NTFP by Abiral

Prepared by: Abiral Acharya
Sources:
NTFP by Damodar Gaire
NTFP
NTFP lecture slides Pokhara
Internet
6th semester, IOF, TU

Unit 1: Introduction of NTFP (2)
What is a Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP)?
Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) includes, literally, all products other than timber that come from forest. The
term NTFP was coined by De Beer and McDermott (1989). In their publication on the economic value of
NTFPs in South East Asia, De Beer and McDermott (1989) used the term NTFPs as an alternative to the ‘minor
forest products’ and proposed the following definition:
“Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) encompassed all biological materials other than timber, which
are extracted from forests for human use.”
Different users define NTFPs differently, depending on their interests and objectives. Number of terminologies
such as ‘non-timber forest product’, ‘non-wood forest product’, ‘wild products’, ‘natural products’, ‘non-timber
forest and grassland products’, ‘minor forest products’, ‘secondary forest products’, ‘by-products of the forest’,
have been in use creating the ambiguity among various scholars, implementers, research organizations, decision
makers and users.
Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) -FAO adopted the working definition of NWFPs in 1999 as, “Non-wood
forest products consist of goods of biological origin other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded land
and trees outside forests”.
Definition of NTFPs
De Beer and McDermott (1989)- The term “Non Timber Forest Products” (NTFPs) encompasses all biological
materials other than timber, which are extracted from forests for human use.
Chandresekharan (1995)- Non-wood forest products include all goods of biological origin, as well as services,
derived from forest or any land under similar use, and exclude wood in all its forms.
Mathur and Shiva (1996)- All products obtained from plants of forest origin and host plant species yielding
products in association with insects and animals or their parts and items of mineral origin except timber, may be
defined as Minor Forest Products (MFP) or Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP) or Non-Timber Forest Products
(NTFP).
FAO (1999) -Non wood forest products (NWFP) are defined as ‘goods of biological origin other than wood
derived from forests, other wooded lands and trees outside forests’ (FAO 1999).
Forest Act, 2049 (1993) -There is no separate definition of NTFP, included in forest products.
"Forest Products" means the following products which are contained or found in or brought from forests:-
(1) Timber, firewood, charcoal, catechu, rosin, wood-oil, bark, lac, pipla, pipli (piper longum), or
(2) Tree, plant, leave, stem, fruit, seed, flower, floss, root, rhizome, bark, gum resins, lac gum, wild herbs,
vegetation and different parts or organs thereof, or
(3) Boulder, soil, stone, pebble, sand, or
NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 1

(4) Bird, wild life and trophy thereof.
Eg. Grasses, bamboo ratans, gum, resin, MAPs, Silac, lac, lichen, honey, mushroom etc.
1.2 Importance and scope of NTFP
# GoN of Nepal has categorized 30 very important NTFP for commercial values and 12 species are enlisted for
domestication and cultivation.
# Nepal has exported 10000- 15000 different forms of NTFP without processing which tends 90% of the total
production.
# NTFP shares 33% of the total plant species of the world.
# The role of NTFP is particularly important in the Himalayan region, where a large proportion of the rural
population depend on them as sources of food, nutrition, fodder, fiber, medicine, condiment, dye, and other
useful materials.
# In addition, the collection and marketing of NTFP is a major source of rural income and an important source
of revenue to the government. NTFP also have high sociocultural, symbolic and idealistic values (cf. Hamilton
2004).
# In the mountains of Nepal, 10-100% of households are reported to be involved in commercial collection of
medicinal plants and other NTFP, and in certain rural areas this provides up to 50% of the family income
(Chhetry 1999; Edwards 1996; Olsen & Helles 1997; Olsen & Larsen 2003).
# The importance of NTFPs was raised for the past few decades as a result of many factors such as the
dependence of rural communities of NTFPs, site quality, new market preferences for natural products,
increasing concerns about forests and biodiversity conservation, and occurrence of many NTFPs among the
biological richness and ecological complexities of natural forests (Grimes et al. 1994).
# Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) include plants used to produce pharmaceuticals, dietary supplement
products and natural health products, beauty aids, cosmetics, and personal care products, as well as some
products marketed in the culinary/food sector.
Some reasons for NTFPs to receive wider attention than timber are:
i. It is almost impossible to transport timber to nearby cities/markets from high hills and mountainous districts
due to physiographic conditions and inadequate road networks. Transportation and trading of raw, semi-
processed or processed NTFPs/MAPs are relatively easier due to lower volumes.
ii. Harvesting of NTFPs such as those of herbs and shrubs origin and parts of trees (leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds,
exudates, etc) are ecologically less-destructive compared with cutting and felling of trees.
iii. NTFPs of herbs and shrubs origin may become harvestable in a year, compared with trees that may take
decades to attain maturity and become harvestable.
iv. Considering the effort, time invested and risk factors, economic returns from NTFPs are far higher than that
of timber.
v. Generally, poor people who are dependent on forest resources cannot wait for long periods to get returns from
the management of their forest.

Importance
 Employment generation through sustainable utilization and management of NTFP.

 Livelihood improvement by their collection and trade.
 Support biodiversity and other conservation objectives.
 Provide holistic picture in the research and development through NTFP.
 Industrial development
 Value addition to national economy
 Promotion of indigenous products
 Source of food, nutrition, medicine and construction material
 Means of food security
 NTFPs have socio-cultural and religious values.
Scope
 Management and conservation of NTFP

 Industrialization and Domestication
 Research and Development
 Cultivation and scientific farming of NTFP
 International and national marketing
 Development of NTFP database
 Medicinal-Ayurvedic-Homeopathic-Allopathic uses
 Tissue culture
 Classification of NTFP
 Economic and industrial revolution
 Tourism development

1.3 Classification of NTFP

Classification of NTFP in Nepal
NTFP classification in Nepal is done on a different basis
1. Different uses of NTFP
2. Altitudes
3. Royalty collection
4. IUCN
5. CITES
1. Different uses of NTFPs
NTFPs have been classified into the following types according to the different uses of NTFP:
MAPs (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants): There are about 700 medicinal and aromatic plants found in Nepal.
These species are distributed in all climatic zones. So far, 238 has been chemically analyzed for their medicinal
properties (GoN, 2004).
Bamboo: This NTFP is used for constructions and has multi-uses
Lokta and Sabai grass: These grasses are used for making papers.
Pine: It is used for making resin
Fodder and food: It is used in day to day life of human beings. Fodder is consumed by livestock.
Rattan: Used for making furniture. It is also called cane or bet in Nepal.
Katha: Used as a spice, color and tanning material.
2. Altitudes:
NTFP is also classified on the basis of altitude into two categories. One is that is found at high altitude and
another is that is found at low altitude.
High value-These are the NTFPs that are found in altitude above 2000m. Neopicroriza scrofulariflora,
Swertia chiraita, Nardostachys grandiflora, Aconitum spicatum falls under high-value NTFP.
Low value- These are found at an altitude below 2000m. Cinnamomum tamala, Sapindus mukorossi,
Asparagus racemosus, Zanthozylum armatum are the low-value NTFPs.
3. Royalty collection
The government of Nepal has amended the Forest Regulation 1995 in 2009 and categorized NTFP into
following eight types of NTFP for collecting royalty.
Fruit and seed Root and rhizomes
Leaves/stem Bark Whole plant
Flower and fur (bhuwa) Gum, resin, and lac others

4. IUCN
IUCN has classified NTFP into following according to the vulnerability of NTFP species.
 Critically endangered
 Vulnerable
 Threatened
5. CITES
 Appendix I – Paphiopedillum insigne, P. venustum
 Appendix II- Rauvolfia serpentine, Taxus wallichiana
 Appendix III – Gnetum monatum, Podocarpus nerifolis

UNIT 2: NTFPs and Livelihood (2)
What is livelihood?
A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities
required for a means of living.
A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance
its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base.
(Chambers & Conway, 1991)
A person's livelihood refers to their "means of securing the necessities of life". Livelihood is defined
as a set of economic activities, involving self-employment, and or wage employment by using one’s
endowments (both human and material) to generate adequate resources for meeting the requirements of the self
and household on a sustainable basis with dignity. The activity is usually carried out repeatedly.
It deals with people, their resources (land, crops, labor, knowledge, cattle, money, social relationships, and so
on), and their activities with these resources.
Why livelihood?
 For understanding poverty (dimensions, dynamics and persistence) and poverty reduction.
 Over a billion people of the world‘s population live in absolute poverty and poverty remains widespread
in both urban and rural areas.
Poverty has been central to many development agencies ‘Agendas (e.g. World Bank, national governments,
etc.)
 The Millennium Development Goals include the aim of halving acute poverty globally by 2015
 To achieve this target and to internalize above mentioned scenarios.
Livelihood assets or capital

• Human capital: skills, knowledge, the ability to work and good health
• Social capital: the social resources that people draw on to make a living, such as relationships with
either more powerful people (vertical connections) or with others like themselves (horizontal
connections), or membership of groups or organizations.
• Natural capital: the natural resource stocks that people can draw on for their livelihoods, including
land, forests, water, air and so on.
• Physical capital: the basic infrastructure that people need to make a living, as well as the tools and
equipment that they use. For example, transport and communication systems, shelter, water and
sanitation systems, and energy.
• Financial capital: savings, in whichever form, access to financial services, and regular inflows of
money.
Human capital
Natural capital Financial capital

