NAME- ...

PREPARED BY ASHIF KHAN

CLASS-

1ST TERM

SOCIAL SCIENCE NOTES

📚 chapter 1 📚

👉 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 👈

✳️ WHAT IS NATIONALISM :-

🔹  Nationalism is a feeling of belonging and loyaity that causes people think of themselves as a Nation. 

🔹 During 19th & 20h centuries Nationalism was a powerful force that could create: 

🔹 One Nation from many separate countries 

(Ex. Italy & Germany) 

🔹 Break one nation up into many countries 

(Ex. Austria- Hungary and Turkey)

✳️ EUROPEAN SOCIETY :-

✴️THE UPPER CLASS :- 

🔹 The landed aristocracy were the dominant group. 

🔹 They had common interest and lifestyle. Owned large country estates and town houses. 
🔹 Most of them spoke french 

✴️LOWER CLASS :-

🔹 Majority of the people were peasants. 

🔹 Most were landless and worked as serfs.

✳️ French Revolution & The Idea of the Nation :-

🔹 French revolution started in 1789. 
🔹 France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under rule of a monarch. 
🔹 Political and constitutional changes that came in wake of the French revolution led to the transfer of
sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French citizens.
🔹 Various practices adopted to develop a sense of collective identity among people.
🔹 Declaration of mission to liberate Europe from despotism. 
🔹Setting up of Jacobin clubs by educated middle classes and students of Europe.
🔹 It also powered revolution in all Europe.

✳️ THE IDEA OF THE NATIONALISM :-

🔹 Idea of La Patrie (the fatherland) Le Citoyen (the citizenjwere emphasized. 
🔹 Adoption of new constitution with citizens enjoying equal rights. 
🔹 Adopted tri color as new French flag replacing royal standards. 
🔹 New hymns were composed oaths were taken & martyrs remembered in the name of natiop. 
🔹 Uniform system of weights & measures were adopted. 
🔹 Centralized administrative system was formulized. 
🔹 French become the national language and regional dialects were discouraged. 
🔹 Imaginary female allegories were used to show united nation. Such as : Marianna & Germania

✳️ Napoleon (1769-1821) :-

🔹  Ruled France from 1799 to 1815. 

🔹 Also known as Napoleon I, was a French military leader and emperor. 
🔹 Born on the island of Corsica. 
🔹 Napoleon rapidly rose through the ranks of the military during the French Revolution (1789-1799). 
🔹Assumed absolute powers in 1799 (coup d'état) by becoming the First Consul. 
🔹 Crowned himself emperor in 1804 and gave Civil Code/Napoleonic Code. 
🔹After a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon abdicated the throne. 
🔹 On June 18, at the Battle of Waterloo near Brussels, the French were crushed by the British, Austria,
Russia and Prussia (BARP).

✳️ Napoleonic Civil Code :-

✴️1804 In the administrative field Napoleon had incorporated revolutionary principles usually known as
the Napoleonic Code. It included following codes: a. 

🔹 It did away with all privileges based on birth .

🔹 It established equality before the law .
🔹 It secured the right to property .
🔹 It abolished the feudal system 
🔹 It freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. 
🔹 In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. 
🔹 Transport and communication system were improved.

✳️ Napoleon faced mixed reactions later :-

🔹 Initially, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. Following steps of Napoleon
turned him into a tyrant from hero. 

🔹 Increased taxation Censorship Forced 

🔹 conscription 
🔹 into the French armies

✳️ THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE :-

🔹 Till mid 18th century there was no concept of "Nation State" in Europe. 
🔹 Society and politics was dominated aristocracy. 
🔹 To the west, the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Easterm and Central Europe by
vast estates which were cultivated by serfs. 
🔹 Emergence of working and middle classes due to industrialization in 19th cent. 
🔹Educated, liberal middle classes popularized abolition of Aristocratic Privileges.

Europe was broadly divided into two classes :-, 

✳️ Aristocracy :-

🔹Land owning class. 

🔹 Numerically small, but dominated Europe, both socially and politically 
🔹 Spoke French which was considered the language of the high society .
🔹 Families were connected through marriage.

✳️Peasantry :-

🔹 Tenants and small land owners who worked as serfs .

🔹 Cultivated the lands of the aristocratic lords.

✴️The growth of trade and industrial production facilitated the growth of towns and rise of a commercial
class of traders. 

✴️Consequently, conscious, the new liberal emerged and nationalism educated, middle class and of
popularized stood for the abolition aristocracy.

✳️ Liberal Nationalism :-

🔹 Means : Individual freedom, Equality before law, Government by consent, Freedom of markets ,
Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

✴️ Liberal Nationalism

1. IN POLITIÇAL SPHERE
2. IN ECONOMIC SPHERE

✴️ IN POLITIÇAL SPHERE :-

🔹 Government by consent .
🔹 End of Autocracy .
🔹 Adoption of constitution . 
🔹 Abolition of property rights. 
🔹 Equality before law .
🔹 Representative Government through Parliament .

✴️ IN ECONOMIC SPHERE :-

🔹 Freedom for market. 

🔹 Removal of state imposed restrictions on movement of goods and capital. 
🔹 In 1834, a customs union Zollverein was formed 
🔹The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

✳️ Conservatism :-

🔹 1. Stands for the preservation of the traditional institutions of state and society such as the monarchy,
the church, social hierarchies and family along with the modern changes introduced by Napoleon.
Conservatism as a political ideology arose after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo. 

🔹2. The conservative regimes 

👉 Were autocratic .
👉 Were intolerant to criticism and dissent .
👉 Adopted the censorship of press for curbing the lberal ideals .
👉 Discouraged any questions that challenged their legitimacy .

✳️ Congress of Vienna (1815) :- 

🔹 For drawing a new settlement for Europe and restoring the monarchies that were overthrown by
Napoleon for creation of a new conservative order. The salient features of the treaty were as follows: 
🔹 The Bourbon dynasty restored to power in France. Louis XVIII was crowned king. 
🔹 France was disposed of its conquered territories. 
🔹  Kingdom of Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the North and Genoa was set up in
the South for preventing French expansion in future. 
🔹  Prussia was given new territories, including a portion of Saxony. 
🔹 Austria got control over Northern Italy. 
🔹 Russia got Poland. 
🔹 Napoleon's confederation of 39 states was not changed .
🔹  Imposed censorship laws .

✳️The Club of Thinkers :-

👉 This is an anonymous caricature dating to 1820s titled The Club of Thinkers'. Aa fictitious group of
professors and scholars is shown in this famous cartoon. The cartoon depicts the suppression of freedom
of expression.

🔹 1. The "club" is representative of all the clubs and societies that emerged at that point. 
🔹 2. The board on the right lists the rules of the Club which says 'Silence is the first commandment
(instruction) of this learned society.
🔹 3. It clearly depicts that the conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. 
🔹 4. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and
songs that reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom. 
🔹 5. The eight professors on the caricature are muzzled to restrain themselves from speaking in case they
feel tempted to speak or criticize the 1815 regime. So the intellectuals are left only with their right of
thought and prudently (cleverly) pose the question, how long they will still be allowed to think.

✳️ The Revolutionaries :-

🔹  Establishment of Secret Societies to spread the Ideas of nationalism and oppose conservatism. 

🔹 Mazzini viewed " Nation States" to be necessary and opposed Monarchy. 

🔹 Inspired other secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Giuseppe Mazzini joined
one such society at Carbonan. 

🔹 Later, he established two more Secret societies "Young Italy" in Marseilles, and then, "Young Europe"
in Berne. 

🔹 Conservative frightened by his move.

