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An overview of DC-DC converter topologies and controls in DC microgrid

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2017 7th International Conference on Power Systems (ICPS)
College of Engineering Pune, India. Dec 21-23, 2017
An Overview of DC-DC Converter Topologies and
Controls in DC Microgrid
Shweta Dahalea , Student Member,IEEE, Aakriti Dasb, Naran. M. Pindoriyaa, Senior Member,IEEE, and S. Rajendrana
a
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
b
Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, Pune, India
Email: {shweta.dahale@iitgn.ac.in; aakritidas0000@gmail.com; naran@iitgn.ac.in; rajendran@iitgn.ac.in}
Abstract—DC Microgrid has a promising future due to its
better compatibility with distributed renewable energy
resources, higher efficiency and higher system reliability. This
paper presents a comprehensive literature review of DC-DC
Converters topologies used in DC Microgrids. The advantages
and limitations of classical and recent converter topologies are
discussed. The Hierarchical Control Strategies-Primary and
Secondary controls have been reviewed. Primary control relies
only on local measurements used for proper load sharing among
converters. Secondary control is a coordinated control with
some form of communication for additional functionalities. A
brief note on protection and the key challenges faced in DC
Microgrid operation have also been discussed. This paper gives
a brief idea about the recent developments and overall operation
of DC Microgrid.
Keywords— Coordinated control, DC Microgrid, DC-DC
Converters, Local Controls, Protection.
I. INTRODUCTION
The first DC Microgrid was built in the 19th Century by
Thomas A. Edison. The DC power was discontinued with the
advent of AC power, which was found to be more suitable and
had easier generation, transmission and distribution [1]. India
has a great potential of renewable energy. However, the
associated technical challenge is their intermittent nature and
therefore power cannot be dispatched. These resources are
non–uniformly distributed across India. The distributed
generation helps to promote secure and sustainable energy
access to the community and at the same time promotes the
low carbon economy. The most recent architecture of the
decentralized grid that integrates the distributed energy
resources are mini and micro grids which can be grid
interactive or a stand-alone system.
Microgrid is a self-contained organization of Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) capable of islanding and grid
connected operation [2]. Microgrids can be categorized into
AC, DC and Hybrid AC-DC. The AC Microgrids integrate the
DER resources with the AC grid. They are easier to construct
and can be implemented without any modifications to the
existing network. AC Microgrids are more efficient if sources
and loads are both AC natured. The DC Microgrids (as shown
in Fig.1) mostly combine renewable energy systems and
energy storage systems. The advantages of DC Microgrids
over AC Microgrids is that they offer higher reliability,
efficiency and have simpler control topology. They have
978-1-5386-1789-2/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
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easier control because of the absence of reactive power. The
synchronization of system is not a question due to the absence
of frequency. They are also very popular as they can be easily
interfaced with renewable energy sources like a Photovoltaic
System or a Fuel Cell. A Low Voltage DC(LVDC)
distribution network also helps to mitigate the conversion
losses incurring due to repeated DC-AC and AC-DC
conversions in case of AC Microgrid. The Hybrid AC/DC
Microgrids are formed with the integration of AC Microgrid
and DC Microgrid to eliminate disadvantages of both the
configurations. Due to intermittency of renewable energy
sources (RES) they are generally connected to a battery or a
grid connected converter to maintain the reliability of supply.
SOLAR PV DC-DC
DC-AC
AC GRID
WIND AC-DC
TURBINE
DC-DC
DC LOADS
BATTERY DC-DC
DC BUS
Fig.1. Generalized Structure of a DC Microgrid
The applications, different topologies and Grounding and
Protection issues of DC Microgrid are discussed in [3]. The
challenges related to DC Microgrid, AC grid interfaces, and
communication and standardization aspects are discussed in
[1]. An account of problems related to protection and
grounding in DC Microgrids and solutions is provided in [4]
and [5]. Literature reviews on local and coordinated controls
are being discussed in brief in [6], [7].
A comprehensive review of all the above operations
together in a single literature together provides a better insight
of DC Microgrid operation. The aim of this paper is to give a
generalized idea about the control structure, protection,
topologies of DC-DC converters and technical challenges in
DC Microgrid. This would help the readers to get a rough
estimate about the development status in DC Microgrid. The
comparison of the existing topologies and review of recent
converter configurations has been discussed in Section II.
Section III gives a comprehensive review on local and
410
coordinated control applied at the DC Microgrid level. The
problems faced in the protection of DC Microgrids are stated
in section IV followed by the key challenges and conclusion
in Sections V and VI respectively.
II. CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES FOR DC MICROGRID-
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Power Electronics Converters are used to interface the
RES to the grid. Power semiconductor switches like IGBT or
MOSFET used in these converters are provided appropriate
pulse signals of suitable duty cycles at the gate terminal to
switch according to the output voltage desired. In a standalone
DC Microgrid system the DC-DC converters are required to
step down or step up the voltage from the generated voltage to
the load bus level. The DC-DC converters are further
categorized into the Isolated and Non-Isolated Converters.
Isolated converters use a high frequency transformer to isolate
the input and the output side of the power conversion stage.
Non-isolated converters are preferred due to lower losses,
cost, size and no core saturation related problems [8], [9]. The
following sections briefly discuss the various converter
topologies for DC Microgrid operation.
A. Buck Converters
Buck Converters are simple and efficient converters. It
gives output voltage lesser than the input voltage. Buck
converter provides continuous output current. The buck
converter requires a large capacitor to smoothen the
discontinuous input current [10], [11]. This converter also
requires a higher gate side driver than the boost converter.
B. Boost Converters
Boost converters provides output voltage greater than the
input voltage. This converter has continuous input current and
discontinuous output current. It provides a better dynamic
response [12]. Boost converter requires a higher value of
inductance compared to a buck converter and is not always
suitable for renewable energy as it requires higher input side
current, which may not be always possible due to shading of
PV panels. The protection against reverse current is inherently
provided in these Converters by the freewheeling diodes while
compared for solar PV input in [13], the Zeta converter was
found to have the least ripples in the output current. Table I
summarizes DC-DC converters topologies along with their
attributes.
TABLE I: COMPARISON OF DC-DC CONVERTERS
Types Attributes
Buck Simple,Continuous output current, Lower ripples on
[10][11] output, Best efficiency per cost
Boost[9][10]
Discontinuous output current, simple architecture Less
ripples on output side, Cheaper filter components
Buck Inverted polarity of output, More ripples and lesser
Boost[10] efficiency
Many components, inverted polarity of output, Less
Cúk[10][13]
ripple on input side than buck-boost
Sepic[13] Less ripples on input, More ripples on output side
Zeta[13] More components, Least ripples on output side
D. Recent Converter Topologies
Multi-input non-isolated converters [9] combines
multiple sources in a single power converter which reduces
switching losses and associated components. Non-isolated
converters cannot provide high voltage gain due to losses
associated with inductor, switch, diode and filter circuit.
Converter proposed in [14] use three-winding coupled
inductors to achieve high step up voltage gain. High step up
gain can also be achieved using switched capacitor and
voltage lift techniques but have higher conduction losses due
to high transient current. This problem is overcome in coupled
inductors by using a voltage clamp circuit [15]. Voltage
multiplier cells [16] (as shown in Fig.2) have been used to
increase the voltage gain, modular structure and reduce the
switching losses. Multiphase interleaving along with voltage
multiplier can be adopted for high voltage and high current
application. In [17] a circuit configuration is proposed which
has higher efficiency and lower conduction losses. The
converter adds additional two capacitors and diodes to
improve the voltage gain. A simple switching dual structure
formed using 2 capacitors and 2-3 diodes has been proposed
in [18]. These circuits blocks provide voltage step-up/down
and can be used along with classical Buck, Boost and Cúk
converters.
S1 L1
L1 D1 S1 D1

