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Rectifiers & Filters.

3.1 Rectifier: Definition- A semiconductor device which converts of an alternating current

( AC ) into direct current ( DC ).

Example : Semiconductor Diode.

Need of Rectifier: To provide continuous voltage ( DC Voltage ) required to run almost all
electronic devices & circuits.

3.1.1 Types of Rectifier : Half Wave Rectifier.

In this type the rectifier conducts current only during the + ve half cycles of the a.c. supply.

Simple Circuit:

Here – ve half cycles are suppressed i.e. during –ve half cycle no current passes through the
diode hence no voltage appears across the load.

Max. rectifier Efficiency= Max. d.c.output power/ a.c. input power =40.6%
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Schematic Diagram:

Full Wave Rectifier:

In this type , the rectifier utilises both half cycles of a.c. input voltage to produce the d.c
output.

Full Wave Rectifier(Centre Tapped Type)

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodeD1 conducts , while diodeD2 is reverse
biased and the current flows through the load as shown .

Similarly ,during the negative half cycle of the supply, diodeD2 conducts , while diodeD1 is
reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown .

Full Wave Rectifier( Bridge Type) : The Diode Bridge Rectifier

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During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4
are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is
the same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

Max. rectifier Efficiency= Max. d.c.output power/ a.c. input power=ἠ =81.2 %

3.1.2 Ripple: Ripple is the output of a rectifier that contains both dc & ac component.

Ripple Factor :The ratio of r.m.s value of ac component to the dc component in the rectifier
output is known as ripple factor.

Ripple Factor= r.m.s value of ac component/ value of dc component.

For Half wave rectification ripple factor =1.21

For Full wave rectification ripple factor =.48

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) : It is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand
without destroying the junction.
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TUF(Transformer Utility Factor): Defined as the ratio of power delivered to the load to the ac
rating of the transformer secondary.

TUF = dc power delivered to the load/ac rating of transformer secondary

= Pdc /Pac .rated
= Pdc/Pin.rated

Rectifier Efficiency: The ration of dc power output to the applied input ac power is known as
rectifier efficiency.

Rectifier Efficiency = dc power output / input ac power

3.1.3 Comparison of Three types of Rectifier.

Sl . Particulars Half wave Centre-Tap Bridge FWR

No. FWR
1. No. of Diodes 1 2 4
2. Max. Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
3. Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48
4. Output Frequency 50Hz 100Hz 100Hz
5. PIV(Peak Inverse Voltage) Vm 2Vm Vm

3.2 FILTERS:

Definition: A filter circuit is a device which removes the ac component (ripple) of rectifier output
but allows the dc component to reach the load.

Need of Filter: To provide smooth DC output to the load.

Types of Filter:

i) Shunt Capacitor: It is also called Capacitor Filter. It offers low reactance to ac &a
very high reactance to the dc component.

The capacitive reactance is XC=1/2πfc ,for d.c , f=0 Then, XC=∞

Hence a capacitor does not allow the d.c to pass through it.
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ii) Choke input filter :In this filter one inductor & one capacitor is used.

The inductive reactance is XL=2πfL , for d.c , f(frequency)=0 Then, XL=0, Hence inductor
allows the d.c to pass through it.

It offers high reactance to the ac component but offers almost zero reactance to the dc
component. That means it allows only dc component to flow through it.

iii) Capacitor input filter: It is also called π -Filter.

In this filter one inductor & two capacitors are used.

Here pulsating output from rectifier is applied across 1st capacitor which offers zero reactance
to a.c& infinite reactance to d.c. Hence d.c component continues to reach across L(Choke Filter)
.

The filter choke then allows the d.c component easily by blocking a.c component if any.

Finally the 2nd capacitor across load bypasses the a.c component if any which the choke(L)
failed to block by making d.c component to reach across load.

Chapter Review Questions:

1. Define rectifier.
2. Draw the circuit of centre tap FWR & Bridge FWR.
3. State PIV of a diode.
4. Define TUF.
5. State the full wave rectifier efficiency.
6. Compare HWR &FWR.
7. Need of filter in power supply.
8. State different types of filters .
9. Define ripple & ripple factor.
10. Define rectifier efficiency.
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5.1.2 Concept of Load Regulation & Line Regulation:

Load Regulation: (Also called Voltage regulation) The load regulation indicates the change in
output voltage due to change in load current .