Livelihood Assets
Physical Capital Social capital

Components of Livelihood Strategies
 Livelihood assets
 Vulnerability context
 Policy, institutions and processes
 Livelihood Strategies
 Livelihood Outcomes
Transforming Livelihood
Vulnerability
Structures and outcomes
Context
Processes
(Shocks, Livelihood Livelihood More income,
trends and assets Structures- level of Strategies increased
seasonality) govn, private sector wellbeing,
decreased
Processes- laws, vulnerability,
policies, culture,
improved food
institutions security etc.
Fig. Sustainable livelihood framework
2.1 Role of NTFPs in Livelihod
Fig. value ladder of NTFPs in livelihoods

Roles:
Income Products for Sale Clothes Employment
Household use Low cost treatment for diseases Subsistence Nutrition
Enterprise Food/ fruits/ vegetables Poverty reduction Medicine
2.2 Employment and income generation

About 50-70% of mountain people have been engaged in NTFP related jobs (DPR 2017).
Among them 2.5 lakhs population are directly involved in value chain of MAPs.
25% of employment is related to Medicinal plants and Herbs (DPR 2017).
• Collection of NTFPs is a major economic activity
• NTFP trading also generates income and employment

• Most NTFPs have potential for value addition at local level so that more employment and income can
be generated in rural economy.
• NTFP extraction has multiplier effects in the economy by generating employment and income in
downstream processing and trading activities.
• Promotion of village based NTFPs cooperatives and NTFPs based industries.
2.3 Ethno- botanical value of NTFP

What is Ethno-botany?
• Ethno-botany is the study of the relationship between people and plants. Plants have provided people
with most of their needs for thousands of years.
• Ethno-botany: The study of People-Plant relationships.
• Ethno-botany includes all kind of relationships between people and plants.
• The definition of ethno-botany can be sum up in four words:
I.e. People, Plants, Interactions, and Uses.
• The term ethno-botany was coined by John W. Hershberger in 1896 and was considered as the art of
collection of useful plants by a group of people and the description of the uses of plants.
Importance
 Gathers the knowledge of origin, evolution and migration of ethnic communities.
 Helps in the documenting the culture of ethnic communities.
 Provides systematic recording and documentation of indigenous knowledge of plant use in relation with
their culture.
 Helps to find out new useful plant resources for various purposes and their proper domestication.
 Helps in the establishment of pharmaceutical industries and identifying new alternative drugs due to
shift in the use of herbal medicine.
 Helps in documenting indigenous technology and management system for preservation of plant
resources.
Ethnic value of MAPs and NTFPs
Aegle marmelos – Important in the bel bibaha in Newar community, leaves in puja of Hindu community
Citrus medica (biniro) - Essential in the Tihar festival in Newar community
Aessandra butyracea (Chyuri) - chepang community give the tree as a dowry during the marriage
Dioscorea deltoidea (bhyakur) - Raute and chepang community use it as food
Ocimum tanuifolium (Tulsi) - Useful in pujas, used as spices and condiments
Cynodon dactylon (Dubo) - Essential in pujas, used in marriage for making mala
(Note: Add other uses you know)
Ethnobotanical uses:
Medicinal uses:
Acorus calamus (Bojho) - Treatment of cough, cold, gastritis by different ethnic droups like tharu, newars,
Sherpa, limbu
Aegle marmelos (Bel) - medicinal, food and religious use in different communities
Centella asiatica (Ghodtapre) - leaf juice is prescribed to cure fever in children by chepang and danuwars
Rauwolfia serpentine (Sarpagandha) - Root juice is taken to get relief from malarial fever
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Kutki) - cure gastritis, ulcer by sherpas
Azadirachta indica (Nim) – Young branches are used for cleaning teeth by Terai people, used while storing
grains as an insecticide and pesticide
Other uses
Sapindus mukorossi (Rittha) is used for washing and cleaning dishes and clothes
Girardinia heterophylla (allo) is used for its fibre obtained from bark for making ropes in Jumla, darchula,
sankhuwasabha
Daphne spps. (lokta) is extensively used for paper making ( Nepali Paper)
Add other uses you know

Unit 3: Resource Assessment of NTFPs (3)
3.1 NTFP Inventory
NTFP inventory is the systematic collection of data and NTFP information for assessment or analysis.
It is an estimate of the value and possible uses of NTFP as it is important part of the broader information
required to sustain ecosystem and livelihoods.
Unique features of NTFP inventory

I. High heterogeneity of products:
• Each additional species has a different distributional pattern.
• Most products have to be quantified in a different way.
• Sampling methods and methods used for quantification (visual estimation, measurement of height,
length or girth, measurement of weight, counting etc.) are consequently diverse, depending on the
product.
II. Seasonal nature of NTFP:
• Many products are available only during specific seasons; therefore their inventory has to be planned
accordingly.
• This creates difficulties if several products are considered, each to be inventoried at different times of
the year.
III. Spatial distribution
NTFP is not limited to one place. It can be distributed outside forest.
Key elements of NTFP inventory Different stages of NTFP inventory

 Technical knowledge of forest technician
 Traditional knowledge of forest users 1. Participatory resource mapping
 Creativity 2. Area calculation
3. Forest stratification
Justification of NTFP inventory 4. Sampling method selection
• Legal requirements 5. Deciding the shape of sample plot
• Sustainability 6. Plot distribution in different strata
• Feasibility study 7. Participatory resource mapping
• Monitoring biodiversity 8. Area calculation
9. Forest stratification
Why NTFPs inventory is to be done? 10. Sampling method selection
 To know the current status: 11. Deciding the shape of sample plot
 For sustainable management 12. Plot distribution in different strata
 To meet the legal requirement (Explain yourselves)
3.2 Sampling and Measurement

Sampling:
Sampling is a valuable tool for obtaining data quickly, cheaply and accurately. It consists of obtaining
information from a portion of a large group or population.
Aim: The aim of sampling is to secure a sample which will represent the population and reproduce the important
characteristics of the population under study as closely as possible.
Types of sampling
1. Subjective sampling: It is the most convenient method of sampling in which the experimenter selects a
number of sampling units which he considers “representative” of the whole population. It has high chance of
biasness. Subjective sampling is statistically unsound hence discouraged.
2. Probability sampling: In this method sampling is performed so that every unit in the population has equal
opportunity of being selected. Random sampling is an example of probability sampling.
The common methods employed for NTFPs sampling are
Random sampling and
Systematic sampling
•Random sampling: In this method every unit in the population is given equal chance of being selected in the
sample. Thus the required number of the units are selected at random, employing a rigorous process of selection
equivalent to drawing lots, from the population of the units. Lottery or random table
•Systematic sampling: it consists in selecting sampling units at equally spaced intervals. To avoid bias the first
unit is randomly selected and subsequent units at equal intervals say every 10th tree in every 3rd row.
Sampling and measurement procedures
1. Identification of species habitats
2. Asses variation in distribution, density, abundance, productivity and other plant association by lying transect
from top to bottom of the habitat
3. At each 10 m elevations, horizontal sampling line is set up and 1m *1 m sample plots are set up
4. In each sample plot, no of individuals of the species and other associate species are counted and their
percentage cover is recorded
5. Each rosette of leaves and root system considered as an individual plant
6. In each site, data analyzed to assess the relative density etc.
7. Samples of rhizomes are collected, cleaned, dried from each unit area (1m*1m) at 10 different sites to
determine biomass and productivity. e. g. for species:
Picorrhiza scrophularifolia and Nardostachys grandiflora
Techniques of inventory and quantification are done on the basis of parts used – 3 categories
1. Inventory of species - Used parts Root and Rhizomes- Suganhawal-valeriana jatamansi And Jatamasi-
Nardostachys grandiflora)
2. Inventory of species - Used parts Fruits (e.g. Bel-Aegle marmelos, Pipla and Timur)
3. Inventory of species - Used parts Whole plant (e.g. Chiraito, Argeli etc.)
Inventory of species - Used parts Root and Rhizomes e.g.Suganhawal, jatamansi)

 Transect walk- participatory boundary and delineate the area
 Locate species on the map- basis is blocks, availability and management objectives
 Find out effective area and set sampling intensity (0.5 to 1.5%)
 Define plot size (if herb plot is 1 Sqm)
 Calculate no of plots e.g if the effective area is 4 ha and sampling intensity is 0.5%
Then no. of plots = 4 ha X 0.5
= 40000 X 0.5 % = 200 ie. I= (a X n)/ A X 100%
Size of the plots: 1mX 1 m
 Dig out the root/rhizome and take the fresh weight
 Dry the product for one week and weight again. If it is 6 kg in all the sampled plots (100 sq.m.) If the effective
area is 1 ha then the production will be 600 kg ie. Amount per ha = [Wt. of sample/ sample size (mXm)] X
10,000
Inventory of species - Used parts Fruits (e.g. Bel-Aegle marmelos, Pipla and Timur)
 Transect walk- participatory boundary and delineate the area
 Locate species on the map- basis is blocks, availability and management objectives
 Find out effective area and set sampling intensity (0.1 to 1 %)
 Define plot size (if herb, the plot is 1 Sq m, shrub - 25 sq.m and pole 100 sq.m.)
 Calculate plot number on the basis of effective area sampling intensity and plot size
 Pick the fruits and take the fresh weight
 Dry the product for one week and weight again.
Sampling intensity for various life forms of NTFPs