✳️ Guiseppe Mazzini (1805 -1872 ) :-

🔹 Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. 

🔹 He was born in Genoa, Italy in 1807. 
🔹  His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy. 
🔹 He was the member of the secret society of the Carbonari. 
🔹 He attempted a revolution in Liguria in 1831 and was sent into exile. 
🔹 He founded two underground societies Young Italy (1832) in Marseilles and Young Europe (1834) in
Berne. 
🔹 Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'.

✳️ Division Age of Revolution :-

🔹 Age of Revolution-1830-1848 ( can be divided under three stages)

👉 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling .

👉 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt .
👉 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals .

✳️ The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling :-

🔹 Use of culture to create idea of a Nation. 

🔹 Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science. 
🔹 Focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. 
🔹 Used Art Poetry Stories & Music to shape nationalists feelings. 
🔹 Collected Folklores to spread Nationalism even among illiterates. 
🔹 Language also played a vital role for e.g. The use of Polish language in Poland came to be seen as a
symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

✳️ HUNGER, HARDSHIP AND REVOLT :-

🔹 The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.

🔹 The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe. 
🔹 Large Scale rural migration to cities led to overcrowded cities and reduced Jobs .
🔹 Stiff competition between hand made goods and cheap machine made goods .
🔹 Pegsants burdened with feudal dues as in rural areas aristocracy was stil enjoying the power.
🔹 The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and Country. 
🔹 Peasants and weavers revolted and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.

✳️ The Revolution of the Liberals- 1848 :-

🔹 French Monarchy uprooted by revolt of 1848 & a Repubic hod been proclaimed. 
🔹 Demand of liberal middle classes for constitutionalism with National Unification. 
🔹 In Germany Professionals businessmen, Artisans decided to vote for all German Nationai assembly. 
🔹 Frankturt Parliament organized in Church of St. Paul, constitution was drafted for a German nation to
be Keaded by a monarchy subject to a parliament. 
🔹 Offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, He rejected joined other monarchs to
oppose the elected assembly .

✳️ Continued.. . 

🔹 Social base of parliament shifted to middle class dominance. 

🔹 Lost the support of workers and artisans. 
🔹 Political associations were formed by women for Political Rights. 
🔹 Condervative forces suppressed liberals. 
🔹 Fearing future revolutions Monarchs introduced changes. 
🔹 Serfdom and bonded labour abolished.

✳️ The Making Of Germany :-

🔹 In may 1848 the liberal attempt to set up a constitutional monarchy at Frankfurt was suppressed by the
monarchy military and Junkers. 
🔹 After the failure of the German National Assembly , Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck took
the lead in German Unification .
🔹 Three Wars for 7 years with Austria, Denmark and France completed German unification. 
🔹 Prussian King Kaiser William -I become the emperor of United Germany. 
Currency Banking and Judicial System was legalized .

✳️ Unification of Italy :-

🔹  Italy was divided in 7 states of which only one, Sardinia - Piedmont was ruled by an Italian dynasty. - 
🔹 Ideas of Italian unification first given by Giuseppe Mazzini through his Secret Society called Young
Italy. 
🔹 Atter his failed revolutions in 1831 and 1848, the lead was taken by the King of Sardinia, Victor
Emmanuel -II. 
🔹 Chief Minister of Sardinia, Count Cavour led the unification process by diplomatic alliance with france
to defeat Austria and unify its northem territories.
🔹 In the southern part, Giuseppe Garibaldi ied the movement by involving local peasant support to drive
out the Spanish rulers. 
🔹  Thus the process of unification wos completed with the crowning of Victor Emmanuel-Il as king of
Italy in 1861.

✳️ The Strange Case of Britain :-

🔹  No British nation existed before 18th century. 

🔹 Ethnic groups like English, Welsh, Scots, inhabited British Isle having their own cultural & Political
Bases. 
🔹 Growth of English Nations wealth and Power, English parliament seized monarchy in 1688. 
🔹 Act Of Union-1707 between England and Scotland formed United Kingdom of Great Britain. 
🔹 Systematic suppression of Scottish Culture, Language by English began. Many were drive out of their
homeland. 
🔹 British helped Protestants against Catholics of Ireland. 
🔹 Later Catholic Revolt as suppressed. 
🔹 In 1801 Ireland was also incorporated forcibly into United Kingdom.

✳️ Visualizing Nation :-

🔹 Nations began to be portrayed as female figures called Allegory. 

🔹 Ideas like Liberty Justice, and Republic too were personified as female figures. 
🔹 Allegories were erected at squares to mark national Unity. 
🔹 Coins and Stamps too caried their images. 
🔹 Marianne represented Republic of France and Germania portrayed German Nation .

✳️ Nationalism and Imperialism :-

🔹  Balkan Isue - Balkans become the source of Nationalist Tension in Europe after 1871 .
🔹 it was too a region of geographical & ethnic variations .
🔹 Inhabited by slaves & was under control of Ottoman Empire .
🔹 ldeas of nationalism swept over entire Balkan region .
🔹 One by one different Nationalities declared their independence through struggle.

✳️ Continued.....

🔹 It became an area of conflict among its Nationalities and later became one of the causes of First World
War.
🔹 Each state develop jealously & hope to expand at the cost of others. 
🔹 European power further complicated the situation. 
🔹 They were struggling to prove their trade & military might over the others. 
🔹 Countries like Russia, Germany. England, Austria- Hungary, extended their control over Balkan Area.

Class 10th Political science chapter 1 Power sharing Notes in English

📚 Chapter = 1 📚
👉 Power sharing 👈

❇️ 'Ethnic':-

🔹 Ethnic means a social division based on shared culture and common descent. People belonging to an
ethnic group need not have the same religion or nationality. 

❇️Majoritarianism :-

🔹 A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by
disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority is majoritarianism.

❇️ What is Power :-

🔹 Sharing Power Sharing is a political arrangement to share the powers at different levels. 
🔹 idea so that the power is not concentrated in one hand and that different forms can also keep a check on
one another.
🔹 Separation of powers between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.

❇️ Features of power sharing :-

🔹 Coalition government in which different parties can participate.

🔹 Protection of minority groups.
🔹 Decentralisation of powers.
🔹 Decision making by consensus.
❇️ Case study of Belgium and Sri Lanka :-

❇️ Belgium and Sri Lanka :-

🔹 Belgium is a small country in Europe. 

🔹 It has borders with Netherlands, France and Germany. 
🔹 59% in the Flemish region speaks Dutch. 
🔹 Another 40% people live in Wallonia region and speaks French. 
🔹 Remaining 1% of the Belgians speak Germany. 
🔹 In the capital city Brussels, 80% people speak French while 20% are Dutch - speaking. 
🔹 The minority French - speaking community was relatively rich and powerful. 
🔹 This was resented by the Dutch-speaking community who got the benefit of the economic development
and education much later. 
🔹The tension between two communities was acuter in Brussels. 
🔹 Like other nations in the south Asia region, Sri Lanka has a diverse population. 
🔹 The Sinhala speaks are 74% and Tamil speakers are 18% 
🔹 Among Tamils, there are two sub groups, Tamil natives of the country are called "Sri Lankan Tamils";
the rest whose forefathers came from India as a population workers during the colonial period, is called
Indian Tamils'.

❇️Considering Belgium :-

🔹 Small country in Europe.

🔹 Borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany and Luxembourg. 