Line Regulation : The line regulation of a voltage regulator indicates the change in output
voltage that will occur per unit change in the input voltage.

5.1.3 Basic Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator.

A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source
whose voltage may vary over sufficient range.

The zener diode of zener voltage VZ is reversly connected across the load RL across which
constant output is desired . The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so
as to maintain constant voltage across the load.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
DC POWER SUPPLY

RECTIFIERS
An important application of “regular” diodes is in rectification circuits. These
circuits are used to convert AC signals to DC in power supplies.

A block diagram of this process in a DC power supply is shown below.

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Common-Emitter Amplifier

The circuit diagram of a common-emitter (CE) amplifier is shown in Fig. 1 (a). The capacitor
CB is used to couple the input signal to the input port of the amplifier, and CC is used to couple
the amplifier output to the load resistor RL . We are interested in the bias currents and voltages,
mid-band gain, and input and output resistances of the amplifier.

amplifier
VCC

RC RC
R1 R1

CC
VCC
CB
vO RL
vS R2 R2
RE
RE CE

(a) (b)
Figure 1: Common-emitter amplifier: (a) circuit diagram, (b) circuit for DC bias calculation.

Bias computation
The term “bias” refers to the DC conditions (currents and voltages) inside the amplifier
circuit. The capacitors CB , CE , and CC are replaced with open circuits under DC conditions,
and the circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 1 (b). If the transistor β is assumed to be large
(β → ∞), the base current can be neglected, and the R1 -R2 network is then simply a voltage
divider, giving
R2
VB = VCC . (1)
R1 + R2
For the circuit to operate as an amplifier, it is designed such that the BJT operates in its active
region, with the B-E junction under forward bias and the B-C junction under reverse bias. The
B-E voltage drop (VBE = VB − VE ) is about 0.7 V for a silicon BJT, and that gives us VE as
R2
VE = VB − 0.7 = VCC − 0.7 . (2)
R1 + R2
β
The emitter current IE is then obtained as IE = VE /RE , and IC = IE ≈ IE since we have
β+1
assumed β to be large. The DC collector-emitter voltage is

VCE = VC − VE = VCC − IC RC − IE RE ≈ VCC − IC (RC + RE ) . (3)

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The above procedure gives a good estimate of the DC bias quantities. If the base current IB
is to be taken into account in the bias computation, the Thevenin equivalent circuit shown in
Fig. 2 can be used. KVL in the B-E loop gives

VCC

RC RC RC
R1
IC IC IC
VCC RTh
VCC
VCE VCE VCE
IB IB
R1
R2 R2 VTh
VCC IE

Figure 2: Bias computation for the common-emitter amplifier with finite base current.

VTh = IB RTh + VBE + (β + 1) IB RE . (4)

The collector current IC is then given by

VTh − VBE
IC = βIB = β , (5)
RTh + (β + 1)RE
R2
where RTh = (R1 k R2 ), and VTh = VCC .
R1 + R2
AC representation of an amplifier

Rs amplifier

Ro
vs vi Ri vo RL
AV 0 vi

Figure 3: AC representation of an amplifier.

An amplifier can be represented by the AC equivalent circuit enclosed by the box in Fig. 3.
Note that the signal source (voltage Vs with a series resistance Rs ) and the load resistance RL
are external to the amplifier. The coupling capacitors (CB and CC ) are not shown in the AC
circuit since their impedances are negligibly small in the “mid-band” region (see Fig. 4). The
amplifier equivalent circuit is characterised by the input resistance Ri (ideally infinite), output
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resistance Ro (ideally zero), and gain AV 0 . When RL → ∞ (open circuit), the output voltage is
vo = AV 0 × vi (since the current through Ro is zero in that case). With a finite RL , the gain is
lower because of the voltage drop across Ro .
Our goal in this experiment is to measure AV 0 , Ri , and Ro of the CE amplifier and compare
the experimental values with the theoretically expected values given in the following.
Mid-band gain (AV 0 )

midband
102
gain

101

100
101 102 103 104 105 106 107
frequency (Hz)
Figure 4: Frequency response of a common-emitter amplifier (representative plot).