Forest size Sampling intensity (%) for various life forms of
(ha) NTFPs

Trees Shrubs Herbs
(Timber or non- (Non-timber)
timber)
< 100 1 0.5 0.05 - 0.1

100 -500 0.5 0.5 0.05
> 500 0.1-0.5 0.1 0.01
Area & size of sample plots

SN Size of sample plot Circular plot Square plot (Sq. Rectangular plot
Area (Sq. m.) Radius (m.) m.) (Sq. m.)
1 500 12.61 22.36 x 22.36 20 x 25
2 400 11.28 20 x 20 20 x 20
3 300 9.77 17.32 x 17.32 20 x 15
4 200 7.97 14.14 x 14.14 20 x 10
5 100 5.64 10 x 10 10 x 10
6 25 2.82 5 x5 5x5
7 10 1.78 3.16 x 3.16 5x2
3.3 Estimation and assessment of NTFP

NTFP Assessment:
1. Preparation
 Stakeholder identification and discussion
 Obtaining a resource map
 Identification and delineation of important NTFPs area on map with consultation with CFUG
 Reconnaissance survey and transect walk
2. Equipment for the survey
 GPS, compass, measuring tape, d-tape, spring balance, rope, plastic bags, map, peg, pen and note book
3. Compartment / Block Division
4. Measurement
 Layout sample plot on ground ie. Develop sampling methods
 Measure and record the data
5. Analysis and interpretation
 Compile the data
 Analysis the data
 Interpret the data
NTFP Estimation
 Estimation of sample plot – once the sampling intensity is fixed, total area required for sampling is
worked out.
Total area of sample plot = (S.I. X A) / 100
 Estimation of no. of sample plots – n = Total area of sample plot/ Area of a sample plot
 Estimation of plot to plot distance, 𝒅 = √(𝑨 / n+1)
Where A = total area of the forest or area under survelliance/research/survey
Frequency = Number of samples in which species occur/Total number of sample X 100

Relative Frequency = Frequency of individual species/Total frequency of species X 100
Density /Ha = Total number of species/Area
Relative density = Density of individual species/total density X 100
Coverage % = Area occupied by species/Area of sampling plot X 100
Relative coverage (%) = Coverage of A/Total coverage X 100

UNIT 4: Sustainable Harvesting of NTFPs (3)
The collection and extraction of NTFPs in such a way that the harvest is economically viable, socially
acceptable and ecologically fit is called sustainable harvesting of NTFPs. Sustainable harvesting of NTFPs is
necessary to ensure the long term supply of the NTFPs in the forest for the future generations.
4.1 Importance
1. To ensure continuously supply of forest resources (NTFPs)
2. To protect the harvested NTFP from destruction
3. To conserve biodiversity
4. To generate employment
5. To generate revenue
6. To save the money for plantation and cultivation
7. To make the certification of the products easy
4.2 Harvesting practices

Harvesting process: (harvesting practices)
 In harvesting time, wearing cotton gloves, trimming finger nails and removing jewelry such as ring and
bracelets can help reduce mechanical damage.
 Harvesting containers: – Use for picking baskets, bags and buckets of different size.
 Harvesting tools: Some fruits need to be clipped or cut from the parent material.
Clippers or knives should be kept well sharpened.
 Field packing: –When plants are field packed the picker harvests and then immediately packs the
produce after minimal handling. E.g. Strawberries are generally field packed, since even a small amount
of handling will damage these soft fruits.
– Transport to the packinghouse:
–When fruits are harvested at some distance from the packinghouse, the produce must be transported
before packing
Harvesting practices in Nepal
Unprocessed medicinal and aromatic plants constitute more than 90 percent export from Nepal. Because of
production in economies of scale, technological capabilities and large consumer demand India imports NTFPs
from Nepal and processed and sell to the USA and European countries.
Collecting NTFPs can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, so usually do when there is little demand for
farm labor. Moreover, they tend to harvest only when they need the cash rather than during the appropriate
season (Chandrasekharan, 1998).
 Very little attention is paid to the quality aspects while pickings/plucking.
 Multi-product collection, focusing on a single product and collecting other products as they
encountered, was practiced.
 The physiologically immature collection has been leading to total destruction of the habitat, particularly
for medicinal plants and herbs.
 Likewise, the destructive harvesting and overexploitation of NTFPs adversely affect the environment
and genetic composition of the plants (Charles, 1994)
Bamboo is one of the most widely domesticated species in Nepal. According to Gautam (1999), although it
hampers crop yield by drying out the soil, this species has several benefits including controlling soil erosion. In
Nepal, it is considered as poor men’s timber.
The following have been perceived problems on NTFPs harvesting/ production in Nepal:
 Improper harvesting of whole natural/wild stock of plants, including roots and seeds, before they have a
chance to produce next generation
 Harvesting of natural/wild species before they produce flowers and/ or fruits, also reducing the chances
of a next generation

 Improper post-harvest treatment of collected MAPs or plant parts (cleaning, drying, grading, storage,
etc) and adulteration of collected items
 Haphazard and heavy collection (i.e. beyond the limit of sustainable harvest) from marginal or
ecologically sensitive areas
 Lack of rotational collection practice and maximum collection from nearby open access areas
 Inconsistent supply of quality raw materials, scattered resource availability.
Legal process:
 The DFO gives the permit to collect MAPs and NTFPs as per the Forest Regulation 1995.
 Person seeking collection of NTFPs are required to submit an application mentioning the type of
NTFP, the area of collection, the quantity as well as purpose of collection.
 If collection permit are not banned, DFO gives permit indicating the rules to be followed as specified in
mgmt. plan.
 Once the collection is over, the DFO will tally the ntfps collected according to the license issued for
their collection, check the quantities, collect fees and issue a release order for transport or even for
export.
4.3 Sustainable harvesting

People, particularly in rural and remote areas of Nepal are heavily involved in the collection of NTFPs for
sustaining their livelihood. MAPs provide benefits to many people, both collectors and traders. Most of the
collectors gather MAPs from the wild and only a few cultivate some of the species in their private lands. More
than 100 types of NTFPs that are used in medicinal, aromatic and other industrial preparations are collected in
Nepal for commercial purposes. More than 90 % volumes of the commercial NTFPs are collected from wild
very often in the destructive and unsustainable manner Figures estimate almost 80% of the raw material
procured by the companies comes from wild sources, and exploitation of natural resources takes place to the
point of danger for certain species.
Higher price and urgent requirements from traders sometimes cause uprooting of some species, hence
jeopardizing future outputs. MAPs collection is basically considered an additional or leisure activity; however, a
collection of some of the species requires hard works.
Principal NTFPs by ecological zones of Nepal

1. NTFPs/MAPs of High Altitude: Jatamansi, Kutki, Atis, Bis jara, Bishma, Nirmasi, Dhupi, Nagbeli,
Padamchal, Panchaule, Yarsagumba, Silajeet, Gucchi chyau, Somlata, Satuwa, Sunpati, Laghupatra,
Sugandhawal, Seabukthorn, Olive, Deodar, etc
2. NTFPs/MAPs of Mid Hill: Timur, Tejpat/ Dalchini, Chiraito, Pakhanbed, Loth salla, Rudraksha,
Kachur, Ritha, Majitho, Titepati, Dhaturo, Kuchila, Asuro, Sugandha Kokila, Indrayani, Bojho, Ban
Lasun, Ghiu Kumari, Thulo Okhati, Bhyakur, Allo, Lokta, Jhyau, Alaichi, etc
3. NTFPs/ MAPs of Terai: Harro, Barro, Amala, Satawari, Sikakai, Sarpagandha, Pipla, Tetepati, Khayar,
Asuro, Bhyakur, Banmara, Gurjo, Bel, Rajbrikchha, Jiwanti, Dhaturo, Ghodtapre, Kantakari, Neem,
Bet, Chhatiwan, Musli, etc
The commercial medicinal plants in the Terai region can be broadly divided into three categories based on their
harvesting level: over-harvested, under harvested and not harvested.
1. Over-harvested medicinal plant species are Alstonia scholaris (Chhatiwan), Asparagus racemosus,
Rauvolfia serpentina, Curculigo orchioides (Kalo Musli), Ephemerantha macraei (Jiwanti), Piper
longum, Tinospora cordifolia (Gurjo), etc
2. Under harvested medicinal plants of Terai’s forests are Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia bellirica
(Barro), T. chebula (Harro), Aegle marmelos, Cassia fistula (Rajbriksha), Holarrhena pubescens (Indra
Jau), etc.
3. Not harvested are Butea monosperma (Palas), Mallotus philippensis (Sindure), Justicia adhatoda
(Asuro), Tribulus terristris (Gokhur), Woodfordia fruticosa (Dhairo), etc.
Issues for sustainable harvesting:
• Technical issues • Institutional issues
• Policy related issues • Market, marketing and trade issues
Sustainable harvesting methods:
Leaves: The leaves are usually gathered throughout the growing period. They are picked either singly or the
entire stem is cut off and the leaves are separated afterward. The leaf should be healthy, free from diseases,
insects, and pests and clean and dry.
Leaves are generally collected before the flowering period, each year. In case of shrubby plants leaf can be
collected by cutting branches; eg: Taxus, Digitalis, Belladonna, Tejpat etc.
Top parts or buds: The aerial or top parts of the plant are collected with the flower-bearing stem just before or
at the beginning of the flowering stage.
Fruits, flowers and seeds: Fruits and seeds are collected when they are mature.
• Fully bloomed flowers are collected during the dry season. eg: Simal, Dhayero, Chamomile, Pyrethrum,
• Fruits should be collected after maturity, generally at the time of ripening. eg: Amala,Harro, Barro,
Badhar, Pipla etc
• Seeds are collected after full maturity of fruit or before breaking down of fruits. eg: Sarpagandha,
Neem, Timur etc
Root and Stem: Root and stem of the plants are generally collected from September to March. Some
precautions are necessary during the root/ rhizome collection with a view to achieving sufficient regeneration of
the plant. For this purpose, some part of root, stem or tuber should be left in the ground. Generally, rotation of 4
years is appropriate for such products. eg: Kutki,Sarpagandha, Jatamansi, Backhanded, etc
Bark: Bark should be collected during the winter season or before March. It is not good to collect bark at the
time of leaf sprout. In the case of bark, harvesting should be made from lesser than one-third part of harvestable
bole which is generally considered above 1 m above ground surface below 15 cm diameter. Rotation for bark
harvesting should at least be of 4 years. eg. Dalchini, Kaphal, Kaulo, Chhatiwan etc.
Some other Considerations:

• Proper time of collection is very important to ensure renewal of the resource. Malla et al (1995) point out
that suitable collection period in case of whole plant harvesting is when fully matured; for bark and leaf at
the onset of blossoming, and for flowers and seeds at the time of flowering and maturity.
• Rotational collection practice with period lapse ranging from one year to more (lesser for leaf, fruit, flower
yielding species and higher for root, tuber, rhizome, bark yielding species) is also necessary to ensure
regeneration.
• Amount of product harvesting in case of roots, rhizomes, bulbs and whole plants should be 30 % of
available stock; for stems, twigs and leaves, 50- 60% and for flowers and seeds up to 90 %.
• Proportion of stock to be kept intact to ensure regeneration; e.g. Rawal (2058) recommends harvesting of
75 % of total NTFP stock (in wholesome for all species) while Parajuli (2001) suggests for up to 90 % but
keeping sufficient rotation period (in an average of 4 years for root, tuber, rhizome, bark yielding species)
for regeneration purpose.
When is Best to Harvest Jatamansi?

As it is easy to pull or dig up the plants during summer. Harvesting in summer is also detrimental to the
remaining plants and propagates as most of them decay after the harvest during the rainy season. Finally, when

Jatamansi is harvested during the beginning of its growing season (summer), its annual yield is reduced. The
quality of Jatamansi harvested in autumn was found to be better than that harvested in Summer. The Jatamansi
harvested in autumn has a low moisture content, is less likely to be damaged by fungi and other factors, and
produces heavier high-quality essential oils.
4.4 Post Harvesting Technique

The collected material like leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, and rhizomes are processed and making plates, rope,
broom, medicines, and types of value-added products. The collection of produce and its post-harvest technique
is playing a positive role to preserve quality material for a longer duration.
S.N. Name Traditional method Scientific Method Value

Processing Storage Processing Storage addition
1. Aegle Collect fruits and After drying Collected fruits The dry After
marmelos keep in a clean people used to should be kept for orange extraction of
(Bel) place in sunlight sell it 3-4 days on a clean colored bel, the pulp
for 5-6 days for immediately. cloth or polysheets spotless is used for the
drying. for sun drying. pulp should preparation of
be packed various fruits
Crack down its Fruits are put in in plastic products
skull after drying extremely hot bags. which can be
water for few commercially
minutes and exploited.
removed. And
repeat the process
for removing the
hard cover.
The pulp of fruit

should be cut in
four parts and then
spread on clean
cloth or bamboo
mats for drying.
Fruits completely
dry in 15- 20 days.
2. Bauhinia Fresh flower buds Dried leaves and Product range
variegate and leaves were buds were stored Not consists of
(Koiorala) used as vegetables. in the sunlight commercialized yet Herbal
The leaves were and stored in the extract,
also dried in the moisture proof herbal oil,
sun for 2-3 days container or ingredients,
and stored to use plastic bags. fruit powders
as vegetables in etc. and many
dry seasons. more.
3. Terminilia Selected fruits Well dried Collected fruits Completely Used in the
Belerica spread in clean brown fruits are should be spread dried pulp products of
(Barro) place to dry in spread in simple on clean cloth for should be Triphala
sunlight for 4-5 jute bags. 10-15 days and its packed in Churna.
days. hard part is jute bags
separated from which have
seeds. plastic
Keep the hard part cover in it.
or pulp in the sun
for 4-5 days to dry.
4. (Emblica The collected The fruits were Collected fruits are The Jams, jellies,
officinalis) fruits were boiled stored in dry washed with clean products are pickles,
Amala and dried in sun clothes. water and boiled. stored in beverages etc.
for 4-5 days. The seeds were the plastic
removed and were bags which
dried in sun for 5-7 are
days. moisture
proof.
Objectives of the Post harvesting techniques:

 To maintain quality
 To maintain food security
 To reduce loss between harvest and consumption
 To minimize losses to the least possible cost
Importance:
 Prevent the post-harvest loss
 Improves quality
 Adds value to NTFP
 Provides new job opportunities
 Reduces the storage size

UNIT 5: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) (3)
The term “medicinal plant” includes various types of plants used in herbalism ("herbology" or "herbal
medicine"). It is the use of plants for medicinal purposes, and the study of such uses.
According to the World Health Organization, "a medicinal plant is any plant which, in one or more of its
organs, contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes, or which are precursors for
chemo-pharmaceutical semi synthesis".
Medicinal plants are defined as plants and mushrooms traded to produce pharmaceuticals, dietary
supplement products, natural health products, cosmetics and other personal care products, and culinary
products (definition adopted from Medicinal Plants Specialist Group, 2007).
The term ‘medicinal and aromatic plants’ (MAP) is defined to cover the whole range of plants used not only
medicinally sensu stricto (strictly speaking) but also in the neighboring and often overlapping fields of
condiments (a substance such as salt, mustard, or pickle that is used to add flavour to food), food and
cosmetics.
MAP is not a well-defined term in literature. Any plant used in any type of medical system, such as Ayurvedic,
Unani, Siddha, Tibetan, or in the ethnic healing system is generally categorized as medicinal plants. Aromatic
plant is one having aroma in any of its parts. Categorization of plants as MAP is not always easy as plants tend
to have at least some properties of medicinal value or aroma.
Aromatic plants are a special class of plants used for their aroma and flavour. Many of them are
exclusively used also for medicinal purposes in aromatherapy as well as in various systems of medicine.
MAPs are botanical raw materials, also known as herbal drugs that are primarily used for therapeutic, aromatic
and/or culinary purposes as components of cosmetics, medicinal products, health foods and other natural health
products. They are also the starting materials for value-added processed natural ingredients such as essential
oils, dry and liquid extracts and oleoresins (a natural or artificial mixture of essential oils and a resin, e.g.
balsam).
5.1 Importance and scope

MAPs are gaining popularity globally as a source of raw material for pharmaceuticals and traditional health care
system. Therefore, approaches for cultivation, sustainable harvesting, and protection against existing threats
should be developed for the conservation of MAPs and livelihood enhancement of local communities.
1. More than 80% of herbal medicines used in traditional health care systems are derived from medicinal
plants and ensure the livelihoods of millions of people.
2. The wide altitudinal variation, different habitat types, and varying microclimatic conditions in the
Himalayan region form an ideal environment for the growth and development of MAPs.
3. Medicinal plants are globally valuable sources of new drugs. There are over 1300 medicinal plants used in
Europe, of which 90 % are harvested from wild resources; in the United States, about 118 of the top 150
prescription drugs are based on natural sources.
4. Furthermore, up to 80 % of people in developing countries are totally dependent on herbal drugs for their
primary healthcare, and over 25 % of prescribed medicines in developed countries are derived from wild
plant species.