✴️Two regions: 
🔹 Flemish and Wallonia 
✴️Dutch :- speaking: 59% :Flemish region (majority) 
✴️French :- speaking: 40% : Wallonia region (minority) 
✴️German :- speaking remaining 1% 

✴️  Capital of Belgium :- Brussels 

✴️French :- speaking: 80% (majority) 
✴️Dutch :- speaking: 20% (minority)

❇️ Considering Belgium : Reasons of tension in Belgium :-

🔹 French community was relatively rich and powerful than Dutch community. 
🔹 Dutch community was in majority in the whole county but minority in the capital. 
🔹 Tensions between both communities during the 1950's and 1960's.
🔹 Recognising the differences of regional and cultural diversities, they amended their constitution four
times.
🔹 Following are the elements of the Belgian model: 
🔹 Dutch and French speaking leaders had to be equal in number in the Central government. 
🔹 Power was given to the state government. 
🔹 Brussels had a separate government in which there were equal number of representatives from both the
communities.

❇️ Accommodation in Belgium : Community government was the third kind of government :- 

🔹 Elected by people belonging to one language community.

🔹 This government has powers regarding cultural, educational and language-related issues.

❇️ Complicated yet successful model BELGIUM :-

🔹 This system helped in avoiding civic strife among the communities. 

🔹 Helped in a possible division of the country on linguistic lines.
🔹 Brussels, capital city of Belgium was chosen as the headquarters of the European Union.

❇️ Considering SriLanka :-

🔹 Island nation 
🔹 Lies on the southern coast of Tamil Nadu 
🔹 Sinhala - speaking :74% - Buddhists 
🔹 Tamil speaking : 18% - Hindus or Muslims 
🔹 Both Tamil and Sinhala speaking Christians : 7%

❇️ Considering Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka :-

🔹 Emerged as an independent country in 1948.

🔹 Sinhala community attained dominance over the government.
🔹 Hence, adopted a series of Majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala Supremacy. 
❇️Changes in Sri Lanka :-

🔹 In 1956, an Act was passed which recognised only Sinhala language, disregarding Tamil.
🔹 Followed preferential policies that favoured the Sinhala. 
🔹 Favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs. 
🔹 Protected and fostered Buddhism. 
🔹 This increased the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils.

❇️ Tamil community was infuriated :-

🔹 Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an official language.
🔹 Demanded equality of opportunities in securing education and jobs. 
🔹 independent Tamil Eelam (state) 
🔹 Demands were denied. 

❇️Civil War :-

🔹 The relations between Sinhala and Tamil were strained and ended with the Civil War. 
🔹 Thousands of people from both the communities were killed.
🔹 Many families were asked to leave the country as refugees.
🔹 Many lost their livelihoods. 
🔹 It caused a major setback to the Srilankan economy.

❇️ Why is power sharing desirable? 

✴️Prudential reason :- It helps to reduce the possibility of conflicts between the social groups. 

✴️Moral reason :- Good way to ensure the stability of the political order Power Sharing is the Spirit of
Democracy.

❇️Principles of a good democracy :-

🔹 that power of a government must not vest in one person or a group of persons. 
🔹 that people are the source of all political power. 
🔹 that due respect be given to diverse groups and everyone should have a voice in the shaping of public
policies.

❇️ System of checks an of balances :-

🔹 The horizontal distribution of power ensures that power is shared among different organs of
government-the legislature, executive and judiciary. It allows different organs of government placed at
the same level to exercise different powers. In a democracy, ministers and government officials exercise
power. They are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies. The judges appointed by the executive
can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislature. The horizontal distribution of
power is also called a system of checks and balances.

❇️ Power-sharing in contemporary democracies :-

🔹 In contemporary democracies, power-sharing takes the form of competition among different parties.
Such competition ensures that power does not remain in one hand and is shared among different political
parties representing different social groups and ideologies. This type of sharing often leads to the
formation of an alliance between two or more parties, which, goes to form a Coalition Government.

❇️ Forms of Power Sharing :-

👉 Among different organs of government. 

👉 Among governments at different levels. 
👉 Among different social groups.
👉 By the way of political parties, pressure groups and movements.

❇️ Among different organs of the government :-

🔹 Legislative, Executive and Judiciary.

🔹 Horizontal distribution of power.
🔹 None has unlimited powers, one checks the other.
🔹 Balanced.
🔹 Also called a system of Checks and Balance.

❇️ Among governments at Different levels :-

🔹 Central, state and local government.

🔹 Vertical distribution of power.
🔹Federal government .

❇️Among Different Social Groups :-

🔹 Religious and linguistic groups.

🔹 Reserved constituencies are represented in legislatures and administration.
🔹 Favourable for the minority communities as well. 

❇️By the way of Political Parties, Pressure Groups & Movements :-

🔹 In the longer run, power is shared amongst different political parties or social groups so formed.
🔹 Direct or coalition government.
🔹 Interest groups- traders, industrialists, farmers.

📚 Chapter = 2 📚
👉 Federalism 👈

🔹 In the previous chapter, we noted that vertical division of power among different levels of government
is one of the major forms of power sharing. 

🔹 In this chapter, we focus on this form of power sharing. It most commonly referred to as federalism. 

🔹 We begin by describing federalism in general terms. The rest of the chapter tries to understand the
theory and practice of federalism in India. 

🔹 Towards the end of the chapter, we turn to the local government, a new and the third tier of Indian
federalism.

❇️Federalism :-

🔹 Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and
various constituent units. 
🔹 [Two or more than two tiers]
❇️The Key features of Federalism :-

🔹 There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 

🔹 Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own JURISDICTION in
specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration. 

🔹 The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the
existence and authority of each tier of gover nment is constitutionally guaranteed .

🔹 The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of
government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. 

🔹 Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government.
The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the
exercise of their respective powers. 

🔹 Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy. 

🔹 The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the
same time accommodate regional diversity.

❇️Objectives Federal :-

🔹 Federal system has dual objectives:-

👉 To accomodate regional diversity. 

👉 To safeguard and promote unity of country.

❇️ TWO CRUCIAL ASPECTS OF AN IDEAL FEDERALISM :-

🔹 Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing. 

🔹 Trust and agreement to live together must be there.

❇️ Types of Federalion :-

✴️Coming Together :-

🔹 The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that
by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of 'coming
together' federations include the USA, Switzerland and Australia.

✴️Holding Together :-

🔹 The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States
and the national government. India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of 'holding together'
federations.

❇️ What has made India a Federal Country?

🔹 Constitution has declared India as a Union of States. 

🔹 Three tier Federalism- Union, State and Panchayat. 

🔹 Three fold distribution of legislative powers under Union list, State list and Concurrent list.

🔹 All states in India Unions do not have identical powers. E.g. union territories. 

🔹Changes in power sharing has to be passed by two-third majority in the parliament.

🔹 In case of any dispute regarding division of power, the apex court will take decision.

❇️Three Gold Distribution Of LEGISLATIVE POWER :-

✴️ Union List :-
🔹 Union List includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country, foreign affairs,
banking, communications and currency. 

🔹 They are included in this list because we need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the
country. 

🔹 The Union Government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union List.

✴️ State List :-

🔹 State List contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture
and irrigation. 

🔹 The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List.

✴️ Concurrent List :-

🔹 Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the
State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession. 

🔹 Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. 

🔹 If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail.
❇️ HOW DOES INDIA PRACTICE FEDERALISM?

🔹 Constitutional provisions are necessary for the success of federalism but these are not sufficient. 

🔹The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to the nature of democracy.

✴️politics in our country:-

👉 LINGUISTIC STATES
👉  LANGUAGE POLICY 
👉 CENTRE-STATE RELATION

❇️Linguistic States :-
🔹 In 1947, the boundaries of several old States of India were changed in order to create new States. This
was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same State.