The term “mid-band” refers to the frequency region in which the amplifier gain is constant
(see Fig. 4). In this region, the impedances due to the coupling capacitors (CB and CC ) and of the
bypass capacitor CE are negligibly small (i.e., they can be replaced with short circuits), and the
impedances due to the BJT device capacitances are very large compared to the other components
in the circuit (i.e., they can be replaced with open circuits). With these simplifications, the small-
signal (AC) equivalent circuit of the CE amplifier shown in Fig. 5 (a) reduces to the circuit of
Fig. 5 (b).
The BJT small-signal equivalent circuit (consisting of the resistances rπ and ro , and the
dependent current source) used in Fig. 5 is valid only if the time-varying B-E voltage vbe is
much smaller than VT = kT /q, the thermal voltage which is about 25 mV at room temperature.
The parameters rπ and gm depend on the bias current IC as
IC β
gm = , rπ = . (6)
VT gm
Since vbe = vs (see Fig. 5 (b)), we get
vo β(RC k RL )
vo = (RC k RL k ro ) × (−gm vbe ) → AV L ≡ = −gm (RC k RL ) = − , (7)
vs rπ
if the output resistance ro of the BJT is large. The open-circuit gain AV 0 of the amplifier is
given by
vo  βRC

AV O ≡  = −gm (RC k RL )|RL →∞ = −gm RC = − . (8)
vs RL →∞ rπ
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R1 RC

B C
CB CC
vbe rπ ro
gm vbe

vs R2 E vo RL
BJT
RE CE

(a)

CE amplifier
B C

vs R1 R2 vbe ro RC RL vo
rπ gm vbe
E
AC ground (b)

Figure 5: (a) Small-signal equivalent circuit of a CE amplifier, (b) simplified circuit after replac-
ing the coupling and bypass capacitors with short circuits.

To measure AV L and AV 0 , we apply a sinusoidal input voltage1 (vs in Fig. 1 (a)) and measure
vo with RL in place and with RL → ∞ (i.e., open circuit), respectively.
Input resistance Ri
The input resistance of an amplifier can be found by applying a voltage vs and measuring by
some means the current2 iin shown in Fig. 6 (a) to obtain Ri = vs /iin . From the AC equivalent
circuit of Fig. 5 (b), we can see that the input resistance is

β βVT
Ri = (R1 k R2 k rπ ), where rπ = = , (9)
gm IC

with IC being the bias (DC) value of the collector current.

A simple way for experimental measurement of Ri is shown in Fig. 6 (b). We connect
the input voltage source to the amplifier3 through a variable resistance (pot) Rs . Keeping
1
vs must be sufficiently small to ensure that the output voltage is purely sinusoidal.
2
Note that vs and iin are AC quantities.
3
The coupling capacitor CB is not shown explicitly in Fig. 6 (b), but it must be connected so that the bias
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iin Rs
Ro Ro
vs vi Ri vo RL vs vi Ri vo RL
AV 0 vi AV 0 vi

Ri Ri
(a) (b)

Figure 6: (a) Theoretical interpretation of Ri , (b) practical technique to measure Ri .

vs constant, we then vary Rs and measure vo . If vo′ corresponds to Rs = 0 Ω, then the input
resistance Ri is equal to the value of Rs which gives vo = vo′ /2.
Output resistance Ro

B C
Ro
vi Ri R1 R2 vbe ro RC
AV vi rπ gm vbe
E
Ro Ro
(a) (b)
Figure 7: (a) AC equivalent circuit of an amplifier with vs = 0, (b) AC equivalent circuit of the
CE amplifier with vs = 0.

If we apply vs = 0 to the generic amplifier shown in Fig. 3, we obtain the circuit shown in
Fig. 7 (a). Since vi = 0, the dependent voltage source gets replaced by a short circuit, and looking
at the circuit from the output port, we only see Ro . If we do that for the AC equivalent circuit
of the CE amplifier (Fig. 7 (b)), we get

R o = ro k R C ≈ R C , (10)

since ro of a BJT is typically much larger than RC .

To experimentally measure Ro of the CE amplifier, we can use a procedure similar to that
discussed for Ri . We connect a variable load resistance RL (through a suitably large coupling
capacitor) as shown in Fig. 8. Keeping vs constant, we first measure vo ≡ vo′ with RL → ∞
(open circuit). Ro is given by the value of RL which gives vo = vo′ /2.
values are not disturbed.
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Ro
vs vi Ri RL vo
AV 0 vi

Figure 8: Circuit for experimental measurement of Ro .