5. With the increasing demand for herbal drugs, natural health products, and secondary metabolites of
medicinal plants, the use of medicinal plants is growing rapidly throughout the world.
6. More than one-tenth of plant species are used in drugs and health products, with more than 50,000 species
being used.
Scope:
In Nepal, a number of floristic regions meet and there are huge variations in climates and physiographic
conditions. This has resulted in a rich flora: some 7000 species of plants are represented in Nepal (including 252
endemic species) of which over 700 species are used medicinally. MAPs are an important part of the Nepalese
economy, with exports to India, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, as well as France, Germany, Switzerland, the
Netherlands, the USA, and Canada. These plants have a potential for contributing to the local economy,
subsistence health needs, and improved natural resource management, leading to the conservation of ecosystem
and biodiversity of an area.
Nepal’s ethnic diversity is also remarkable; so are the traditional medical practices. About 80% of total
population inhabit in rural areas, and many of them rely on traditional medicines, mostly prepared from plants
for health care. The majority of Nepal's population, especially the poor, tribal and ethnic groups, and mountain
people, relies on traditional medical practices. A large number of products for such medical practices are derived
from plants. The knowledge of such medical practices has been developed and tested through generations. In
many cases, this knowledge is transmitted orally from generation to generation and confined to certain people.
Most of the people residing in hilly and Himalayan regions of Nepal rely on medicinal plants for their livelihood
support because of remoteness, inadequate land for agriculture and limited livelihood diversification
opportunities. As a result, 10-100% of the population are engaged in collection and trade of MAPs and the trade
contribute up to 50% of the total annual family income.
Studies reveal that about 7000 to 27000 tons of medicinal plants are annually collected and traded from
Nepal. The total export value is expected to be about US$ 60 million. Most of the collected medicinal plants are
exported to India and China in raw form. But with the expansion of road network and technological
advancement in recent years, processing was initiated for some medicinal plants, notably the essential oil
yielding plants. In FY 2015/016, 36.8 tons of essential oils worth US$2.6 million was exported from Nepal
(TEPC data) from 21 species of wild and cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants. Thus medicinal plants are
becoming the major exporting commodity of Nepal.
It is high time that Nepal keeps its policies favorable and create an environment for new investment in this field
in order to benefit from the developing world-wide demands for MAPs and associated products. The
government of Nepal has identified 30 commercially important MAPs for further research and management.
Twelve of these plants are further identified for development of agro-technology.
5.2 Identification of MAPs
How plants are identified? - You have to describe an aromatic or medicinal plant as following. (You can also
describe in your own way.)
1. Scientific Name , Local name, Common Name

2. Nature of plant: Tree, Herb or Shrub and description
3. Geographical location and range where the plant is found, characteristics of the terrain.
4. Nature of the NTFP: Deciduous or Evergreen, Perennial or Seasonal, Availability etc.
5. Flowering, Fruiting and Harvesting season, Colour and look of flower, seed and fruit.
6. Parts used in trade and medicinal value.

MAPs Description Technique:
• Amala
English Name: Emblic Myrobolan, Gooseberry

Scientific Name: Phyllanthus emblica, Family: Euphorbiaceae
Introduction: Medium sized deciduous tree reaching up to 15 m. Leaves simple, linear-oblong blunt, entire,
hairless, small petiole, arranged in two ranks on slender branchlets, light green, resembling pinnate leaves; 1 to
1.5 cm long and 0.2 to 0.3 cm wide with distinct midrib. Flowers minute, greenish yellow.
Availability: Naturally distributed from 150 to 1600 m throughout Nepal. Also found in sloppy areas and forests
near roads.
Harvesting Time: September to November
Part used in Trade: Fruit
• Ashuro
English Name: Malabar Nut

Scientific Name: Justicia adhatoda, Family: Acanthaceae
Introduction: Strong-smelling, deciduous shrub growing up to 3 m tall in height. Petiole covered by slightly
yellow colored smooth bark. Leaves opposite, stalked, 7 to 19 cm long, 4 to 6 cm width, elliptic to lanceolate,
acuminate, entire, soft and highly scented. Flowers sessile, white with tiny red spots having two Flowers from
December to April. Lip shaped petals.
Availability: Distributed from 600 to 1600 m in open areas and on uncultivated land and edges of cultivated land
throughout Nepal.
Harvesting Time: Leaves are harvested throughout the year. Flowers from July to October.
Part used in Trade: Leaves along with petiole and Flower.
• Aswagandha
English Name: Winter Cherry

Scientific Name: Withania somnifera, Family: Solanaceae
Introduction: Evergreen shrub growing approximately 1.5 m tall in height with straight branches. Whole plant is
covered by white hairs. Leaves small petioled or sessile, lower part covered by many white hairs, leaf margins
straight. Flower light yellow- green in color.
Availability: Naturally distributed in some parts of India and the Mediterranean region. In Nepal, it can be
cultivated in the tropical region.
Harvesting Time: September to November.
Part used in Trade: Root is used in trade. It is not available in Natural forests of Nepal, so in large quantity, roots
are imported from India.
• Attis
English Name: Aconite

Scientific Name: Delphinium Himalayas / Aconitum heterophyllum, Family: Ranunculaceae
Introduction: Erect perennial herb about 1 m high. Leaves petioled, circular, five- lobed, hairy, lobes dentate.
Flowers bluish in long, one-sided spikes. Flowers in July - August.
Availability: Distributed from 2000 to 4000 m on open slopes, endemic to Western and Central Nepal.
Harvesting Time: October to December
Part used in Trade: Tuber
• Bajradanti
English Name: Cinquefoil, Silver Leaf

Scientific Name: Potentilla fulgens, Family: Rosaceae
Introduction: Perennial herb growing up to 30 cm in height. Leaves compound, small petiole; leaflets numerous,
4 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, alternately small and large diminishing in size from the uppermost downward,
dentate, silky tomentose beneath. Tip of a stalk of flower yellow in color.
Availability: Distributed from 1800 to 3500 m in open ground and pastures throughout Nepal.
Harvesting Time: October to December.
Part used in Trade: Root
Description of the traded part: Root at first are light rose in color and later brown in color, around 1 cm in
radius, bitter in taste and destitute of flavor.
Uses: Commercially used in the preparation of toothpaste. It is also used as medicine in the treatment of
stomach pain and during worms
• Barro
English Name: Belleric Myrobolan

Scientific Name: Terminalia bellirica, Family: Combretaceae
Introduction: Deciduous tree about 30 to 40 m high. Bark dark rough, wood somewhat yellow. Leaves long
petioled, alternate, 10 to 25 cm long, 5 to 14 wide, mostly at the end of branches, elliptic to ovate, leathery,
entire, base narrowed and unequal. Flowers sessile, yellowish, in axillary slender spikes, odor offensive. Flowers
from October to November. Fruits from November to February.
Availability: Distributed from 300 to 1100 m in Eastern and Central Nepal. Common in Shorea robusta forests.
Harvesting Time: December to March.
Part used in Trade: Fruit and Seed.
• Bel
English Name: Bel Fruit Tree, Wood Apple

Scientific Name: Aegle marmelos, Family: Rutaceae
Introduction: Deciduous, thorny, medium-sized tree about 8 to 15 m high growing in cultivated lands and
forests. Bark brown, lobed, scaly. Leaves petioled, alternate, trifoliate, leaflets ovate to lancolate, 4 to 6 cm long,
oval, dentate, aromatic. Flower greenish white in subterminal panicles, scented. Flowers from April to June and
fruits next year from April to July.
Availability: Distributed up to 1100 m throughout Nepal. However, common in Chure and bottom of South
Chure, Doon areas and in lower belt of hilly districts at mid- Western Development Region of Nepal.
Harvesting Time: August to September.
Part used in Trade: Fruit

• Bojho
English Name: Sweet Flag

Scientific Name: Acorus calamus, Family: Araceae
Introduction: Perennial aromatic herb about 1 m high, common in wet land areas. Leaves basal, 40 to 150 cm
long, 1 to 3 cm wide, flat, linear, midrib distinct, margin wavy. Flowers small, bisexual, yellowish, condensed or
cylindrical Spadix. Flowers from May to June. Fruits from August to September.
Availability: Distributed from 500 to 2300 m asl in marshy and wetland areas.
Harvesting Time: September to February.
Part used in Trade: Rhizome
• Chamomile Flower (Chameli)
English Name: Blue Chamomile, German Chamomile

Scientific Name: Matricaria chamomilla, Family: Compositae
Introduction: Annual aromatic herb growing up to 60 to 90 cm tall in height, multi- branched. Leaves
compound; leaflets slightly hairy with minute lobes. Petiole internally hollow; externally covered by green
colored leaves.
Availability: This plant is exotic to Nepal. In Nepal, cultivated in lower plains of Tarai from 500 to 1800 m.
Harvesting Time: Flowers can be harvested three times annually. Generally, flowers are harvested March
onwards.
Part used in Trade: Flower
Description of traded part: Radius of Flower is 1.3 to 2.5 cm, outer sepals are white and inner petals are yellow
in color. Flower has very sweet smell. Smell is continued even in dry flower.
• Chiuri
English Name: Nepal Butter Tree

Scientific Name: Diploknema butyracea, Family: Sapotaceae
Introduction: Deciduous tree growing up to 20 m tall in height. Leaves petioled, 14 to 30 cm long, 7 to 16 cm

broad, raised in clusters from the tip of the branches, upper surface smooth, and lower leaf surface hairy. Flower
yellow, stalked, raised in clusters from the tip of the branches. Flowers from November to February. Fruits from
March to July.
Availability: Distribution is scattered from 300 to 1500 m in Nepal.
Harvesting Time: July to August.

