

the viability using biogas in a direct ignition diesel engine and also Table 1
to enhance the combustion, performance and emission. The main Properties of bio gas.

aim is to increase the engine efficiency and performance at the cost Properties Values
of increased fuel consumption [1]. High level research is held in the Specific heat 2.165 kJ/kgK
induction systems of IC [2,3] engines. When there is an increase in Molar mass 16.0426 kg/kmol
the engine’s performance there will be a decrease in the fuel effi- Density 0.7163 kg/m3
ciency and vice-versa [4,5]. Immense improvements in the study Gas constant 0.518 kJ/kgK
LCV (Hu) 50000 kJ/kg, Hu, n = 36000 kJ/m3n
of engines have been made over the past One hundred and thirty
years [6–16]. Due the presence of excess air at the part-load condi-
tions, the part-load peak cycle temperature will get decreased
Table 2
which results in the reduction of NOx emissions [10,17,20]. It
Composition of bio gas.
was also investigated the time of intake valve opening and the time
of the closing to capitalize the compression arrival at the intake Component Percentage (%)
valve [1,12,13,18]. To higher the volumetric efficiency, there CH4 50–70
should be a change in the intake manifold that it gets tuned to cre- CO2 30–40
H2 5–10
ate a positive compression wave during the event of intake open-
N2 1–2
ing [12,19]. For this purpose, the inlet manifold design was Water vapors 0.29
changed and the analysis of the combustion, performance and Sulphides of hydrogen Less than 0.1
emission characteristics of the engine running with biogas and die-
sel fuel were compared with diesel and presented.
2.2. Experimental setup

2. Materials and method
2.1. Fuel characteristics
The primary fuel that was used for this study was biogas col-
lected from biogas plant, produced by the anaerobic digestion of
sludge from the waste water treatment plant. The properties of
the biogas are given in Table 1. An analyzer with a non-
dispersive IR sensor was used to help determine the compositions
of biogas, provided in Table 2.
All the specifications of this experimental engine are displayed
in Table 3. A diesel engine with single cylinder, that was modified
for the dual fuel operation mode was used for the experiment.
Schematic diagram of the engine is given below. A dynamometer
was attached to the engines output, which provided the load on
the engine. An air flow sensor was placed in the airbox to deter-
mine the amount of air consumed by the engine. The biogas used
was produced in a floating dome biogas plant, and then filled in
a biogas bag. The biogas was first compressed and then sent to
the engine through a low-pressure compressor at 1.5 bar. The flow

Please cite this article as: K. Adithya, F. Ahmed, P. Padmanathan et al., Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
 K. Adithya et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

Table 3 called as l ram effect and length is calculated using Chrysler Ram
Specification of engine. Theory.
Description Specifications Pressure wave is travelling at the sound speed and sound speed
Model and type Kirloskar, AV1 is 343 or 340 m/sec. Engine is rotating twice (720°) and inlet opens
No of cycles 4S once.
Power 3.7 kW 500° of crank rotation our inlet valve will not open.
Speed 1500 rpm Our engine is operating at 1500 RPM (1500/60) = 25 revolu-
Bore diameter 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
tions/sec
Cubic capacity 0.662 L (25 revolutions/sec * 360°/revolution) = 9,000/sec.
Compression ratio 17.5 : 1 500°/9,000 = 0.0555 s, compression wave will take for travelling
Inlet valve retracts 4.5° BTDC back to the inlet valve when it reopens. (0.0555 s) * (343 m/s)
Inlet valve shuts 35.5 oABDC
= 19.05 m
Exhaust valve retracts 35.5 oBBDC
Exhaust valve shuts 4.5 oATDC As wave travels up & down the inlet runner inlet length
becomes half which is 9.52 m
of the gas was measured with the use of gas flow meter. For proper Installing such a big length is not practically possible therefore
mixing of biogas with air a mixing kit was fixed to the intake man- integral multiples i.e. (3, 6, 12 . . .) of the runner length could be
ifold. A T-section was created in the runner for simultaneous intake used without making any difference in the Ram effect.
of air and bio gas (see Fig. 1). So, by using integral multiple of 6, required length = (9.52/6)
To determine the Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbons, NO, Carbon = 1.58 m.
di Oxide, and Oxygen emission levels in the exhaust we used a five-
gas analyzer. At each operating module in the steady state opera- 2.4. Instrument details and uncertainty analysis
tion of engine, the exhaust gases were made to flow through the
probe, and filtered and moisture was removed with a condensation In an experiment the results obtained or instruments used will
trap. These dry exhaust gases were passed to the IR non-dispersive give small errors. These errors can be measured by means of
sensor for Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbons and Carbon di Oxide Uncertainty. Such a measure is necessary to evaluate the fitness
measurement. An electro chemical sensor was used to measure value. The limits on the accuracy of a measured parameter are esti-
the NO emission levels. Smoke emission levels were measured by mated by the uncertainty analysis. The uncertainty can be evalu-
a diesel smoke meter. ated from some known physical value by using the formula given
by Coleman and Steele.