additional circuitry should be provided for the Buck Converter

[9], [12]. Boost Converter has a cheaper implementation cost S1 Load C1
C1 L1 Load
owing to lower value input capacitor, lower current rating of DC C1
D1
C2
L
DC DC

switch and low side MOSFET driver requirement than Buck

Converter.
Buck Converter Boost Converter Buck-Boost
C. Buck-Boost and Cúk Converters Converter
Buck-Boost and Cúk converters provides output voltage L1
C1
L2
L1
Lk1
L2
Lk2
D1
L1

greater than or less than the input voltage with inverted D1

polarity. Buck-Boost converters has higher amount of ripples S1

D1
Cclamp

C0 Load
DC
DM1
C M1
C2 Load
C2
and the efficiency is lower compared to the buck and the Lo
DC
S2 CM2

boost converters [10]. In the circuit of Cúk converters, one DC

DM2 LT

additional capacitor and inductor is used (as shown in Fig.2). S1 S1

Additional components make the Cúk circuit bulky and can

be responsible for causing malfunctioning and overheating of
the converter. The input and output of this converter has Cúk Converter Boost Converter with Voltage multiplier in
Coupled Inductors Buck Converter
lesser ripple than the Buck-Boost Converter [13]. The Fig.2. DC-DC converter topologies
performances of Buck-Boost, Cúk, Sepic and Zeta were