Part used in Trade: Fruit, Seed, and Ghee
• Chutro
English Name: Barberry

Scientific Name: Berberis asiatica; Berberis aristata. Family: Berberidaceae
Introduction: In Nepal, 32 species and more than 8 varieties of Berberis are found. Berberis asiatica and
Berberis aristata are major two traded species of Berberis. In Notification (Gazette) of Government of Nepal,
Barberry is indicated as Berberis spp. At the local level, in many places (Mahonia napaulensis) is also known as
Barberry.
Berberis asiatica: Spiny shrub about 3 m high. Leaves small petioled, raised in the cluster, 2 to 7 cm long, 0.5 to
2 cm broad, ovate, leathery, margins coarsely spinous, venation netted. Flower stalked, yellow. Fruit fleshy or
pulpy, blue-black when ripe. Flowers March-May. Fruits June-July.
Berberis aristata: Also Spiny shrub about 3 m high. Leaves short-petioled, raised in the cluster, 1.5 to 9 cm
long, 0.5 to 2 cm broad, ovate, with trifid spines, entire or spinous dentate, smooth, base tapering. Flower
stalked, yellow, in drooping racemes. Fruit ovoid, blue-black when ripe. Flowers March-June. Fruits July-
November.
Availability: Berberis asiatica is distributed from 1800 to 3000 m and Berberis aristata is distributed from 600 to
2500 m throughout Nepal. Harvesting Time: October to December.
5.3 Nursery and Cultivation of important MAPs
Priority species for cultivation and research
1. Panchaunle Dactylorhiza hatagirea

2. Kutki Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora
3. Chiarito Swerita chirayita
4. Jatamansi Nardostachys grandiflora
5. Sugandhawal Valeriana jatamansii
6. Lauthsalla Taxus wallichiana
7. Timur Zanthoxylum armatum
8. Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentine
9. Kurilo Asparagus racemosus
10. Pipla Piper longum
11. Sugandhkokila Cinnamomum glaucescens
12. Gurjo Tinospora sinensis
Nursery and cultivation:
1. Propagation Structures:
 Green house  Peat

 Propagating media  Compost
 Soil  Vermiculate
 Sand  Soil mixture
2. Pre-conditioning:
a. Seed treatment
 Mechanical  Soaking  Acid  Moist  Chemical

treatment chilling Stimulant
b. Cutting
 Stem cutting (Hardwood cutting, semi hardwood cutting, softwood cutting)

 Root cutting
3. Propagation and transplanting

Nursery and Cultivation of major NTFPs
1. Panchaunle
– Cultivation can be done by vegetative and reproductive methods.

– Rhizomes/tubers are used as vegetative means and seeds are used as reproductive means.
– It is a high altitude herb, its growth rate is slow.
– Its extensive commercial cultivation has yet to be practiced in Nepal.
– Seed is collected during Oct-Nov.
– Seeds are sown in nursery beds during April-May.
– About one kg seed is needed to cultivate one ha field.
– Seeds have very low germination capacity and germinate within the period of two years.
– Seedlings from a nursery can be transplanted in the field in June-July.
– Usage of rhizome for large-scale cultivation is best suited.
– For vegetative propagation sprouted cuttings are soaked in water for one night and implanted in a
nursery bed in April-May.
– About 90% rhizomes germinate or sprout within one week.
– Seedlings of height 15 cm in bed should be transplanted to the cultivation plot during rainy season,
June-July.
– Spacing of 30 cm for each seedling and 60 cm for each row.
– Gentle slopes, open moist areas and humus soil of the subalpine and alpine zones are suitable and
cultivation for better growth.
– Cultivation land is prepared with the treatment of compost manure 15-20 tonnes/ha.
– Weeding is necessary in every 2 months.
– Irrigation and hoeing is also preferred.
– An average of 300 kg rhizomes can be harvested from 1 ha cultivation.
– Rhizome collection can be done in Oct-Nov from 4-5 years old mother plant.
– Propagation can also be done by tissue culture method.
2. Kutki
– Natural regeneration takes place by rhizomes and seeds.

– During winter the above ground part dries and gets buried under snow. At the beginning of summer, the
plant starts growing from dormant underground rhizomes.
– Rhizome cultivation is faster than seed cultivation.
– Mature seeds from 2-3 years mother plant are collected during October and stored in dry place.
– The seeds are sown in the nursery during March-April.
– For better germination seeds are soaked in water for 24 hours.
– Seeds are mixed with sand at the ratio of 1:5, about one kg seed is required for one ha kutki cultivation.
– Seeds are sown at a spacing of 10 cm each in a row.
– Can also be sown directly in poly bags.
– Germination takes place in 15-30 days.
– Germination percentage is about 60.
– Seedlings of 5-7 cm height can be transplanted in the field during July-August.
– For vegetative propagation, Kutki rhizomes to 3-4 cm in length from 2-3 years mature plant are
appropriate for cultivation.

– Rhizomes are implanted in a nursery in November-December keeping distance 30x30 cm for
individuals and 60x60 cm for rows.
– Cultivation land is prepared with the treatment of compost manure. Cultivation should be done during
monsoon season when the new leaves are sprouting.
– The maximum yield can be obtained from plant by pursuing timely weeding (every 2 months) and
hoeing.
– Immediate irrigation after transplanting is needed and irrigated every month but avoiding water logging.
– The seedlings or vegetative clone collected from wild habitats can be implanted in the field in July.
Implants attain 5-10 cm tall within 6-8 weeks. Maximum yield 2200-2800 kg/ha of kutki can be
obtained in cultivation.
– Mature rhizome is ready to harvest after 3-4 years of cultivation.
3. Chiraito
The crop is grown through nursery-raised seedlings.
– Sowing is done in October– November, as seeds sown in March–April show very poor germination and
low survival rate.
– Seeds of Chiarito germinate well under nursery conditions in the media having FYM (farmyard
manure), sand, and soil in 2:2:1 ratio. Seeds are sown in rows 10–15 cm apart and covered with a 0.5-
cm thick layer of sand or fine soil.
– It takes about 25–28 days for complete germination to take place under nursery conditions.
– The land is prepared by ploughing two to three times, followed by harrowing and planking to have a
fine tilth as well as conserve moisture.
– Application of compost in the soil @ 3.75 tonnes/hectare and forest leaf litter @ 2 tonnes/hectare at the
time of field preparation is recommended.
– Transplanting of seedlings is done in March–April, and the seedlings are planted with the ball of earth at
a distance of 45 cm × 45 cm in the field.
– The plant can be intercropped with potato, as both species can be harvested within six to eight months,
and the time of sowing, as well as harvesting of both species, is almost the same.
– Weeding along with hoeing is done manually once in a month.
– Irrigation practices: A proper drainage system should be ensured by digging channels around the fields,
especially during rains, to protect the plant against stagnating moisture. Alternatively, raised beds
should be prepared. The field should be irrigated as and when required, may be every alternate day
during summers and weekly in winters.
– Disease and pest control: No specific insect/pest and disease have been observed on the crop.
Harvest management
Plants are collected when the capsules are fully formed during summer or in October– November. Plants flower
within six to eight months and thus provide yield and seeds for propagation every year. The whole plant is
collected and dried. When harvested early, some plants can be left in the fields so that seeds mature, which can
be collected in October for the purpose of growing next crop.
The collection/harvesting of seeds is difficult due to their very small size. Therefore, a piece of cloth should be
placed below the plant while harvesting. The seeds, after air drying, are stored in polythene-lined small jute bags
to be used as germplasm for next season. After harvesting, the plants should be dried in shade and packed
accordingly.

4. Jatamansi
Nursery Raising and Planting:
– Seeds are sown during November-December in the poly house at lower altitude, during March-April in
open beds at medium altitude and during May in the alpine area.
– Seedlings are transplanted after six to eight weeks in the field. At lower altitude root growth as well as
number and length of leaves increases rapidly as compared to a higher elevation.
– Fibrous root formation takes place after the third year of growth when plants are raised by seedling.
– Vegetative propagation through the splitting of roots is found most successful and observed better for
multiplication as well as for higher production within a short period than cultivation through seedlings.
Soil and Climate
– Sandy loam and acidic soil rich in organic carbon and nitrogen are found best for germination as well as
for the better survival of seedlings and productivity.
– At lower altitude (1800-2200m) plain beds with slight tilt are found suitable for cultivation unlike
horizontal and vertical beds at the alpine site.
Manure/Fertilizer
• For cultivation, better survival and yield of Jatamansi at lower altitude 6-7 tonnes/ha manure is required.
Irrigation and Weed Control
• Beds need excessive watering/irrigation to decrease the mortality rate. During dry season i.e. May-June
and September-October watering must be done at every two days interval at a lower altitude. Weeding
also depends on the condition of the soil and presence of weeds. Generally, weeding must be done at a
weekly interval in the first year of growth and during the second and third year twice in a month.
Harvesting/Post-Harvesting
• To obtain a higher amount of bioactive ingredients, it must be collected during the month of September
at lower altitude, while in the month of October at higher altitude. The harvesting period for this species
is 3-4 years; the harvested roots are washed and dried in shade.
5. Sarpagandha
Soil and Climate: Clay-loam to silt-loam soils, rich in organic content is suitable for its commercial cultivation.
Nursery Raising & Planting: The crop can be propagated by seed, stem cutting, and root cuttings. Seed
propagation is the best method for raising commercial plantation.
• By seed:
– The nursery is prepared by raised beds of 10x10 m. Dimension under partial shade made up of one-
third of well-matured FYM and leaf mold, and two-third amount medium of silt-loam soil.
– The seeds are sown, 2-3 cm apart in rows in shallow furrows during April - May. The furrows are
then covered with a fine mixture of soil and FYM. Keep the beds just moist by light watering.
– Germination starts after 15-20 days and continues up to 30 to 40 days. Seedlings are ready by mid-July
for transplanting.

