Appendix A

Algebraic Formulas

Algebraic Manipulation
x+y =y+x Commutative Rule (addition) (A.1)
xy = yx Commutative Rule (addition) (A.2)
(x + y) + z = z + (y + z) Associative Rule (addition) (A.3)
(xy)z = x(yz) Associative Rule (multiplication) (A.4)
x(y + z) = xy + xz Distributive Rule (A.5)

Fractions
x+y x y x y xp + yq
= + (A.6) + = (A.7)
z z z p q pq
x p xp x/y xq
· = (A.8) = (A.9)
y q yq p/q py

Differences of Powers
1 1
x −y = (x − y) (A.10)
x2 − y2 = (x − y)(x + y) (A.11)
x3 − y3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) (A.12)
x4 − y4 = (x − y)(x3 + x2 y + xy 2 + y 3 ) (A.13)

xn − y n = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + xn−3 y 2 + · · · (A.14)

+x2 y n−3 + xy n−2 + y n−1 )

Completing the Squares

 ä2 ä2 
b b b b
Ä ä Ä Ä
2 2 2
ax + bx + c = a x + x +c=a x + x+ − +c (A.15)
a a 2a 2a
ä2 2
b b
Ä
=a x+ +c− (A.16)
2a 4a

Quadratic Formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
The roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by x = .
2a

453
454 Appendix A. Algebraic Formulas

Binomial Theorem
X Änä
n
X
n
n!
n k n−k k n−k
(x + y) = x y = x y (A.17)
k k!(n − k)!
k=0 k=0

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 (A.18)

3 3 2 2 2
(x + y) = x + 3x y + 3xy + y (A.19)
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
(x + y) = x + 4x y + 6 y + 4xy + y (A.20)

Änä Änä Änä Ä n

ä Änä
n n 0 n−1 1 n−2 2 1 n−1 0 n
(x + y) = x y + x y + x y + ··· + x y + x y (A.21)
0 1 2 n−1 n

Pascals Triangle
The coefficients in the sum of (x + y) are given by the mth row of Pascal’s Triangle. Each number on the
m

inside is the sum of the two numbers above it. The equation is given by the Binomial Theorem.

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

Equation of a Line
Let m be the slope of a line, a be its x intercept, b its y intercept, and (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be any distinct
points on the line, with x1 6= x2 .

x y
+ =1 intercept-intercept form (A.22)
a b
y2 − y1
m= slope of the line (A.23)
x2 − x1

y = mx + b slope - intercept form (A.24)

y = y1 + m(x − x1 ) point-slope form (A.25)

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Appendix A. Algebraic Formulas 455

Roots and Exponents

repeated n times
n
z }| { n 1/n
x = x · x · x···x (A.26) y=x ⇐⇒ x = y (A.27)

1/n √
n −n 1
x = x (A.28) x = , (x 6= 0) (A.29)
xn
q √
√ √
x x √
= √ (A.30) xy = x y (A.31)
y y

p−q xp p+q p q
x = (A.32) x =x ·x (A.33)
xq

p/q √
q p q pq
x = xp (A.34) (x ) = x (A.35)

xn
Ä x än
p p p
(xy) = x y (A.36) = , (y 6= 0) (A.37)
y yn

Sums of Powers of Integers

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = (A.38)
2

2 2 2 2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = (A.39)
6
2 2
3 3 3 3 n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = (A.40)
4

Exponentials and Logarithms

y = ex ⇐⇒ x = ln y (A.41) ln(xy) = ln x + ln y (A.42)

eln x = ln ex = x (A.43) ln(x/y) = ln x − ln y (A.44)

ex+y = ex ey (A.45) ln y x = x ln y (A.46)

ex ln x
ex−y = (A.47) logb x = (A.48)
ey ln b

Hyperbolic Functions and Identities

cosh x = 1
2 (e
x
+ e−x ) (A.49) sinh x = 1
2 (e
x
− e−x ) (A.50)
x −x
e = cosh x + sinh x (A.51) e = cosh x − sinh x (A.52)
2 2 2 2
cosh x − sinh x = 1 (A.53) 1 − tanh x = sech x (A.54)
2 2
cosh(2x) = cosh x + sinh x (A.55) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x (A.56)
√
√

arcsinh(x) = ln x + x2 + 1 (A.57) arccosh(x) = ln x + x2 − 1 (A.58)