🔹 Some States were created not on the basis of language but to recognise differences based on culture,
ethnicity or geography. These include States like Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.

🔹 When the demand for the formation of States on the basis of language was raised, some national leaders
feared that it would lead to the disintegration of the country. 

🔹 The Central Government resisted linguistic States for some time. But the experience has shown that the
formation of linguistic States has actually made the country, more united. It has also made administration
easier.

❇️ Language policy :-

🔹 Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. 

🔹 According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965. However,
many non Hindi speaking States demanded that the use of English continue. 

🔹 In Tamil Nadu, this movement took a violent for m. The Central Government responded by agreeing to
continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes.

🔹  Hindi was identified as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent
of Indians.

🔹 But besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the
Constitution.

🔹 States too have their own official languages.

❇️ Centre-State Relations :-
🔹 For a long time, the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of the States. This meant that the
State governments did not exercise their rights as autonomous federal units. As and when the ruling party
at the State level was different, the parties that ruled at the Centre tried to undermine the power of the
States. In those days, the Central Government would often misuse the Constitution to dismiss the State
governments that were controlled by rival parties.

🔹 All this changed significantly after 1990. This period saw the rise of regional political parties in many
States of the country. 

🔹 This was also the beginning of the era of COALITION G OVERNMENTS at the Centre. Since no
single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties had to enter into an alliance
with many parties including several regional parties to form a government at the Centre. 

🔹 This trend was supported by a major judgement of the Supreme Court that made it difficult for the
Central Government to dismiss state governments in an arbitrary manner.

📚 At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women. 

📚 An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each State to
conduct panchayat and municipal elections. 
📚 The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies.
The nature of sharing varies from State to State.

❇️ Decentralisation in India :-

👉 Meaning ➡️Need 

🔹 When power is taken away from central and state government and given to local government, it is
called decentralisation. 

❇️The major step towards decentralisation was taken 1992.

🔹 Constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies. 

🔹 Reservation of seats for SC, ST and OBCS. 

🔹 At least one-third of all position are reserved for women.

🔹 Creation of state election commision. 

🔹 The state governments are required to share some power and revenue with local government bodies.

Structure of the new Panchayati Raj institutions: Rural Local Government is known by the name of
Panchayati Raj. 

🔹 Each village or group of villages has a Gram Panchayat. Panch, President or Sarpanch are directly
elected by all the adult population of the village and is the decision-making body. 

🔹 The Panchayat works under the supervision of Gram Sabha, with all the voters as its members. The
local structure goes up to the district level-a group of Gram Panchayats form a Panchayat Samiti or Block
or Mandal. All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals together constitute the Zilla Parishad which consists of
elected members. 

🔹  Lok Sabha members, Local MLAS and officers are also members of the Zilla Parishad. Its Chairperson
is the political head of the Parishad.

❇️ Urban areas local bodies :-

🔹 Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations. Both are
controlled by elected bodies consisting of people's representatives. Municipal chairperson is the political
head of the Municipality. The head of Municipal Corporation is an officer called the Mayor.

❇️ The Local Government Structure or Village Level :-

✴️Gram Panchyat :- Each village or group of village in some states has a gram Panchayat. This is a
council consisitng of several members often called Panch and a president or sarpanch. They are directly
elected by the adult population of ward. 

✴️Panchayat Samiti / Block Samiti :- A few Gram Panchayat are grouped together to form what is
usually called a Panchayat or Block or Mandat Samiti the member of this represintaitive body are elected
by all the panchayat memebrs in that area.

✴️ Zila Parishad :- All the Panchayat Samiti and Mandals in a district together constitute the Zila
Parishad. Most of the mebers of Zila Parishad are elected. 
✴️Zila Parishad :- Members of loksabha + MLA's of that district & some other officials of other district
level. 

🔹 Chairperson is the political head of Zila Parishad

Class 10th social science Economics chapter 1 Development Notes in

English

📚 Chapter = 1 📚

👉 Development 👈

❇️ Development :-

🔹 Development is defined as growth. Some of the important goals are seeking more income, equal
treatment, freedom, security, respect for others etc.

❇️ WHAT DEVELOPMENG PROMISES - DIFFERENT PEOPLE, DIFFERENT GOALS :-

🔹 People seek things that are most important for them, i.e., that which can fulfill their aspirations or
desires. 
🔹 In fact, at times, two persons or groups of persons may seek things which are conflicting. 

🔹 So two things are quite clear: 

    (i) Different persons can have different developmental goals. 

   (ii) What may be developed for one may not be developed for the other. It may even be destructive for
the other.

❇️ Income and Other Goals :-

🔹 A person have two types of development goals ie:

👉 1) Material, Things :- money, car, house etc.

👉  2 ) Non-Material Things :- Fredom, friends, equality, respect ete for  ie  both material and non-
material things are equally important or we can say  that for

development people look at mix of goals.

❇️Concept of National Development :-

🔹 World Development Report 2006, “In 2004 countries with per capita income of Rs. 453000 per annum
are called rich or developed countries.

🔹 Those with per capita income of Rs.37000 or less are called low income countries.

🔹 Human Development Report 2006 published by UNDP, “Development is based on per capita income,
educational levels of the people and their health status.

❇️ National Development :-

🔹 National development refers to the ability of a country to improve the social welfare of the people. 

🔹 For example: by providing social amenities such as quality education, potable water, transportation,
infrastructure and medical care.

❇️Comparing Development of different countries/States :-

✴️ Comparing Economic Development of Countries :-

🔹 It is earned per person in a given area.

🔹 It is also known as the per capita income.

🔹 Standard of living of the people depends on their per capita income.

🔹 Countries with higher per capita income are considered to be more developed than with less per capita
income.

🔹 It is calculated by dividing the area's total income by its total population.

❇️ Classifying countries (per capita income criteria of World Bank)

👉 Rich countries ➡️US$ 12236 PA or above

👉 Low income countries ➡️US$ 1005 PA or less

👉 Low middle income countries ➡️ US$ 1840 PA in 2016.  india comes in this category

❇️ Average Income Per capit a Income :-

🔹 Per capita income or average income is calculated by dividing the total income of a country with its
population.

🔹 Averages are useful for comparison, they also hide disparities.

❇️  Income along with other criterion :-

🔹 In comparison of per capita income states, Haryana has 1,62,034 and bihar has 34,168 per capita
income respectively. 

🔹 In this case Haryana would be considered most developed and Bihar would be considered the least
developed.

🔹 But in comparison of infant mortality rate Haryana: 36 per thousand.

🔹 Kerala is 12 per thousand and Bihar is 42 per thousand.

🔹 This shows that besides income all the other factors are also important.
❇️ Infant Mortality Rate :-

🔹 It indicates the number of children that die before the age of one year as a proportion of 1000 live
children born in that particular area.

❇️ Literacy Rate :-

🔹 It indicates the proportion of literate population in the 7 and above age group.

❇️ Non Attendance Ratio :-

🔹 it is the total number of children of age group 14 and 15 years attending school as a percentage of total
number of children in the same age group.

❇️ Public Facilities :-

🔹 The facilities that are provided by the government to satisfy the collective needs of the people,
example- hospitals, schools, community halls etc.

🔹 Money in your pocket cannot buy all the goods and services that you may need to live well. Eg: 
       1. Money cannot buy a pollution free environment.

       2. It cannot ensure that you are getting unadulterated medicines.

🔹 Kerala has a low Infant Mortality rate(12 per thousand) since it has adequate provisions of basic health
and educational facilities. 

🔹 Public distribution system (PDS) of some states functions well. Health and nutrition status of people of
such states is likely to be better than the others.