1=2
2.3. Experimentation VR ¼ DR 2 þ IR 2

In this experiment the design modification of the existing inlet VR is the uncertainty, considering 5% significance, of the physi-
manifold was done with an aim to enhance the engine perfor- cal parameter. IR and DR are the random and systematic uncertain-
mance in relation to volumetric efficiency. The modification was ties respectively.
based on calculation of runner length done on the basis of Chrysler hXn i2ð1=2Þ
Ram Theory. First, the engine was run until the warmed-up condi- DR =Z ¼ i¼1
ð1=Z ÞðdR=dYiÞDi
tion was achieved to ensure steady state operation. After steady
state operation was achieved, the base line data for bio gas & diesel hXn i2ð1=2Þ
were collected. During the investigation the volumetric efficiency IR =Z ¼ i¼1
ð1=Z ÞðdR=dYiÞIi
of the engine was studied and its change with respect to different
runner lengths was observed. The runner lengths were varied by In the above equation, Z is the physical parameter and its value
using the pipes of different lengths as runners between the air tank depends on the variable Yi. The symbols Ii and IR denote the mea-
and inlet valve. The optimal runner length can be calculated using surement level and the uncertainty in Z, respectively. 20 observa-
the Chrysler Ram Theory and Helmholtz Resonator Theory [16]. tion sets were recorded in the same engine and with the same
Air enters the inlet manifold, passes the inlet valve and flows in conditions of operations from which the result produced was that
the cylinder until the inlet valve closes. As the valve closes, air- the maximum uncertainty of the instruments was found to be
strikes the closed valve which leads to the creation of high pressure ±3.10%.
wave. The high pressure wave keeps bouncing back and forth in
the inlet duct, until the inlet valve opens for next stroke. The time 2.5. Energy share
taken by the inlet valve to reopen as it matches with the time of
arrival of the high pressure wave at inlet leads to Ram effect caus- In engines operating with dual fuel, the energy share of the fuel
ing maximum air pressure at IVC. Inlet manifold tuning is done by is essential for analysis of the premixed lean combustion. In a dual
deciding the length of inlet runner so that this pressure wave will fuel engine two fuels are used simultaneously. The two fuels are
reach at the time when the intake valve will open. The effect is called primary fuel and pilot fuel. In our experiment biogas is the

Table 4
Energy share calculations of diesel and biogas fuel.