Distortion
An amplifier is expected to produce a faithful or undistorted version of the input voltage
(except for the amplification factor) at the output. For the CE amplifier, an undistorted output
voltage is obtained as long as the small-signal condition vbe ≪ VT is satisfied. This is because
the BJT small-signal model is valid if the nonlinear terms (degree 2 and higher) are negligibly
small compared to the linear term in
2
vbe vbe 1 vbe
  
exp =1+ + + ··· (11)
VT VT 2 VT
Since the signal voltage vs is the same as vbe in the CE amplifier (see Fig. 5), we must have
vs ≪ VT to avoid distortion in the output voltage. With VT ≈ 25 mV at room temperature, the
amplitude of vs should therefore be restricted to about 5 mV.
Common-emitter amplifier with partial bypass

VCC ib β ib
B C vo
RC
R1
vbe
CC rπ gm vbe
CB R1 R2 E RC RL
vs
RE1 RL vO (β + 1) ib
vs R2
RE1
RE2
CE
Ri Ro

(a) (b)
Figure 9: (a) CE amplifier with partially bypassed emitter resistance, (b) AC equivalent circuit.

A CE amplifier with partially bypassed emitter resistance is shown in Fig. 9 (a). The bias
point computation of the CE amplifier (Fig. 1) is valid for the partial bypass case if we replace
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M.B. Patil, IIT Bombay 7

RE with (RE1 + RE2 ). For computing the AC quantities of interest (gain, Ri , Ro ), we use the
circuit shown in Fig. 9 (b). Since ie = (β + 1) ib , the resistance RE1 appears as (β + 1)RE1 as
seen from the base, and we can write

vs = ib [rπ + (β + 1)RE1 ] . (12)

The output voltage is

vo = −β ib × (RC k RL ), (13)
and the gain with load AV L is therefore
vo β (RC k RL )
AV L = =− . (14)
vs rπ + (β + 1)RE1
(RC k RL ) RC
If (β+1)RE1 ≫ rπ , AV L → − , and the open-circuit gain AV 0 = AV L |RL →∞ = − .
RE1 RE1
Note that the gain of the CE amplifier with partial bypass is less than that of the CE amplifier
(compare Eqs. 7 and 14) as we would expect from an amplifier with negative feedback4 .
The input resistance, by inspection of Fig. 9 (b) is

Ri = R1 k R2 k (rπ + (β + 1)RE1 ), (15)

and the output resistance is Ro ≈ RC , assuming ro of the BJT to be large.

An important point to note is that the base-emitter small-signal voltage vbe in this case is
much smaller than vs (see Fig. 9 (b)):
vbe rπ i b rπ
= = . (16)
vs rπ ib + (β + 1)RE1 ib rπ + (β + 1)RE1
rπ
As a result, the small-signal condition vbe ≪ VT means that vs ≪ VT or
! rπ + (β + 1)RE1
(β + 1)RE1
vs ≪ VT 1 + , i.e., a larger vs can be applied (as compared to the CE amplifier)
rπ
without causing distortion in the output voltage.
References
1. A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith and A.N. Chandorkar, Microelectronic Circuits Theory and
Applications. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009.

2. P.R. Gray and R.G Meyer, Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits. Singapore:
John Wiley and Sons, 1995.

3. M.B. Patil, Basic Electronic Devices and Circuits. Prentice-Hall India: Delhi, 2013.

4
The feedback involved in the CE amplifier with partial bypass is of the series-series type. On the output side,
the output current ic causes a voltage drop RE1 ie ≈ RE1 ic across RE1 , and this voltage drop gets subtracted
from the input voltage vs .
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Public Address system

PA system is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system

with a microphone, amplifiers and loudspeakers used in many
applications such as addressing a large public,announcements in offices
and institutions etc.

 Microphone:- transducer which senses sound signals and

converts them in to corresponding electrical signals that can
be processed by the rest of the system.

 Preamplifier:- increase the amplitude of signal coming

from microphone enabling for further processing.

 Power amplifier:- it takes the amplified signal from

preamplifier and boosts the current so that it is strong
enough to drive the loud speaker.