❇️ Human Development :-

🔹 It is defined as a composite statistic of the life expectancy, Education and per capita income indicators
which are used to rank countries in four tiers of human development. 

🔹 Human development index report is prepared by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

❇️  The three Indicators :-

✴️Life Expectancy Ratio: It is defined as the average expected length of life of a person at the time of
birth.
✴️Gross enrolment Ratio: it is determined by the number of students enrolled in school at different grade
levels.

✴️Per capita Income: it is the mean income of the people in an economic unit, calculated by total income
divided by the total population.

❇️ Human Development Index :-

👉 Total number of countries whose HDI report is prepared : 189

👉  HDI rank of India (2016) : 131 

👉  HDI rank of India (2019) : 129

❇️ Sustainability of Development :-

🔹 Development should take place without harming the environment. 

🔹 It is the capability to use resources judiciously and maintain the ecological balance.
🔹 It is essential for the survival of the future generation. It takes care of overall development of economy
such as health care and education.

👉 Example

✴️Renewable Resource : Groundwater is under serious threat of overuse. It is replenished by nature. 

👉 Example 

✴️Non-Renewable Resource : the reserves of Crude Oil will last for 50 years for all over the world.

📚 Chapter = 2 📚

👉 SECTORS OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY 👈

❇️ Sectors of Economic Activities :-

🔹 Sector defines a large segment of the economy in which businesses share the same or a related product
or service.
❇️ Economic Activities :-

🔹 

Economics activities are such activity which gets you some income while performing them. For example,
a doctor is earing by treating his patients. 

❇️ Non Economic Activities :-

🔹 Non-economic activities are the activities from which do not gain anything earn you any income. For
example, a doctor treating his own family members doesn't earn any money.

❇️On the basis of nature of activity, the economic activities are :-

✴️ Primary Sector :- Producing a good by exploiting natural resources is an activity of primary sector.
Such as: Agriculture, Dairy fishing forestry and so on.

✴️ Secondary Sector: :- covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms through
ways of manufacturing that we associate with industrial activities. Such as using cotton fiber from plant.

✴️ Tertiary Sector :- These activities by themselves do not produce a good but they are an aid or a support
for the production process. This sector is known as Service sector also. Such as transport services,
insurance services and so on.
❇️ Comparing the Three Sectors :-

✴️Intermediate Goods - Those goods which are sold by one firm to another either for resale or for further
processing.

✴️ Final Goods - Those goods which are used either for final consumption or for capital formation. These
are not resold.

❇️ Historical Changes In sectors :-

✴️Primary Sector :-

🔹 As the method of farming changed and the agricultural sector began to prosper production increased. 

🔹 Many people could not take up other activities. 

🔹 It is the stage of the goods produced were natural products and most people employed in this sector.

✴️Secondary Sector :-
🔹 Because of new methods of manufacturing were introduced, factories came up and started expanding.
Farmers began to work in factories.

🔹 This sector slowly became the most important sector in the total production and employment. 

🔹 Hence a shift had taken place. It means the importance of sectors had changed.

✴️ Tertiary Sector :-

🔹 In the 100 past there has been another years shift from secondary to tertiary sector in the developed
countries. 

🔹 The service has become the most important. in terms of total production. Most of the working people
also employed in the service sector.

🔹 These are observed in the developed countries.

❇️ Rising Importance of Tertiary sectors in production :-

🔹Basic services like hospitals, education, post and telegraph, courts, etc. are the responsibility of the
government in developing countries.

🔹Demand for services such as transport, trade, storage will increase with the development of primary and
secondary sectors.

🔹Demand for tourism, shopping, private schools, private hospitals, etc. increases with the increase in the
level of income.

🔹Rapid growth of service sector also benefited from external demand such as software industry and call
centre services. 

🔹 Liberalisation of financial sector provided an environment for faster growth of financial services.

❇️ Underemployment :-

🔹 Underemployment is a hidden kind of unemployment. Each one is doing some work but no one is fully
employed. This is the situation of underemployment, where people are apparently working but all of them
are made to work less than their potential.

❇️ Open Unemployment :-
🔹 refers to the situation in which an individual has no job and unable to earn his livelihood. This
unemployment is clearly visible.

❇️ Disguised Unemployment :-

🔹 refers to the situation in which people work at a place where there is no more people are required. The
situation in which people are apparently working but all of them are made to work less then their
potential. This unemployment is hidden.

❇️ Sectors on the basis of Employment Condition :-

✴️(I) ORGANISED SECTOR :- 

🔹 The organised sector covers those enterprises or places of work where the terms of employment are
regular and therefore, people have assured work. They are registered by the government and have to
follow its rules and regulations which are given in various laws such as the Factories Act, Minimum
Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops Act etc. Examples are Reliance Industries Limited, Tata
Motors etc.

✴️ (II) UNORGANISED SECTOR :-

🔹 The unorganised sector contains enterprises not registered by the government. The unorganised sector
is characterised by small and scattered units, which do not follow proper rules for employment or give
any leaves or other benefits. Examples are casual workers in construction, shops, garages etc.
❇️How to Create More Employment?

🔹 Away by which we can tackle this problem is to identify, promote and locate industries and a large
number of people may be employed. 

🔹 A study conducted by the Planning Commission estimates that nearly 20 lakh jobs can be created in the
education sector alone. 

🔹 Every state or region has the potential for increasing the income and employment for people in that
area. 

🔹 The same study by the Planning Commission says that if tourism as a sector is improved, every year we
can give additional employment to more than 5 lakh people. 

🔹 We must realize that some of the suggestions discussed above would take a long time to implement. 

🔹 Recognizing this, the central government in India made a law implementing the Right to Work.

🔹 Under MGNERGA 2005, all those who are able to, and are in need of, work are guaranteed 100 days of
employment in a year by the government. 
🔹 If the government fails in its duty to provide employment, it will give unemployment allowances to the
people.

Class 10th Geography chapter 1 Resources and Development Notes in

English

📚 Chapter = 1 📚

👉 Resources and Development 👈

❇️ Resources :-

🔹 Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is
technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as 'Resources'.

❇️  TYPES OF RESOURCES :-

🔹 These resources can be classified in the following ways :-

✴️(a) On the basis of origin :- 

👉 ( I ) Biotic Resources 

👉 ( II ) Abiotic Resources 

✴️(b) On the basis of exhaustibility :- 

👉 ( I ) Renewable resources 

👉 ( II ) Non Renewable Resources 

✴️(c) On the basis of ownership :- 

👉 ( I ) Individual resources

👉 ( II ) Community Owned Resources

👉 ( III ) National Resources 

👉 ( IV ) International resources 

✴️(d) On the basis of status of development :- 

👉 ( I ) potential Resources

👉 ( II ) developed 
👉 ( III ) stock 

👉 ( IV ) reserves

❇️ Types of resources On the basis of origin :-

✴️  Biotic Resources :- Resources which are obtained from biosphere and have life known as Biotic
Resources. Such as human beings, flora and fauna.

✴️  Abiotic Resources :- All those things which are composed of non-living things are called Abiotic
Resources. For example- Rocks and metals.

❇️ Types of resources On the basis of exhaustibility :-

✴️Renewable resources :- The Resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or
mechanical processes are known as renewable resources. For example - Solar and Wind.

✴️  Non Renewable Resources :- These resources take millions of years in their formation. Some of the
resources like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot be recycled and get exhausted with
their use.

❇️ Types of resources On the basis of ownership :-

✴️  Individual resources :- Resources are owned Privately by indiividual known as Individuals resources.