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 III. HIERARCHIAL CONTROL IN DC MICROGRID -A REVIEW
There are three hierarchical control levels for DC micro-
grids [19] as per the standards of International Society of
Automation-95 (ISA-95) viz primary, secondary and tertiary
control. Tertiary control prepares source and storage dispatch
schedule as decided by TSO (Transmission System
Operator)/DSO (Distribution System Operator) and
communicates to secondary control. Secondary control sets
the parameters of primary control to ensure proper load
sharing among sources. They are explained in the following
sections.
A. Primary Control
This level is used for proper load sharing between two or
more parallel connected converters. These are the local
controls which can be divided as-
1) Current, voltage and droop controls: The inner current
and voltage controls can be realized by PI, PID and fuzzy
controllers. Droop Control is a virtual resistance added in the
voltage reference loop for proper load sharing among
parallelly connected converters [20].
2) Source dependent functions (Maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) for solar PV and wind energy): MPPT is
used for harnessing maximum solar radiation from sun. In
MPPT, the load impedance is matched by changing the duty
cycle of DC-DC converter such that it equals the source-side
impedance and maximum power is transferred by solar arrays.
Widely used techniques are Perturb and Observe, Incremental
Conductance, Fractional Open circuit. A comparative analysis
of all MPPT techniques can be found in [21], [22].
3) Passive load sharing and Active load sharing with
respect to communication link.
a) Passive Load Sharing: When converters are connected
in parallel, it is necessary that they share the load proportional
to their ratings. To do so, droop control is used which adjusts
the output voltage reference to the inner voltage loops [19].
Droop characteristic is a linear function between voltage and
current. A virtual impedance is used in the feedback path to
decrease the output voltage as the load current is increased (as
shown in Fig.3). This virtual resistance reflects the stable
operation of converters.
Fig.3. Block diagram of Droop Controller
The output voltage reference can be obtained by-
ఌೡ
ܸ଴‫ כ‬ൌ ܸ௥௘௙ െ ܴௗ Ǥ ݅଴ and ܸ௥௘௙ ൌ ܸ௡ െ
ଶ reference provided by the master.
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where ݅଴ is the output current,ܴௗ is the virtual resistance and
ܸ௥௘௙ is no load voltage. ܸ௡ is nominal output voltage and ߝ௩ is
maximum allowable voltage deviation. The Droop resistance
ఌ
ܴௗ is ೡ . ܸ଴‫ כ‬is compared with the output voltage ܸ଴ and the
ூ೘ೌೣ
voltage controller then processes this error signal and sets the
current reference for inner current controller.
Droop control is a compromise between the output voltage
regulation and current sharing between the converters (as
shown in Fig.4) because of line resistances and non-identical
converters. High value of droop gain will deteriorate voltage
regulation while the differences in the output currents are low.
Low droop gain ensures good regulation but the differences in
output current sharing is large [7], [23]. Therefore, primary
control focusses more on equal current sharing by keeping
high droop gain. The voltage regulation is then improved by
additional secondary controller. Many literatures have
proposed control techniques to improve load sharing by droop
control. One of them is Gain Scheduling Droop [24]. The
relationship between droop gain and load power is linear. In
this technique, droop gain is changed dynamically as the load
power is changed. Thus accurate load sharing and better
voltage regulation within 1% is achieved simultaneously.
Fig.4. Droop Characteristics for two parallel connected converters
b) Active Load Sharing: They are characterized by
presence of communication channel among converters. They
are basically categorized as-
i) Master slave current sharing: One DC-DC converter
module is assigned as a master and rest modules as slaves
[25]. The master module regulates the voltage and sets the
current references for its slaves. The effective voltage
reference signal of slaves is so adjusted that their output
currents are equal to the master module. Thus, the sharing of
load current of all DC-DC converters is proportional to their
ratings. This scheme has 2 types-
a) Dedicated Master where a fixed module is dedicated as
the master and the rest as slaves. This scheme does not achieve
redundancy as failure of one master shut downs the complete
control [25].
b) Automatic Master Slave Control in which the module
with highest output current becomes the master and forces the
other module to output the current based on the current
 ii) Average Load Sharing: Average load current of all the
converters are computed and added as the feedback signal
term into DC voltage reference such that additional οܸ
voltage is added and the I-V characteristics are shifted
upwards [26]. This scheme injects significant external noise
in the bus due to distribution of current sharing bus over a
microgrid.