 Loud speaker:- converts the electrical signal back into a

sound wave, which will be an amplified version of original
sound.
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 Mixer:- the output of microphones is fed to a mixer stage. The

function of mixer is to effectively isolate different channels from
each other before feeding to the main amplifier
 Equalization is the process of altering the frequency response
of an audio system using filters.
 It adjusts the amplitude of audio signals at particular frequencies.
 Equalization may also be used to eliminate unwanted
signals,make certain instruments or voices more prominent.
 Graphic equalizer:- allows the user to see graphically and
 control individually a number of different frequency bands.
 Low frequency (popularly called bass) of the signal is amplified
 and converted into audio using low frequency
 speakers(popularly called woofers).
 Similarly high frequency audio signals are amplified and fed to
 high frequency loud speakers.
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Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators:

· Feedback implies the transfer of energy from the output of a system to its input. If a
portion or the whole of the output signal of an amplifier is fed back and superimposed on
the input signal, the performance of the amplifier changes significantly. Then the
amplifier is said to be a feedback amplifier.
· Negative/Inverse/Degenerative Feedback:- Feedback signal diminishes the magnitude of
the input signal.
· Positive/Direct/Regenerative Feedback:- Feedback signal enhances the magnitude of the
input signal.

Negative/Inverse/Degenerative Feedback

In the above circuit the input signal to the amplifier with gain A is the difference of the input
signal VS and feedback signal Vf . The feedback circuit can contain passive elements like
resistors, inductors, capacitors and active elements like transistors.

Transfer Gain of a feedback amplifier:

VO=AVi (A= VO/ Vi is the gain without feedback or open loop gain)

Vf = βVO (β= Vf/VO is known as the feedback fraction, the feedback ratio, the reverse
transfer ratio or the reverse transmission factor)
Vi=Vs- Vf (Positive sign for positive feedback)

Vs = Vi +Vf= VO/A+ βVO

Af=VO/Vs=A/(1+Aβ) is the gain with feedback called as closed loop gain.

The quantity Aβ is called as loop gain, the feedback factor, the return ratio or the loop
transmission.

The feedback introduced into an amplifier is usually expressed in decibles(dB) by the

relationship
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F=dB of Feedback =20log10 =20log10

For negative feedback F is negative and for positive feedback F is positive.

Feedback amplifier topologies:

Depending up on the input mixer and output sampler configuration we have 4 feedback
topologies.
1. Voltage Series
2. Voltage Shunt
3. Current Series
4. Current Shunt

Effect of
Negative
Feedback:

A number of improvements are obtained in negative feedback

1. Better stabilised voltage gain

2. Higher input impedance and lower output impedance
3. Improved frequency response
4. Reduced noise
5. More linear operation

Positive/Direct/Regenerative Feedback:

In positive feedback input signal to the amplifier with gain A is the additione of the input signal
VS and feedback signal Vf .

VO=AVi
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Vf = βVO
Vi=Vs+Vf

Vs = Vi -Vf= VO/A- βVO

Af=VO/Vs=A/(1-Aβ)

Oscillator Operation:

The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain Af
greater than 1 satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator.

When the switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs. Considering fictitious
voltage Vi at the amplifier input VO=AVi. And Vf=AβVi.

If the circuits of the base amplifier and the feedback network provide Aβ of a correct
magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi. Then, when the switch is closed and the
fictitious voltage Vi is removed, the circuit will continue operating since the feedback voltage is
sufficient to drive the amplifier, resulting in a proper input voltage to sustain the loop operation.
The output waveform will still exist after the switch is closed if the condition Aβ=1 is met. This
is known as Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.
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7.2 OSCILLATORS

The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain |Af |
greater than 1 and satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit.
An oscillator circuit then provides a varying output signal. If the output signal varies sinusoid
ally, the circuit is referred to as a sinusoidal oscillator. If the output voltage rises quickly to
one voltage level and later drops quickly to another voltage level, the circuit is generally
referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.
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Essentials of Oscillators

+ V
Vs  Amplifier (A) Vo
+
Positive Vf Frequency-Selective
Feedback Network ()
Feedback

For sinusoidal input is connected “Linear” because the output is approximately sinusoidal

A linear oscillator contains:

- a frequency selection feedback network

- an amplifier to maintain the loop gain at unity

+ V
Vs  A(f) Vo
+

Vf SelectiveNetwork
(f)

Vo  AV  A(Vs  Vf ) V f  Vo

Vo A
 
Vs 1  A
APPLICATION OF OSCILLATORS

– Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.

– Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to IF signals in a receiver;
– Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
– Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
– Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.