Mode of operation Load, Kg Energy equivalent of diesel, KW Energy equivalent of biogas, KW Diesel energy share, % Biogas energy share, %
Diesel 0 6.93 – 100 –
5 7.22 – 100 –
10 8.17 – 100 –
15 10.22 – 100 –
18 12.41 – 100 –
25% biogas with air 0 4.32 1.16 78.83 21.17
9 8.66 1.25 87.38 12.62
18 10.59 1.58 87.01 12.99

Please cite this article as: K. Adithya, F. Ahmed, P. Padmanathan et al., Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
4 K. Adithya et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
primary fuel and diesel is the pilot fuel. These two fuels together
provide the total energy for the generation of required amount of
power. During combustion the energy share of the pilot fuel was
found to be higher than the primary fuel. The energy share for a
fuel is dependent on many factors such as its calorific value, the
rate of fuel combustion, and the rate of consumption of fuel. In dual
fuel operation, the energy share is defined as the percentage of
energy provided by primary fuel with respect to the total energy
provided by both fuels. The following equation gives the energy
share of biogas in dual fuel operation:
Biogas energy share = [Energy equivalent of biogas /Energy
equivalent of (biogas + diesel)]  100
where; energy equivalent of diesel = (ṁdiesel  LHVdiesel)/3600
and; energy equivalent of biogas = (ṁbiogas  LHVbiogas)/3600
where, ṁ biogas and ṁdiesel are the mass flowrates of biogas and
diesel respectively, and LHV denotes the lower heating value of
that fuel. The energy share calculations of respective fuels is shown
in Table 4.
3. Results
3.1. Performance analysis
3.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
The variations in the brake thermal efficiency for the biogas
with varying brake power and different manifold lengths is
depicted in the Fig. 2. Brake thermal efficiency is the highest when
the Brake power and the manifold length is more than that of com-
pared with the less brake power and lower manifold length. This is
due to the increase in the inlet manifold lengths. The BTE for the
both the test fuels increase with the increase in load. This is obvi-
ous due to the increased cylinder temperature and pressure at
comparatively higher loads. The increase in temperature and pres-
sure in turn leads to increased combustions of biogas in the com-
bustion chamber. The brake thermal efficiency for setup running
on biogas and diesel at 1 m length inlet manifold and running in
biogas and diesel at 1.58 m inlet manifold gave 29.6% and 34.9%
at full load. An increase in BTE of 5.33% is observed for 1.58 m
length inlet manifold. An increase is observed because there is an
increase in the manifold length due to which there will be enough
time for engine breathing to take place. It is also observed from the
figure that the thermal efficiency of the dual fuel engine at all loads
under dual fuel operation is lower than that of the diesel engine.
3.1.2. Volumetric efficiency (VE)
Fig. 3 shows the variation of volumetric efficiency with engine
load. Volumetric efficiency decreased with the increase in engine
load. This is due to the decrease in the air density associated with
higher engine temperature at higher loads. Volumetric efficiencies
of the biogas blends were lower than the diesel fuel.
Fig. 2. Graph between brake power vs brake thermal efficiency.
Please cite this article as: K. Adithya, F. Ahmed, P. Padmanathan et al., Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
3.2. Emission
3.2.1. Carbon monoxide emission
The change of carbon monoxide emission with the variation in
loads is shown in the Fig. 4. It is known that the main source of car-
bon monoxide emissions is due to the improper combustion of the
fuel. The carbon monoxide emission for the increased manifold
length is higher than that of the existing manifold length for all
the load spectrum. It is due to the increase dual fuel operation with
the variable valve timing the carbon monoxide produced is slightly
higher than that when produced by diesel fuel operation for all the
load spectrum. Incomplete oxidation and the existence of the flame
extinction region is the main reason of the premixed biogas in dual
fuel. The main reason for the improper oxidation is due to the dilu-
tion of the charges with the carbon dioxide in the biogas. The oxi-
dation is due to the dilution of the charges with the carbon dioxide