© 2014 Doing Calculus

 456 Appendix A. Algebraic Formulas

Trigonometry

opposite adjacent
sin θ = (A.59) cos θ = (A.60)
hypotenuse hypotenuse
sin θ opposite 1 cos θ adjacent
tan θ = = (A.61) cot θ = = = (A.62)
cos θ adjacent tan θ sin θ opposite
1 hypotenuse 1 hpotenuse
sec θ = = (A.63) csc θ = = (A.64)
cos θ adjacent sin θ opposite

Trigonometric Identities

2 2 2 2
sin x + cos x = 1 (A.65) tan x + 1 = sec x (A.66)

2 2 2 2
1 + cot x = csc x (A.67) cos(2x) = cos x − sin x (A.68)

2 tan x
sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x (A.69) tan(2x) = (A.70)
1 − tan2 x

2 1 2 1
sin x = (1 − cos(2x)) (A.71) cos x = (1 + cos(2x)) (A.72)
2 2

sin(x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y (A.73) cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y (A.74)

3
- 2
- 12 1
2 2
3

1
Π 3 Sin Cos Tan Sec
1 2Π Π 2 ¥ ¥
2 3Π 2 Π 1 1
3 3 1
5Π4 4 Π 2
6 6 -1 -1
-¥ -¥
- Π2 Π
2 0 Π - Π2 Π
2
- Π2 Π
2
0 Π 0
Π ArcSin ArcCos ArcTan ArcSec
2 Π
7Π 11 Π Π
2
Π
2

65Π 7Π6 - 12
4Π 5Π - Π2 - Π2
- 1 4 3Π 4
2 3 3 3 - Π2 0
2 - 2
-1 1 -1 1 -¥ ¥ -¥ ¥
-1
1 1
-1 - 0 1
2 2

θ 0 π π π π 2π 3π 5π π
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
√ √
3
cos θ 1 2
√1 1
2
0 −1
2
− √1 − 23 -1
2 2
√ √
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin θ 0 2
√
2
1 2
√
2
0
2 2
1
√ √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 ∞ − 3 -1 − √1 0
3 3
2
√ √
sec θ 1 √ 2 2 ∞ -2 − 2 − √2 -1
3 3
√ 2 2
√
csc θ ∞ 2 2 √ 1 √ 2 2 ∞
3 3
√ 1
√
cot θ ∞ 3 1 √ 0 − √1 -1 − 3 ∞
3 3

Doing Calculus © 2014

Appendix B

Table of Derivatives

d d
(Cf (x)) = C f (x) (B.1) d
dx dx sin x = cos x (B.16)
dx
d d d
[f (x) ± g(x)] = f (x) ± g(x) (B.2)
dx dx dx d
cos x = − sin x (B.17)
d dx
(f (x) · g(x)) =
dx
0 0
f (x) · g (x) + f (x) · g(x) (B.3) d 2
tan x = sec x (B.18)
dx
0 0
d f (x) g(x)f (x) − f (x)g (x)
= (B.4)
dx g(x) g(x)2 d 2
cot x = − csc x (B.19)
d 0 0
dx
f (g(x)) = f (g(x))g (x) (B.5)
dx
d
d n n−1 sec x = sec x tan x (B.20)
x = nx (B.6) dx
dx
d n n−1 0 d
f (x) = nf (x) f (x) (B.7) csc x = − csc x cot x (B.21)
dx dx
d 1
ln x = (B.8)
dx x
0
d −1 1
d f (x) sin x= √ (B.22)
ln f (x) = (B.9) dx 1 − x2
dx f (x)
d −1 1
d x x cos x = −√ (B.23)
e =e (B.10) dx 1 − x2
dx
d f (x) f (x) 0
e =e f (x) (B.11) d −1 1
dx tan x= 2 (B.24)
dx x +1
d x x
a = a ln a (B.12)
dx d 1
−1
d f (x) cot x=− 2 (B.25)
a =a
f (x) 0
f (x) ln a (B.13) dx x +1
dx
d x x d −1 1
x = x (1 + ln x) (B.14) sec x= √ (B.26)
dx dx x x2 − 1
 