B. Secondary Control
It is a coordinated control in DC Microgrid which ensures
that the power supplied by all the converters is equal to the
power scheduled by the tertiary control. It also solves the
problem of voltage deviation arising from primary control
[19]. Based on the communication between converters, the
coordinated control can be further classified as-
1) Centralized control
A Central controller is placed which compares the DC bus
voltage with the reference voltage and the error is processed
through a controller (as shown in Fig.5) The controller will try
to maintain the DC bus voltage by addition of οܸ voltage via
digital communication link. Since all the relevant data can be
processed in a single controller, this control scheme is
accurate but suffers from single point of failure [27]. Equal
voltage of all converters is assumed in [19] which is not a
viable assumption. A supervisory control in [28] changes the
virtual resistances of bidirectional DC-DC converters of
batteries such that they maintain same SoC (State of charge)
always in an islanded condition. While charging, higher droop
resistance (Rd) is given to the battery with higher SoC whereas
while discharging, higher Rd is given to battery with lower
SoC.
Reference Voltage
Central
Controller
Local Local Local
Controllers Controllers Controllers
DC-DC DC-DC DC-DC
Converters Converters Converters
DC Bus
Fig.5. Centralized Control
2) Distributed control
Instead of a single central controller, there are distributed
controllers incorporated in each power electronics sources to
ensure good voltage regulation and proper load sharing (as
shown in Fig .6) These distributed controllers are linked to
each other via digital communication link, mainly low-
bandwidth communication channel or power line
communication channel. A distributed co-operative control
[29] has two regulators-current and voltage. The voltage
regulator, based on the estimation of neighboring voltage by
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voltage observer, determines the global voltage set-point. The
current regulator compares the actual current with the
weighted average current of its neighbors and generates a
voltage correction term.
A distributed controller system is proposed in [23] which
achieves better voltage regulation by adding οܸ voltage in
voltage feedback loop. The failure of any converter does not
affect the system operation. The local controllers of each
source communicate with other sources and sends the currents
supplied by them. Using this, the individual controller
௔௩௚
calculates the average value of currents ݅௝ supplied by them
in per unit. Shift in droop of each source is calculated as
௔௩௚
οܸ௝ ൌ ݇௝ ݅௝ ݅௝௥௔௧௘ௗ where ݇௝ is the shift gain and
݅௝௥௔௧௘ௗ is
the rated current of source j.
A novel distributed control strategy is proposed in [30] in
which the utilization priority of renewable sources, non-
renewable sources and storages are considered.
Digital Communication Link
Local Local Local
Controllers Controllers Controllers
DC-DC DC-DC DC-DC
Converters Converters Converters
DC Bus
Fig.6. Distributed Control
3) Decentralized Control
Control strategies are achieved exclusively by Local
controllers and digital communication link is absent. DC bus
signaling is one popular scheme in which information carrier
is DC bus [31]. The coordinated control between renewable
sources, batteries, loads and DC/AC converters are carried
out by identifying the different DC bus voltage levels. There
are four modes of operation which includes the different
combinations of PVs, battery and AC grid interfacing
converters. This control scheme is simple, communication-
free but inaccurate due to error in DC bus voltage estimation.
They also lack the information from other units, hence have
performance limitations. The other decentralized control is
Power Line Signaling (PLS) which injects sinusoidal signal
of specific frequency in DC bus [32]. The REbus DC
Microgrid [33] uses PLS as a medium of power transfer as
well as communication medium for allowing each device to
send and receive information about its status, performance,
history and operational modes. Table II lists the summary of
hierarchical control strategies in DC Microgrid.
C. Tertiary Control
It is also known as Energy Management system which
ensures proper load sharing among the microgrids within a
cluster. It controls the power flow by changing the voltage
inside the microgrid [19]. Power transfer between microgrids LV-DC Microgrid can be kept floating, high resistance
enables maximum utilization of RES with high reliability and grounded or low resistance grounded. The ground can be
availability. connected to the middle of the converter and the battery or to
one of the phase lines. In TN-S DC system, the ground(T) is
TABLE II: COMPARISON OF CONTROL STRATEGIES connected to the middle of converter and battery. Separate (S)
Attributes
wires are used for Neutral (N)and protective earth (PE). In an
Control Load IT DC system, the positive phase line of the system is
Voltage
strategies Current
Regulation
Features connected to the ground(T) via an impedance (I). The TN-S
