HISTORY: CHAPTER 2: NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

Who were the Samantas? (Who were the maha samantas/ maha-mandaleshwaras?)
The big land lords or the warrior chiefs who existed in different
regions of the subcontinent were known as the samantas. They were the subordinates of
the kings. They were expected to bring gifts to their kings or overlords, be present at their
courts and provide them with military support. As samantas gained power and wealth,
they declared themselves maha samantas or maha-mandaleshwaras.

How did the Rashtrakutas rise to power? (How did the samantas assert their independence
from their overlords?) Initially the Rashtrakutas were subordinate to the
Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid 8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew
his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranyagarbha and became a
Kshatriya.

What do you mean by hiranyagarbha?

Hiranyagarbha is a ritual performed by the non-kshatriyas to become a Kshatriya. It
was thought to lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya even if he is not one by
birth.

Do you think being born as a Kshatriya was important in order to become a ruler during the
medieval period? No, being born as a Kshatriya was not important in order to
become a ruler during this period. In some cases, men from enterprising families used
their military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and
the Gurjara Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional
professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and
Rajasthan respectively.

How were resources obtained during the medieval period? How were the resources obtained
used? Resources were obtained from the producers - peasants,
cattle keepers, artisans - who were compelled to surrender their produce as ‘rent’ to their
land-lords. Revenue was also collected from traders. The resources were used to finance
the king’s establishment, for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to
fight wars.

How were functionaries for collecting revenue recruited?

The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from

influential families, and positions were often

hereditary.

What do you mean by the tripartite struggle?

There was constant rivalry between the Palas, the Gurjara Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas. The main cause of this struggle was the desire to possess the city of Kanauj
which was the symbol of sovereignty. This warfare was for the fertile regions of the
Gangetic valley. As there were three parties in this long drawn conflict, historians often
describe it as the Tripartite Struggle.

Why were temples targeted when kingdoms were attacked?

The rulers of the medieval era tried to demonstrate their power by building large
temples. So when they attacked one another’s kingdoms they often chose to target
temples which were sometimes extremely rich.
Why did Mahmud of Ghazni invade India?
The weak political condition of India prompted Mahmud of Ghazni to invade India He
plundered her wealth to maintain his army and to beautify his capital at Ghazni. He also
wanted to establish Muslim rule over India.

Write a short note on Mahmud of Ghazni.

Mahmud of Ghazni was the first Turkish invader from the north western side. He ruled
from 997 to 1030 and extended control over pars of Central Asia, Iran and the
northwestern part of the subcontinent. He raided the subcontinent almost every year
targeting wealthy temples. Much of the wealth he carried away was used to create a
splendid capital city at Ghazni. He also patronized art, architecture, literature and scholars
like Al Biruni.

Sultan Mahmud was interested in finding out more about the people he conquered. Prove with
example. (Kitab al Hind remains an important source for historians. How?)

Sultan Mahmud was interested in finding about the people he conquered. He

entrusted a scholar named al-Biruni to

write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabic work, known as the Kitab al-Hind
remains an important source for

historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account.

Write a short note on the Chahamanas.

The Chahamanas (Chauhans) ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They
attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were opposed by
the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of the western Uttar Pradesh. The best
known Chahamanas ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan III (1168-1192) who defeated an Afghan
ruler Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 in the First Battle of Tarain but lost to him the very
next year in the Second Battle of Tarain.

Which are the sources that provide information about the Cholas?
Much information about the Cholas is obtained from the Sangam literature
and the megaliths.

How did the Cholas rise to power?

A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta.
They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to
the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta and established
his supremacy in the middle of the 9th century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple
for Goddess Nishumbhasudini.

What were the activities associated with the Chola Temples?

Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around
them. These were centres of craft production. The big temples of Thanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajaraja and Rajendra are structural and sculptural
marvels. Temples were not only places of worship but also the hub of economic, social and
cultural life.

What were the crafts associated with temples during the Chola period?
The making of bronze images was the most distinctive craft associated with
temples. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most
images were if deities, images of devotees were also made. Chola statues had an
elaborate headdress that represented high status.
How did the river Kauveri benefit the Chola kingdom?
The river Kaveri branches off to several small channels before emptying into the
Bay of Bengal. These channels overflow frequently depositing fertile soils on their banks.
Water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly
the cultivation of rice.

Write a short note on the agriculture of Tamil Nadu during the 5th and 6th century?
Large scale cultivation was prevalent during the 5th and 6th century in Tamil
Nadu. Forests were cleared in some regions and lands were levelled in other areas. In the
delta region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals were constructed
to carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year.

How was the administration in the Chola Empire organized?

The system of Chola administration was highly organized and efficient. The king
was the head of the Central government. The Chola rulers also organized their Provincial
Governments on sound footing. Settlements of peasants known as Ur were the smallest
unit of administration. Groups of such villages formed larger units called Nadu. The village
council and the Nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing
justice and collecting taxes.

Write a short note on the Brahmadeya.

Brahmanas often received land grants known as Brahmadeya. As a result a large
number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kauveri valley as in other parts of south
India. Each Brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly (Sabha) of prominent Brahmana
land holders which worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in
inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples.

What was the status of women during the Chola period?

Women were held in great honour and given a lot of freedom. They were also
imparted education in different branches of learning, especially fine arts.

How were eligible member chosen for each committee?

Names of those eligible to be members of committees were written on small
tickets of palm leaf. These tickets were put into an earthenware pot from which a young
boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one for each committee.

What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

In order to gain acceptance the new dynasties tried to establish supremacy
over prized areas. These wars were expected to lead to the plunder of wealth and access
to land as well as trade routes. The rulers tried to demonstrate their power and resources
by building large temples. So when they attacked one another’s kingdoms they often
chose to target temples which were sometimes extremely rich.

*Sultan: An Arabic term meaning ruler *Hamlet: A small village. *Sluice: A water
channel that is controlled at its head by a gate. *Sluice gate: A wooden or metal plate
which slides in grooves in the sides of the channel to control levels and flow rates in
rivers and canals. *Embankment: An earth or stone bank for keeping back water.
*Sabha: An assembly of learned Brahmans. *Megalith: Huge stone structures (mega-
huge; lith-stone)