d f (x) f (x) f (x) 0
x =x + f (x) ln x (B.15) d 1
dx x csc
−1
x=− √ (B.27)
dx x x2 − 1

457
458 Appendix B. Table of Derivatives

d d −1 1
sinh x = cosh x (B.28) sinh x= √ (B.34)
dx dx x2 + 1
d d −1 1
cosh x = sinh x (B.29) cosh x= √ (B.35)
dx dx x2 − 1
d 2 d 1
tanh x = sech x (B.30) tanh
−1
x= (B.36)
dx dx 1 − x2
d 2
coth x = −csch x (B.31) d −1 1
dx coth x = − (B.37)
dx 1 − x2
d
sech x = − tanh x sech (B.32) d −1 1
dx sech x = − √ (B.38)
dx x 1 − x2
d
csch x = − coth x csch x (B.33) d −1 1
dx csch x = − √ (B.39)
dx |x| 1 + x2

Doing Calculus © 2014

Appendix C

Table of Integrals

Z
Z Z tan xdx = ln | sec x| (C.14)
Cf (x)dx = C f (x)dx (C.1)
Z
Z Z Z cot xdx = ln | sin x| (C.15)
(f ± g)dx = f dx ± gdx (C.2)
Z
Z sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| (C.16)
n xn+1
x dx = , n 6= −1 (C.3)
n+1
Z
Z
1 csc xdx = − ln | csc x + cot x| (C.17)
dx = ln |x| (C.4)
x
Z Z
2
sec xdx = tan x (C.18)
ln x dx = x ln x − x (C.5)

Z Z
1 2 1 2 2
csc xdx = − cot x (C.19)
x ln x = x ln x − x (C.6)
2 4
Z
Z
x x
sec x tan xdx = sec x (C.20)
e dx = e (C.7)
Z
Z csc x cot xdx = −cscx (C.21)
x x x
xe dx = xe − e (C.8)

Z Z
dx −1
2 x x 2 √ = sin x (C.22)
x e dx = e (x − 2x + 2) (C.9) 1 − x2

Z Z
ax dx −1
x
a dx = (C.10) = tan x (C.23)
ln a 1 + x2

Z Z
ax (x ln a − 1) dx −1
x
xa dx = (C.11) √ = sec x (C.24)
(ln a)2 x x2 − 1
Z
Z dx −1
√ = sinh x (C.25)
sin xdx = − cos x (C.12) x2 + 1

Z Z
dx −1
√ = cosh x (C.26)
cos xdx = sin x (C.13) x2 − 1

459
460 Appendix C. Table of Integrals

Z Z
dx −1 2
= tanh x (C.27) csch x dx = −coth x (C.35)
1 − x2

Z Z
sinh x dx = cosh x (C.28) sech x tanh x dx = −sech x (C.36)

Z
Z
cosh x dx = sinh x (C.29)
csch x coth x dx = −csch x (C.37)
Z
tanh x dx = ln | cosh x| (C.30) Z
Z x sin x dx = sin x − x cos x (C.38)

coth x dx = ln | sinh x| (C.31)

Z
Z x cos x dx = cos x + x sin x (C.39)
−1 x
sech x dx = 2 tan tanh (C.32)
2
Z Z
x x ex
csch x dx = ln tanh (C.33) e sin x dx = [sin x − cos x] (C.40)
2 2

Z Z
2 x ex
sech x dx = tanh x (C.34) e cos x dx = [sin x + cos x] (C.41)
2

Doing Calculus © 2014