– The seedlings are transplanted at 30 cm distance within the rows spaced at 45 cm. If rains are not
received during or immediately after transplantation irrigation is necessary for better growth.
• By root cutting: Nearly 5 cm long root cutting is planted during spring season in nursery beds. The beds
are kept moist through watering. The cuttings begin to sprout within 3 weeks. These can be planted in
the field during the rainy season; the seedlings are transplanted at 45 cm row to row and 30 cm plant-to-
plant distance.
• By stem cuttings: Hard wooded stem cutting measuring 15 to 22 cm are closely planted during June in
the nursery beds where continuous moisture is maintained. After sprouting and giving out roots, these
plants are transplanted in the main field.
• By root stumps: About 5 cm of roots, intact with a portion of stem above the collar, are directly
transplanted in the field having irrigation facilities.
Manure/ Fertilizer: Farmyard manure at (20 to 25 q/hectare) is required for land preparation has given good
response by the crop.
Irrigation: Rauwolfia, if grown in the areas which receive rainfall of 150 cm or above well distributed
throughout the growing season. It needs regular irrigation where the temperature rises high combined with low
rainfall during the rainy season. It is suggested that 15 to 16 irrigations, at 20 days interval in summer and at 30
days interval in winter are sufficient.
Weeding: The field should be kept relatively weed-free in the early period of growth. This means giving two to
three weddings and two hoeing in the first year where sole Rauwolfia crop is taken or 5-6 wedding where
intercrops in Rauwolfia are practiced.
Harvesting/Post-Harvesting
– Root yields at different age and climate have shown that 18 months duration crop produce maximum
root yield. Transplanting is done in July; the harvesting period coincides with the shedding of leaves
during the early autumn season next year. At this stage, the roots contain a maximum concentration of
total alkaloids. At harvest, the root may be found to go up to 40 cm deep in the soil.
– After digging the roots are cleaned, washed and cut into 12 to 15 cm pieces for convenience in drying
and storage. The dried roots are stored in polythene lined gunny bags in cool dry place to protect it from
the mold.
Yield: On an average, root yield varies from 15 to 25 q/hectare of dry weight under irrigation depending upon
soil fertility, crop stand, and management.
6. Timur
– Freshly harvested seeds are best for the large-scale cultivation. Mature seeds can be collected in June–
July. In the absence of sufficient seeds, terminal stem cuttings may be used as propagules.
– The crop can be raised by developing a nursery or by directly sowing in the main field. The seeds are
sown in August– September in polybags (nursery) or main field. Stem cuttings may also be planted in
the nursery during monsoon in July–August. The seeds germinate in 20–30 days after sowing. The
seedlings attain a height of 20–30 cm by June–July when they can be transplanted to the main field.
– About 2–3 kg seeds are required to raise a nursery for plantation on 1 hectare. Direct sowing may
require about 30–50 kg seeds per hectare at a spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm. No seed treatment is necessary
before sowing. However, stored seeds may require cold stratification for up to three months and may
germinate in February– March.

Planting in the field
– Land may be ploughed two to three times using disc harrow and cultivator to make it friable and weed-
free. About 10– 12 tonnes per hectare of FYM (farmyard manure) should be mixed with the soil as a
basal dose before transplantation.
– Transplanting and optimum spacing
– After 10–12 months of growth in the nursery, transplanting in the field can be done during May–June if
irrigation facilities are available. Otherwise, it is done in July– August (monsoon season) under rain-fed
conditions. A spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm is recommended, which accommodates about 40 000 plants per
hectare.
Weeding should be carried out during the initial establishment phase, 30–45 days after transplanting, and again
at 60–80 days after transplanting. Later, weeding may be carried out only as and when required.
Irrigation practices: The plant requires frequent irrigation during the establishment stage. Once established, the
plants are able to survive in rain-fed conditions and only life-support irrigation is required during the summer
months.
Disease and pest control: The crop is generally free from any disease, insect or nematode attack, and
physiological disorders.
Harvest management: Flowering appears on five-year-old plants in March–May. Fruiting occurs in July–
August. The crop, thus, takes five to seven years to mature. Fruits are collected in May–June. Stem pieces, if
needed, may be cut during January–February before the flowers appear.
Post-harvest management: The herbage and fruits should be dried in shade. The fruits may be cut into pieces for
drying and extracting seeds. Well-dried seeds are stored in damp-proof containers.
Yield: The yield of fresh and dry fruits is approximately 20 quintals per hectare and6.50 quintals per hectare,
respectively.
7. Sugandhwal
–Natural regeneration takes place by both rhizomes and seeds.

–Seeds can be sown during March-April.
–Before sowing, soak seeds in water for 12 hours.
–A mixture of seed with sand at a ration 1:5 is needed.
–10-15 gm seeds needed for 1 ha cultivation (25-30,000 seedlings).
–Germination takes place after 7-15 days of sowing.
–Usage of 13-18 tons compost manure is recommended.
–Seedling are transplanted in the field in June-July, 4 leaved or 10-15 cm tall in 2 months
–Field is irrigated after planting, survival rate is 75-90 percent, occasional weeding and watering is
essential.
– Cuttings of rhizome from 2-3 years mature plants, 5-7 cm long and with germination bud and small root
are spaced at 30-50 cm and distance between two bed lines is kept 60 cm apart
– Daily watering is needed and these stocks are ready for planting during rainy season.
– If the cuttings are planted very early in autumn, a good crop of the product may be harvested in next
autumn.
– It is a hardy species, no serious pests and diseases have been reported.
– Rhizome propagation in green house is also possible and successful.
– Collection of rhizomes starts after three years of cultivation.
– A yield of 2200-2800 kg of fresh rhizome per hectare is produced from the well managed cropping.
– Cultivation of sugandhwal can also be done from inter-cropping. Inter cropping can be made with
wheat, buckwheat, potato etc.
– Rhizomes are ready for collection after 3 years of cultivation. Rhizomes are used for making aromatic
oil.
8. Lauthsalla
– Seed - very slow to germinate, often taking 2 or more years

– It is best sown as soon as it is ripe when it should germinate 18 months later.
– Stored seed may take 2 years or more to germinate. 4 months warm followed by 4 months cold
stratification may help reduce the germination time
– Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle and grow them on in
pots. The seedlings are very slow-growing and will probably require at least 2 years of pot cultivation
before being large enough to plant out.
– Cuttings of half-ripe terminal shoots, 5 - 8cm long in a shaded frame. They should root within 8 weeks.
9. Kurilo
Seed treatment: To protect crop from soil borne disease and pest, before sowing do seed treatment by soaking
seeds in cow urine for 24 hours. After treatment seeds are sown in nursery beds.
Nursery management and transplanting
– Seeds are sown in the month of April. Sow seeds on raised beds of 30-40 cm width and of convenient
length. After sowing cover beds with thin cloth so as to retain moisture. Seedling germination starts
within 8-10 days. Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they attain the height of 45cm. The
seedlings are transplanted at the ridges of 60 X 60cm.
– Transplanting of seedlings should be done in the month of June - July.
– Depending upon its growth habit, use spacing of 4.5m x 1.2m and 20cm in height.
Fertilizer: At the time of land preparation, apply well decomposed FYM (Farm Yard Manure) and mix well in
the soil.
Weed control: Frequent weeding is required in early growth periods of the crop. 6-8 hand weeding is required
for making field weed free.
Irrigation: First immediate irrigation should be done after planting the seedlings in the main field. However, in
the starting irrigation is done at the interval of 4-6 days and then after sometime irrigation is done at weekly
intervals. Irrigation must be done before the harvesting so that digging of roots become easier.
Harvest: The roots of plants get mature by 20-30 months after transplantation. Depending upon soil and climatic
conditions roots get mature within 12-14 months. Harvesting is done in March-May month when seeds get
ripen.
Post-harvest: After harvesting, peeling is done in boiled conditions. After peeling roots are air dried. Dried roots
are packed in airtight bags for storage or transportation purposes.
10. Pipla

– Pipla can be propagated through seeds, suckers or cuttings or by layering of mature branches at the
beginning of rainy season.
– Pipla grows in a hot and moist climate at an elevation between 100-1000 m. It is a good cash crop
because a single cropping can yield can yield fruits for 4-5 years.
– Intercropping with other species is suited as it can grow up as under crop.
– Extensive cultivation has not initiated so far in Nepal.
– Naturally it is propagated through secondary branches arising at nodes of the main stem.
– Stem cuttings with 2-4 nodes and layering is used for vegetative propagation.
– Cuttings are laid in nursery for sprouting/budding and channeled to the plantation.
– Nursery beds are prepared in moist place with enough sunlight.
– A mixture of top soil, coarse sand and compost at 3:1:1 ratio is prepared for nursery preparation.
– Cuttings are planted in nursery at a space of 10x10 cm.
– Plantation with space 1.5x1.5 m gives better result. Fruiting starts after six months of plantation. Spikes
should be picked after two months of fruiting.
– Sucker with nodes are planted either in nursery or directly in the field.
– Stem cuttings, 20-30 cm long with 3-5 nodes are planted in nursery with the spacing of 10 cm
– Sucker and cutting plantation is preferred in April-May because there is least attack of pests and insects
at this time.
– Compost manure 20 tons/ha is preferred.
– Physical support need to be given to the plant in field for best cropping.
– Well-coordinated Pipla farming produces 400 kg/ha of fruits fist year, 500kg in second year, and a
maximum of 1000-1500 kg/ha in the third year. Production may last for up to 8 years but gradually
declines after 4 years.
– Root and stem harvesting is recommended from 4 or more years old plants. The dried thicker part of
stem and root are called Piplamul. Piplamul has market value. Piplamul is best against throat and
stomachache.
– Spikes of pipla are harvested during the month of January-march. Then the spikes are dried in sun for 4-
5 days.
– Dried spikes are stored in moisture-proof containers.
11. Sugandhkokila
– It can be propagated by both seeds and stem cutting.