in the biogas. Therefore, the flame produced is suppressed in the
ignition region of the fuel, and the flame does not move further
until the biogas-air mixture touches its auto-ignition temperature.
It has been come to know that the carbon monoxide emissions are
high at part load operations. The main reason is due to the forma-
tion of lean fuel to air mixtures in the zone adjacent to that of the
injection spray, where the produced flame will struggle to propa-
gate, and due to which the temperature lowers locally, therefore
there will be a reduction in the oxidation reactions, and results
at higher carbon monoxide emissions at part load operations.
3.2.2. Nitric oxides (NOx) emission
The variation in NOx emission with load for 1 m long inlet valve
manifold and 1.58 m long inlet valve manifold is illustrated in the
Fig. 5. It can be observed that NO emission for 1 m long inlet man-
ifold is higher than the 1.58 m long inlet manifold through the load
spectrum. This is due to the higher oxygen concentration in 1 m
long inlet manifold. There will be a decrease in the NOx produced
in longer manifolds because the amount of CO2 in this will dilute
the charge and lowers the cycle temperature significantly and
thereby the NOx emission is suppressed [18]. And one more reason
for NOx drop is that the volumetric efficiency is low in the 1.58 m
long manifold in the dual fuel operations. The NOx emission for
1 m long manifold and 1.58 m long manifold at maximum load is
300 ppm and 225 ppm in maximum load.
3.2.3. Unburnt hydrocarbons emission
The Fig. 6 shows the variation of UBHC emission with load. The
UBHC emissions decreases with increase in the load. The reasons
for this increase is the fuel properties like the ignition energy,
the betterment in the pilot fuel spray atomization characteristics,
the increased heat transfers to the air to fuel mixture and the
increase in the ignition centres during the combustion in the com-
Fig. 3. Graph between load vs volumetric efficiency.
 K. Adithya et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 4. Graph between load vs CO emission.
Fig. 5. Graph between load vs NOx emission.
Fig. 6. Graph between load vs unburnt hydrocarbons.
bustion chamber. The UBHC emissions are higher for the dual fuel
operations when compared to the conventional diesel fuel opera-
tion for all the testing conditions. Due to the induction of biogas
through the intake manifold of the engine it reduces the volume
of the incoming air which therefore becomes a rich mixture, thus
increasing the partial burning with less amount of oxygen.
3.2.4. Carbon dioxide emission
The Fig. 7 shows the variation of the carbon dioxide emission
with varying compression ratios of the engine load. CO2 emission
is increased in the exhaust at the higher compression ratios. It is
due to the clearance volume of combustion chamber reduces
which leads to increase the temperature of the combustion for a
good combustion process. More better the combustion more the
amount of CO2 emission in the combustion exhaust.
Please cite this article as: K. Adithya, F. Ahmed, P. Padmanathan et al., Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
5
Fig. 7. Graph between load vs CO2 emission.
4. Conclusion
The conclusions of the results obtained from the experiment are
as follows:
 For diesel engine the result for volumetric efficiency at full load
condition for 1 m and 1.58 m long runner length is 83.82% and
88.52% which is an increase of 4.70%.
 For diesel engine the result of brake thermal efficiency at full
load condition for 1 m and 1.58 m long runner length is
31.84% and 41.39% which is an increase of 9.55%.
 For dual fuel engine the result of volumetric efficiency at full
load condition for 1 m and 1.58 m long runner length is
74.76% and 79.54% which is an increase of 4.78%.
 For dual fuel engine the result of brake thermal efficiency at full
load condition for 1 m and 1.58 m long runner length is 29.6%
and 34.93% which is an increase of 5.33%
 There is a significant decrease in the emission of NOx, CO and
OHC.
 Tuning of inlet manifold by choosing the right runner length
turns out to be a very effective method to improve the perfor-
mance for both diesel engine and dual fuel engine.
 The runner length for the best performance can be calculated
using Chrysler Ram Theory and Helmholtz Resonator Theory.
 Considerable increase in performance parameters like mass