✴️Community Owned Resources :- There are resources which are accessible to all members of the
community known as Community owned resources.

✴️National Resources :- All the resources within the political boundaries and oceanic area known as
National Resources.

✴️International resources :- The International Resources Panel is a scientific panel of experts that aim to
help nations use natural resources sustainably without compromising economic growth and human needs.

❇️Types of resources On the basis of status of development :-

✴️ potential Resources :- Resources which are found in a region but have not been utilised known as
Potential Resources.

✴️ developed :- Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for
utilisation known as Developed Resources.

✴️stock :- Materials in the environement which have potential to satisfy human needs but human beings
do not have the appropriate technology to access these is known as Stock.
✴️ reserves :- Reserve the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing technical
'know - how' but their use has not been started.

❇️  Development of Resources :-

🔹 Resources are vital for survival and maintaining the quality of life.

🔹 It was believed that resources are free gifts of nature so, human beings used them indiscriminately and
this has led to the following major problems: 

👉 Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals. 

👉 Accumulation of resources in few hands which divides the society into rich and poor. 

👉 Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global warming,
ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.

🔹 For a sustained quality of life and global peace, an equitable distribution of resources has become
essential. 

🔹 For using resources judiciously, we need to adopt sustainable economic development. 

❇️ Sustainable Development :-

🔹 Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the
environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future
generations.
❇️ Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit :-

🔹 1992 In June 1992 considering the same issue more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in
Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit.

🔹 The summit was organised for addressing urgent problems of environmental protection and
socioeconomic development at the global level.

🔹 The Rio Convention endorsed the global forest principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
sustainable development in the 21st century.

❇️ Agenda 21 :-

🔹 Agenda 21 was the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), which aimed at achieving global sustainable development.

🔹 It is an agenda to fight environmental damage, poverty, disease through global cooperation on common
interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.

🔹 One major objective of the Agenda 21 was that every local government should draw its own local
Agenda 21.
❇️ Resource Planning :-

 Resource planning is a complex process which involves:- 

🔹 Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.

🔹 Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for
implementing resource development plans. 

🔹 Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

❇️ Conservation of Resources :-

🔹 Resource conservation at various levels is important. 

🔹 Gandhiji was very apt in voicing his concern about resource conservation in these words: "There is
enough for everybody's need and not for any body's greed."
❇️ Land under Relief features :-

🔹 Supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication
system.

🔹 But, Available in finite magnitude.

❇️  Land under Relief features :-

✴️Plains :- 43% :- Agriculture and Industry 

✴️Mountains :- 30% : perennial flow of rivers, tourism, ecological aspect 

✴️Plateau :- 27% : reserves of fossil fuels, minerals, and forests.

❇️ Land Utilisation :-

🔹 Forests 

🔹 Land not available for cultivation

🔹 Other uncultivated land 

🔹 Fallow lands 

🔹 Net sown area.

❇️  Land use patterns in india :-

🔹 Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq. km. 

🔹 Land use data however is available only for 93% of the total area because the land use reporting far
most of the North-East States except Assam has not been done fully. 

🔹 Some area of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed. 

🔹 The land under permanent pasture has also decreased. 

🔹 Fallow land - left without cultivation far one or less than one agricultural year. 

🔹 Net sown area total -total area sown in an agricultural year. 

🔹 More net sown area in Punjab and Haryana. 

🔹 Less net sown area in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman.

🔹 Nicobar Islands. 

🔹 National Forest Policy in India in 1952. 

🔹 Waste land includes rocky, Arid and desert area and land put to other non agricultural uses includes
settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.

❇️ LAND DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES :-

🔹 At present, there are about 130 million hectares of degraded land in India. 

🔹 Some human activities such as deforestation, over grazing, mining and quarrying too have contributed
significantly in land degradation. 

🔹 In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to mining have
caused severe land degradation. 

🔹 In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main
reasons for land degradation. 
🔹 In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land
degradation.

✴️ Conservation of Land :-

👉 Afforestation & Proper management of grazing lands

👉 Planning of shelter belts 

👉 Control of Overgrazing

👉 Thorny bushes to stabilise sand dunes 

👉 Control on mining activities 

👉 Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents

❇️ SOIL AS A RESOURCES :-

🔹 Important renewable natural resource Supports plant growth and different types of living organisms.

🔹 Forces of nature such as temperature, actions of running water, wind, glaciers etc help in the formation.

🔹 Consists of organic and inorganic materials Classified into different types depending upon factors such
as soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age,chemical and physical properties.

❇️  Types of Soils :-

🔹 Alluvial Soil
🔹 Black Soil

🔹 Red and Yellow soil

🔹 Laterite Soil

🔹 Arid Soil

🔹 Forest Soils

❇️ Alluvial Soil :-

🔹 Expanded almost 45 percent of total area of India. 

🔹 These soils contains adequate propotion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime. 

🔹 These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra.

🔹 Consists various amount of sand, silt and clay. 

🔹 According to age of divided into - Khadar and Bangar. 

🔹 Ideal for the growth of Sugarcane, Paddy, Wheat and cereal and pulse crops.

❇️  Black Soil :-

🔹 In colour Black and known as regur soils. 

🔹 Due to degradation of Deccan trap 

🔹 Rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. 

🔹 Ideal for growing cotton 

🔹 Cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pardesh and Chhattishgarh.
❇️ Red and Yellow Soil :-

🔹 Soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. 

🔹 It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. 

🔹 These are found in parts of Odisha, Chhattishgarh, southern parts of middle Ganga plain.

❇️Laterite Soils :-

🔹 Develops in high temperature and heavy rainfall areas.

🔹 This is result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. 

🔹 Humus content of the soil low. 

🔹 Mainly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Naidu and hilly areas of Odisha and Assam. 

🔹 Suitable for crops like Cashew nut. 

❇️Arid Soils :-

🔹 Range from red to brown in colour. 

🔹 Sandy in texture and saline in nature. 

🔹 Due to dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster.

🔹 Lacks humus and moisture.

🔹 Can be made fertile and cultivable after proper irrigation system.

❇️  Forest Soils :-

🔹 Found in the hilly and mountainous areas. 

🔹 Texture varies according to the mountain environment where they are formed. 

🔹 Loamy and silty in the valley sides. 

🔹 In snow covered experience denudation and are acidic with low human content.

❇️ Reasons of Soil Erosion :-

🔹 The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as Soil Erosion. 

🔹 The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as Gullies. 

🔹 The land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land.

🔹 In the Chambal basin such lands are ravines. 

🔹 Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as Wind Erosion. 

🔹Ploughing is wrong way is also the reason behind of soil erosion.

📚 Chapter = 3 📚
 👉 Water Resources👈

❇️ Water :-

🔹 Water is a renewable resource.

🔹 Three-fourth of the earth's surface is covered with water but only a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater fit for use. 

❇️  Three fresh water sources are :-

✴️Precipitation :- from rainfall; 

✴️Surface water :- in rivers, lakes, etc.; ✴️Ground water :- water stored in underground acquirers which
gets recharged by rainfall.

❇️Some facts and Figures :- 

🔹 96.5 percent of the total volume of world's water is estimated to exist as oceans and only 2.5 per cent as
freshwater. 

🔹 India receives nearly 4 percent of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in terms of water
availability per person per annum. 
🔹 By 2025, it is predicted that large parts of India will join countries or regions having absolute water
scarcity.

❇️ Water scarcity :-

🔹 Water scarcity means shortage of water. It is usually associated with regions having low rainfall or
drought prone areas.