sharing System of Earth Grounding is found to be advantageous in
Constant case of low impedance fault. The IT System has stable
Virtual Simple to
Impedance
Poor Low
implement
operation in case of pole to ground fault but it leads to change
Droop [19] in voltage due to a ground connection in the system and may
affect loads connected to the system [34]. The different
Gain Droop curve devices used for the protection of DC Microgrids are Fuses,
Scheduling Fair Good changes as load
Droop [24] power changes LV Circuit Breakers and MCCB. A case study on
coordination of protection system devices is discussed in [34].
Dedicated
Less Due to non-zero crossing of the DC current, extra circuitry
Master Excellent Excellent
redundancy
Master Slave [25] is required for the protection. The circuit breakers for current
Slave Automatic Commercially limiting requires an auxiliary circuit and a pre-charged
Master Excellent Excellent available in IC
commutation capacitor. This would require perfect time and
Slave [25] UC3907A
Average Injects fault detection synchronization to remain affected. Z-Source
load [26] Good Good significant Circuit Breakers are proposed in [35] which force the transient
sharing external noise fault current to zero during the natural commutation in the
Low SCR [4], [35].
Centralized Modularity
[28] Good Good
Less
redundancy V. DC MICROGRID: TECHNICAL CHALLENGES
High
[23] Excellent Excellent
Modularity
The key challenges present in a DC Microgrid are-
Distributed Utilization 1) Proper Load current sharing and better voltage regulation
[30] Excellent Excellent priority
considered
simultaneously is a challenge which should be achieved
with less complicated and cost-effective control strategies.
DC Bus
Simple but
Signaling Good Good 2) Microgrid controls should always operate the system in
De- inaccurate
[31]
centralized optimal condition. For example, maximum harnessing of
Power line renewable energy, optimized usage of storage energy and
Slow
signaling Excellent Excellent
[32]
communication maintaining DC bus voltage within limits.
3) Communication techniques used for the control operation
IV. DC MICROGRID : PROTECTION SCHEME of DC micro-grids should be cost effective, less complex
The protection system of LVDC Microgrid should be well and viable in remote locations as well.
designed to ensure a reliable and efficient working of the grid.
The functions of Microgrid protection system is to detect and 4) Control Strategy for batteries should also encounter the
isolate faults and to accurately minimize the effects of extreme phenomenon of overcharge and undercharge
disturbance. The penetration of RES into the grid increases the during charging and discharging respectively, considering
instability of the system. The problems common to the AC and minimization of frequent charge/discharge micro-cycles
DC Microgrid are protection schemes that are topology due to minor changes in loads/generation.
dependent and distributed energy resources affect the 5) Multiple Stacks of batteries should always have equal
protective devices connected to the grid. The DC Microgrid State of charge distribution among them. The control
specifically deals with issues related to grounding and non- strategy should not lead to the overcharge and gasification
zero crossing of the DC current. The problems related to DC of one battery because of unequal distribution of charges.
and AC protection are explained in [4], [5]. The possible fault
types in the DC Microgrid are pole to pole and pole to ground 6) The coordinated control functions and local controls
faults. Pole to pole are low impedance faults while pole to should always maintain the grid-connected and islanded
ground can be characterized as high impedance faults. The system in stable condition and seamlessly transfer between
low impedance faults are easier to detect than the high the two systems.
impedance faults [5]. 7) An optimum grounding that minimizes the DC Stray
The protection scheme is different from the HVDC current and maximizes the personnel safety is a challenge.
protection because of the difference in the mode of connection 8) Designing of cost-effective Circuit breaker is a challenge
to the AC Grid. The protection system consists of protection due to non-zero crossing of DC currents.
devices, relays, measurement equipment and grounding. A

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 VI. CONCLUSION
This paper discusses the present status of control strategies,
DC-DC Converters topologies and protection in DC
Microgrid. Local controls aim at achieving better load sharing
and voltage regulation. The coordinated control functions
achieve various functionalities and gives command to primary
control. Among these, Buck and boost have better
performance over buck-boost and Cúk converters. New
topologies are found to have decreased switching losses,
increased efficiency and gain over conventional buck and
boost converters. The technical challenges to operate the
system in optimum, stable and reliable conditions are stated.
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