flow rate of air, volumetric efficiency and brake thermal effi-
ciency can be observed for diesel engine and dual fuel engine
and reduced CO2, NOX, UHC emissions have also been observed.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
K. Adithya: Conceptualization, Methodology. Fareed Ahmed:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Software. P. Padmanathan: Soft-
ware. C.G. Mohan: Visualization, Investigation, Writing - original
draft, Supervision. R. Prakash: Data curation, Writing - original
draft, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
References
[1] J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw Hill
International, New York, 1988.
6 K. Adithya et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
[2] S. Ghodke, S. Bari, Effect of integrating variable intake runner diameter and
variable intake valve timing on an SI engine’s performance, SAE Technical
Paper 2018-01-0380, 2018, pp. 1–9.
[3] I. Saad, S. Bari, Effects of guide vane swirl and tumble device (GVSTD) to the air
flow of naturally aspirated CI engine, in: Presented at the 9th International
Conference on Mechanical Engineering (ICME2011), Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2011.
[4] P. Sawant, S. Bari, Effects of variable intake valve timings and valve lift on the
performance and fuel efficiency of an internal combustion engine, SAE
Technical Paper 2018-01-0376, 2018, pp. 1–11.
[5] A. Ibrahim, S. Bari, F. Bruno, A study on EGR utilization in natural gas SI engines
using a two-zone combustion model, SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-2041,
2007, pp. 1–10.
[6] M. Handley, S. Writer, 54.5 MPG for all Cars by 2025 with new CAFE
standards?, 2012, Available: https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/
08/29/545-miles-per-gallon-for-all-cars-by-2025-not-exactly.
[7] A. Ibrahim, S. Bari, An investigation on using EGR in natural gas SI engine, in:
Presented at the International Conference on Mechanical Engineering, Dhaka,
Bangladesh, 2007.
[8] D.A. Moster, Intake manifold design for an air restricted engine, MS Thesis,
University of Cincinnati, 2012.
[9] R. Gokul, R. Baliga, Continuously Variable Transmission, NMAM Institute of
Technology, India, 2012.
[10] S.H. Khudhur, A.M. Saleh, M.T. Chaichan, The effect of variable valve timing on
SIE performance and emissions, Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 6 (8) (2015) 173–179.
[11] D.N. Malkhede, H. Khalane, Maximizing volumetric efficiency of IC engine
through intake manifold tuning, SAE Technical Paper 2015-01-1738, 2015, pp.
1–8.
Please cite this article as: K. Adithya, F. Ahmed, P. Padmanathan et al., Design optimization of intake manifold of dual fuel engine, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.726
[12] G. Sammut, A.C. Alkidas, Relative contributions of intake and exhaust tuning
on SI engine breathing-A computational study, SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-
0492, 2007, pp. 1–19.
[13] D. Vizard, How to super tune and modify holley carburetors, CarTech Inc, vol.
216, 2013.
[14] D.E. Winterbone, R.J. Pearson, Design Techniques for Engine Manifolds: Wave
Action Methods for IC Engines, Professional Engineering Publishing, Michigan,
1999.
[15] I. Saad, S. Bari, S.N. Hossain, In-cylinder air flow characteristics generated by
guide vane swirl and tumble device to improve air-fuel mixing in diesel engine
using biodiesel, Procedia Eng. 56 (2013) 363–368.
[16] S.N. Hossain, S. Bari, Additional power generation from the exhaust gas of
diesel engine by bottoming rankine cycle, SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-1639,
2013, pp. 1–11.
[17] G. Fontana, E. Galloni, Variable valve timing for fuel economy improvement in
a small spark-ignition engine, Appl. Energy 86 (1) (2009) 96–105.
[18] Saiful Bari, Pauras Sawan, Improvement of performance by 2-Step variations of
inlet runner length and inlet valve timing in the induction system of a SI
engine, Energy Procedi, Volume 160, 2019.
[19] Dileep Namdeorao Malkhede, Hemant Khalane, Maximizing volumetric
efficiency of IC engine through inlet manifold tuning, SAE Technical Paper
2015-01-1738, 2015.
[20] Bhaskor J. Bora, Ujjwal K. Saha, Soumya Chatterjee, Vijay Veer, Effect of
compression ratio on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of
a dual fuel diesel engine run on raw biogas, Energy Convers. Manage. 87
(2014).