❇️ There are many other reasons which lead to scarcity of water :-

🔹 Large growing population; In the agricultural sector, water resources are being over-exploited to
expand irrigated areas and dry-season agriculture; More water required for irrigation purposes to facilitate
higher food production, i. e., for doing multiple cropping and for HYV seeds; There is greater demand for
water with growing urbanization and industrialization; An unequal access to water among different social
groups; The quality of water is deteriorating, i.e., getting polluted by domestic and industrial wastes,
chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture; Excessive use of water by industries which also
require water to generate hydro- electric power to run them; and Over exploitation of water in the urban
areas.

❇️The need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources :-

🔹 To safeguard ourselves from health hazards. 

🔹 To ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities. 

🔹 To prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.

❇️  Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management :-

🔹 in ancient times, we used to conserve water by constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams
built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation. We have continued this
tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our river basins.

❇️ Dams :-

🔹 A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
reservoir, lake or impoundment. Dam" refers to the reservoir rather than the structure.

❇️  Uses of Dam :-

✴️Dams are built :- 

🔹 To impound rivers and rainwater that can be used late to irrigate agricultural fields. 

🔹 For electricity generation.

🔹 Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.

🔹 Flood control. 

🔹 Recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.

❇️  Adverse effects of over-exploitation of ground water resources :-

🔹 Pumping out more water from under the ground may lead to falling ground water levels. 

🔹 It will adversely affect water availability. 

🔹 This, in turn, will affect our agriculture and food security of the people. 

🔹 Impoverishment of water resources may adversely affect the ecological cycle.

❇️  Main causes of water pollution :-

🔹 Domestic wastes, especially urban sewers; industrial wastes are disposed off in the water without
proper treatment; chemical effluents from industries and from agricultural sector; and many human
activities, e.g., religious rituals and immersing of idols, etc. in the water also pollute water.

❇️  Measures for water conservation :-

🔹 Do not overdraw the ground water, recharge it by techniques like rainwater harvesting; tapping
rainwater in reservoirs, watershed development programmes, etc. 

🔹 Avoid wastage of water at all levels and do not pollute the water. 

🔹 Adopting water conserving techniques of irrigation, e.g., drip irrigation and sprinklers etc., especially in
dry areas.

❇️ Traditional rainwater harvesting methods practiced in different parts of the country :-

🔹 Rainwater harvesting is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future usage. The collected
rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for recharge purposes. 

✴️Different methods have been adopted in different areas for Rain Water Harvesting :-

🔹  In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the guls' or 'kuls' of the Western
Himalayas for agriculture. 

🔹 "Rooftop rainwater harvesting" is commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in

Rajasthan.

🔹 In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields. 
🔹 In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures that
allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil such as 'khadins' in Jaisalmer and Johads' in other parts of
Rajasthan.

🔹 The tankas are part of the well developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and are built inside the
main house or the courtyard. This is mainly practised in Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and
Barmer areas for saving the rainwater. Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the 'tanka'
to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room cool.

👉 Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structure
compulsory to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.

❇️ 'Narmada Bachao Andolan :-

🔹 Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement is an NGO that mobilized tribal people,
farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built across
the Narmada river in Gujarat. The movement originally focused on environmental issues related to
submerging of trees under the dam water. Recently its aim has been to enable the displaced poor people to
get full rehabilitation facilities from the government.

📚 Chapter = 4 📚

👉 Agriculture 👈
❇️ Agriculture :-

🔹 Two-thirds of India's population is engaged in agricultural activities. 

🔹 Agriculture is a primary Activity, which produces most of the food raw material for various industries. 

👉 In Geography Chapter 4 - Agriculture, you will study about the various types of farming, cropping
patterns and major crops grown in India. In the end, you will know how much Agriculture contributes to
the National Economy, Employment and Output.

❇️  Types of Farming :-

🔹 The cultivation methods depend upon the characteristics of the physical environment, technological
know-how and socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type. In different
parts of India, the following farming systems are practiced.

👉  1.Primitive Subsistence Farming 

👉  2.Intensive Subsistence Farming 

👉  3.Commercial Farming

❇️ Primitive Subsistence Farming :-

🔹 It is'slash and burn' agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops.
When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation. It is
known by different names in different parts of the country. It is known as jhumming in north- eastern
states. 

👉 Land productivity is low in this type of agriculture. 

👉 This type of farming depends on monsoon. 

👉 This farming is practised in few parts of India.

👉 Others name of primitive agriculture :-

🔹  North Eastern State  - jhuming

🔹 Bastar district of chhattisgarh - dipa

🔹 Mexico - Milpa

🔹 Indonesia - Ladang

🔹 Vietnam - Ray 

❇️ Intensive Subsistence Farming :-

🔹 It is practised in areas of high  population pressure on land.

🔹 Labour intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining
higher production.
🔹 Farmers continue to take maximum output from the limited land in the absence of alternative source of
livelihood. 

🔹 'right of inheritance' leading to the division of land among successive generations has rendered land-
holding size uneconomical.

❇️ Commercial Farming :-

🔹 It mainly involves cultivation of crops like rice, sugarcane, banana, tea, coffee.

🔹 These are grown on large lands with the help of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers,
insecticides and pesticides. 

🔹 Commercial farming depends on degree of commercialization. 

🔹 For example, rice is commercial crop for Haryana and Punjab, hence, it in these states it is available in
large quantities for sale. However, in Odisha, rice is subsistence crop.

🔹 This cultivation is practiced mainly in Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Maharashtra.

❇️ Plantation :-

🔹 Plantation is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown on a large area. Plantations
cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. All the
produce is used as a raw material in industries. Eg: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane, Banana.

❇️ Cropping pattern :-

🔹 It is a yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of sowing and fallow on a given area. 

🔹 In India, the cropping pattern determined by rainfall, climate, temperature, soil type and technology. 

👉 Any change in the cropping pattern would cause: 

🔹change in the proportion of land under different crops .

🔹 change in space sequence and time of crops.

❇️ Cropping Pattern in india :-

👉 India has three cropping seasons: 

🔹 1. Rabi 

🔹 2. Kharif 

🔹 3. Zaid

❇️Rabi crops :-

🔹 Sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. 

🔹 important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.

🔹 Found usually in the north and northwestern parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh.

🔹 The success of the green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan
has been an important factor in the growth of the above mentioned rabi crops.

❇️Kharif crops :-

🔹 Grown with the onset of monsoon in and harvested in September-October. 

🔹 Important crops grown are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut
and soyabean.

🔹 Important rice-growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar. 

🔹 In states like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are Aus,
Aman and Boro.

❇️  Zaid crops ( summer season crops) :-

🔹 They grow in long time period mainly from March to June. 

🔹 These crops are mainly grown in the summer season during a period called the "Zaid crop season."

🔹 They require warm dry weather as major growth period and longer day length for flowering. 

🔹 The time between kharif crops and rabi crops.

❇️  Major Crops in India :-

👉 A variety of food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of India depending upon the
variations in soil, climate and cultivation practices. Major crops grown in India are: 

🔹 Rice 

🔹 Wheat 

🔹 Millets 

🔹 Pulses 

🔹 Tea 

🔹Coffee 

🔹 Sugarcane 

🔹 oil seeds 

🔹Cotton 

🔹 Jute 

👉 We will discuss all of these one by one, in detail.

📚 Major crops : [ Grains ] 📚

❇️Rice :-
🔹 It is the staple food and kharif crop.

🔹 India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.

🔹 Requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.

🔹 In the areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation. 

🔹 Rice is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions. 

🔹 Canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall such as
Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.

❇️ Wheat :-

🔹 This is a rabi crop. 

🔹 It requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening. 
🔹 It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season. 

🔹 The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and black soil region of the Deccan are two main wheat-
growing zones in India. 

🔹 It is the second most important cereal crop and main food crop, in the north and north- western part of
India.

🔹 Major wheat- producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of
Madhya Pradesh.

❇️ Millets :-

🔹 Millets are called coarse grains. They have high nutritional value, important part of the diet for poor
people. Examples:

✴️  RAGI :-

🔹 Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage. grows well on red, black, sandy,
loamy and shallow black soils. Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu.

✴️ JOWAR :-
🔹 Jowar is the third most important food crop. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which
hardly needs irrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

✴️ BAJRA :-

🔹 Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra
followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

❇️  Maize :-

🔹 It is a Kharif crop. 

🔹 It requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. 

🔹 It is used both as food and fodder. 

🔹 Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana. 
❇️Pulses :-

🔹 India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world. 

🔹Pulses are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. 

🔹 Major pulses grown in India are Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas and Gram. 

🔹 Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops so that the soil restores fertility. 

🔹 Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
Karnataka.

📚  Food Crops other than Grains 📚

❇️Sugarcane :-

🔹 It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.

🔹 It grows well in hot and humid climates with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and annual rainfall
between 75cm to 100cm. 

🔹 It can be grown on a variety of soils. 

🔹Needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.

🔹India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. 

🔹 Sugarcane is the main source of Sugar, Gur (Jaggery), Khansari and molasses. 

🔹 The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

❇️ oilseeds :-

🔹 Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12% of the total cropped area of India. Main oil-
seeds produced in India are: 

🔹 Groundnut: is a Kharif crop and accounts for half of the major oilseeds produced in India. Gujarat is the
largest producer of groundnuts. 
🔹 Mustard: is a rabi crop. 

🔹 Sesamum (til): is a Kharif crop in the north and rabi crop in south India. 

🔹 Castor seeds: It is grown as both Rabi and Kharif crop. 

🔹 Linseed. is a rabi crop. 

🔹 Coconut 

🔹 Soyabean 

🔹 Cotton seeds 

🔹 Sunflower

❇️ Horticulture Crops :-

🔹 India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Major crops produced are pea, cauliflower,
onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato. Some of the famous horticulture crops grown in India are: 

🔹 Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal 

🔹 Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu. 

🔹 Lichi and Guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar 

🔹 Pineapples of Meghalaya 

🔹 Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra 

🔹 Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh

📚  Bevarage Crop: Tea and Coffee 📚

❇️ Tea :-

🔹 Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly grows in tropical and subtropical climates.

🔹 Tea is a labour intensive crop and 50% of the labourers are women. It grows faster under light shade. 

🔹 Commercial cultivation of tea started in India from British era. 

🔹 India is the 2nd largest producer and the largest consumer of tea in the world. 

🔹 Tea plants require high rainfall but its roots cannot tolerate water logging. Hence, it requires sloppy
areas.

❇️ Coffee :-

🔹 Coffees are grown in shade and commonly with two tiers of shade.

🔹 Growing altitudes of coffee range between 1,000 to 1,500 m above sea level for Arabica (premier
coffee), and 500 to 1,000 m for Robusta (lower quality).
🔹 Both varieties are planted in well-drained soil conditions that favour rich organic matter. 

🔹 Coffee plantation is done along hilly slope. 

🔹 Slopes of Arabica tend to be gentle to moderate, while Robusta slopes are gentle to fairly level.

📚 Major Non-Food Crops 📚

❇️ Rubber :-

🔹 It is an equatorial crop. 

🔹 It requires a moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200cm and temperature above 25°C. 

🔹 It is an important industrial raw material.

🔹 Mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo hills of
Meghalaya.
❇️ Fibre :-

🔹 Cotton Jute, Hemp and Natural Silk are the four major fiber crops. 

🔹 Cotton, Jute and Hemp are grown in the soil. 

🔹 Natural Silk is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves.

🔹 Rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fibre is known as Sericulture.

❇️ Cotton :-

🔹 It is a Kharif crop.

🔹 It requires high temperature, light rainfall, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth. 

🔹 Cotton grows well in black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. 

🔹 Major cotton- producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

❇️  Jute :-

🔹 It is known as the golden fiber. 

🔹 It grows well on well- drained fertile soils in the flood plains. High temperature is required for its
growth. 

🔹 It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artifacts. 

🔹 Major jute producing states are West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.

❇️  Technological and Institutional Reforms :-

✴️ Technological Reforms :- 

🔹 Use of tube-wells and water-pumps, tractor, tiller, thresher etc. 

🔹 Similarly, drip irrigation and sprinklers are used for irrigation, where the water supply is less and to
irrigate more places with less water. 

🔹 Chemical fertilizers which have been used on a large scale are now being supplemented by bio
fertilizers to retain the fertility of the land. 

🔹 The farm produces are carried to the market on trucks through all weather roads and faster means of
transport.

✴️ Some Initiatives taken by the Government are :-

🔹 Schemes introduced by Government such as Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance
Scheme (PAIS). 

🔹 Special weather bulletins and agricultural programs for farmers on the radio and television were
introduced. 

🔹 The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for
important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.

✴️ Institutional Reforms :-
🔹 To initiate with government to provide facilities to the farmers. The government has started many
programmes like Green Revolution, White Revolution or Operation floods. 

🔹 The government has assembled small lands to make them economically practicable. 

🔹 Radio and television broadcasting tell farmers about the new and improved techniques of cultivation or
to give upto-date knowledge to the farmers.

❇️ LAND DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMES :-

🔹 In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated, which included
both institutional and technical reforms. 

🔹 Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease, establishment of
Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks were some important steps taken by the government of
India. 

🔹 Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes
introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.

🔹 Moreover, special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on the
radio and television. 
🔹 The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for
important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.

❇️ Contribution of Agriculture to the National Economy, Employment and Output :-

🔹 In 2010-11 about 52% of the total workforce was employed by the farm sector. 

🔹 The share of agriculture in the GDP is declining. 

🔹 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities, veterinary services and
animal breeding centers, horticulture development, research and development in the of meteorology and
weather forecast, etc. are a few of the initiatives introduced by the government to improve Indian
agriculture.

❇️  Food Security :-

🔹  The number of people who do not have food security is disproportionately large in some region of our
country particularly in economically less developed states with the higher incidence of poverty. 

🔹 The focus of the policy is on fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice to maintain
their stocks. Food Corporation of India. 
🔹 The FCI procures food grains from the farmers at the government announced minimum support price. 

🔹 The competition for land between non agriculture uses such as housing etc., 

🔹 The farmers are badly affected by the uncertainties of production and market. 

🔹 The higher the supply the lower is the demand.

❇️  Impact of Globalization on Agriculture 

: The positive impact of globalisation in India has been tremendous. 

🔹 Consumers now enjoy improved quality and lower prices for several products. 

🔹 Due to globalisation many MNCS have increased their investments in India. This means thousands of
people are getting highly paid jobs and, enjoy much higher standards of living than was possible earlier. 

🔹 Top Indian companies have benefit from increased competition. 

🔹 They have invested in newer technology and production methods and raised their production standards. 

🔹 Services such as data entry, accounting, and administrative tasks, are now being done cheaply in India
and exported to the developed countries. This has generated thousands of jobs.

❇️  The negative impacts of globalization on Indian culture: 

🔹 Family Structure. 

🔹 Marriage Values. 

🔹 Social Values. 

🔹 Adultery. 

🔹 Food, Clothing. 

🔹 Employment and the Agricultural Sector.