– Mature red pink fruits are collected from November-January and processed.
– Seeds extracted from fruits are sown in a nursery in January-February.
– Seeds germinate within 20-25 days, germination percent is 70-90, 2000seeds/kg.
– Seeds are sown in the nursery at a distance of 5-7 cm.
– After sowing, seeds are covered by a thin layer of soil to keep the soil moist.
– Nursery beds should be protected from frost.
– Germinated seedlings attain 2cm height in a month and are transplanted in polybags.
– Seedlings become ready to transplant in the field after 5-6 months.
– Stem cuttings of 20-30 cm length with 2-3 nodes are suitable for vegetative propagation.
– Budding starts in the cuttings within 2-3 months, plants are ready to plant after another 2-3 months.
– Seedlings are transplanted in the field in July-August at a distance of 5-7 m.
– Adequate watering is needed for the transplants.
– Timely weeding, irrigation, thinning, and pruning is required.
– Well grown plants start fruiting in 6-7 years.
– A mature tree can yield about 300-400 kg fresh fruits per year.
– Fruits are harvested in Nov-Jan.
– Seed coats of fruits are removed, seeds are cleaned with water, cleaned and dried seeds are kept in safe
containers.
– Dry seeds yield 35% oil, seed coats yield 4% oil.
– Oil is extensively used in perfumes, cosmetics, toilet soaps, etc.
12. Gurjo
– The plant is very hardy and it can be grown in almost all climates but prefers warm climate.
– It grows well in almost any type of soils but Medium black soil or red soil is the best.
– Can be propagated by seeds and also vegetative cuttings.
– Seeds are collected during winter and sown in the nursery in March-April. Seedlings are ready for
planting during monsoon.
– The best way of propagation is vegetative way.
– The cuttings of the small finger thickness with 6 to 8 inch length long stem having two nodes are used.
– This may be planted in poly bags of 4 inch × 6 inch size. The poly bags filled with mud, sand and dry
cow dung in the ratio 1:1:1.
– The rooting of the cuttings takes almost 4 to 5 weeks.
– The cuttings will be ready for planting into the main field by this time in the month of May-June.
– The seeds are curved. Flowers appear during the summer and fruits during the winter.
– It requires some support preferably Neem and Mango trees, such plants are supposed to possess better
medicinal values.
– Periodical hoeing is done, both in the nursery and field as per requirement. The medicinal plants have to
be grown without chemical fertilizers and use of pesticides.
– Organic manures like, Farm Yard Manure (FYM), Vermi-Compost, Green Manure etc. may be used as
per requirement of the species.
– To prevent diseases, bio-pesticides could be prepared (either single or mixture) from Neem (kernel,
seeds & leaves), Chitrakmool, Dhatura, Cow's urine etc.
– The field after plantation should be irrigated periodically as and when required weekly or fortnightly.
– Mature plants are collected, cut into small pieces and dried in shad.
– Yield approximately: 8-10 q. /ha.
(If you need more detailed explanations of this sub-topic, refer to the notes from IOF, Pokhara; you’ll be enlightened .) 
5.4 Collection and Extraction of MAPs:
• Collection permit is provided by the DFO.

• Collection of MAPs of 5 to 50 tons of roots per species, 10 to 100 tons of bark per species and 5 to 50
tons for oil extracts per species required IEE.
• Harvesting beyond this limit requires EIA.
• All the collection are in a sustainable manner.
Processing of NTFPs:
• The processing of NTFPs can add value in them.

• Traditional marketing system need to be displaced by new technical marketing system.
• Most of the processing systems in Nepal are drying, grading, packing, distillation of essential oils,
debarking, paper making, rope making and so on.
• Few NTFPs like resin, katha, and some essential oils are processed further by processing industries.
• The processing of NTFPs is carried out by Singha Durbar Vaidya Khana, Dabur Nepal, Ghorkh
Ayurved, HPPCL and some private company of rosin and turpentine.
Extraction methods of medicinal plants:
1. Distillation: Steam distillation, Water distillation, Cold pressing and gas extraction.
Steam Distillation
The water is heated to a high temperature under low pressure. The steam is then fed into coils in a chamber
below a perforated tank holding closely packed (and in most cases dried) plant materials and passes through the
tank. The volatile oils are driven off by the steam and carried out through piping to a condenser or heat
exchanger, where they are cooled to 25-30 degree centigrade. Next water and oils are collected and separated in
a flask or separator based on their difference in density. The by-product marc left after removal of the steam and
essential oil may be marketable after grinding for production of incense, tooth powder or spices.
Water distillation
Water distillation is used to obtain essential oils from some flowers that would be damaged by steam.
 With this process the plant material is covered with water and boiled and then vapours are captured.

 Disadvantage of water distillation includes its relative slowness and the risk of burning the plant
materials or hydrolyzing esters in the oil.
2. Extraction: Extraction is the separation of medicinally active portions of plant using selective solvents
through standard procedures. The purpose of all extraction is to separate the soluble plant metabolites, leaving
behind the insoluble cellular marc (residue).
– The initial crude extracts using these methods contain complex mixture of many plant metabolites, such as
alkaloids, glycosides, phenolics, terpenoids and flavonoids.
– Some of the initially obtained extracts may be ready for use as medicinal agents in the form of tinctures and
fluid extracts but some need further processing.

Unit 6: Commercial Values of Other NTFPs (3)
6.1 Cutch and katha
Cutch and Katha are obtained by boiling the heart wood of Khair (Acacia catechu) in water. Chief constituents
of the heartwood are catechin (katha) catechu tannic acid (cutch). A third element is also produced from Kahir
tree in the form of white powder known as kheersal.
Extraction of Cutch
• Chips of heartwood are boiled in water but not treated with steam.
• Heartwood is cut into chips and are boiled in water.
• The liquid is poured into other pots in which liquid of thicker consistency is boiling.
• This process is continued until the liquid is of correct consistency.
• Then it is poured into an iron vessel and boiled further to attain a consistency of a syrup.
• It is then poured into a wooden frames to cool down and harden into dark brown solid brick like mass
which becomes cutch.
Katha is prepared from the heartwood that shows white specks of kheersal at first stage. The re-boiled thick
liquid is poured into a mould of fine sand which absorbs the tannic acid and leaves the residue of catchine to
crystallize out into Katha. It is similar to cutch extraction but most of the tannic acid extracted.
Uses of Cutch and Katha:
• Katha is used in chewing pans. The

characteristic red colour resulting from
chewing of a pan is due to the
combination of Katha and lime.
• Katha is used in medicine as an
astringent and digestive.
• It is externally applied to cooling to
ulcer, boils and eruptions of the skin.
• Cutch is an important commercial
product & is used as dyeing and
preserving agent.
• Cutch is used in dyeing cotton, silk and calico-printing.
• It is used to dyeing canvas for boat sails to reddish brown color. Material treated by cutch are not
effected by sea water.
• Cutch can be used for the softening of loco-feed waters and as a valuable raw material for plywood
adhesives.
6.2 LAC and Shellac
Lac is a resinous substance secreted as a protective covering by the Lac insect Laccifera lacca, which lives as a
parasite on many host plants. The young larvae of this insect live on the young succulent shoots of the host
plants and draw nutrients from their sap. They secret a thick resinous fluid to cover their bodies. This secretion

forms a hard and continuous encrustation on the twigs and branches of the host plants. This encrustation is
collected from the host plants and processed to obtain Lac in commercial use.
Lac Hosts: The lac insects has so far been recorded from over 100 species of plants, but the common hosts are
only about a dozen or so. The most important of these are:
• Palas (Butea monosperma)

• Kusum (Schleichera oleosa)
• Bayar (Zizyphus mauritiana)
• Arahar (Cajanus cajan),
• Khair (Acacia catechu),
• Babul (Acacia nilotica),
• Ficus species (F. cunia, F. infectoria, F.glomerata, F.religiosa).
Kusum produces the best quality lac. Lac is the only of its kinds, in its origin as an animal resin.
Properties and uses of Lac:
• It is soluble in alcohol and weak alkalis

• It is elastic and adhesive in nature
• Used widely in applying seals
• Used to make musical (gramophone) records
• Used for decorative and insulating varnishes
• Used as coat for metal ware to prevent it from tarnishing
• Used as insulator
• Used in the manufacture of adhesives and cements, glazing paper, nail polishes, dental plates, jewelry
fittings, bangles and grinding wheels.
• Used some types of confectionary also.
• Used in printing inks
Shellac
The refined form of lac is shellac. Lac is handpicked and is in crude form whereas the object of the manufacture
of shellac is to refine the crude form and to remove the dye, animal remains and other impurities.
Uses of shellac:
Shellac is very useful in industries. It can be easily molded into various shapes and is widely used in the
manufacture of phonograph records, insulating materials for electrical goods etc. It is a source of spirit varnish
used for interior works since it is not water resistant. It is also used in the manufacture of sealing wax, drawing
inks, water colours; for stiffening felt hats and for sizing papers and for decorative purpose.
6.3 Honey and bees
Bees are an integral part of our lives and without them life would take a very different turn. There are around
25,000 bee species in the world. The bees provide important natural products and services. The bees pollinate
flowers and therefore play an important part in food production. Most plants are totally dependent on certain
types of bees for reproduction. Bees are also domesticated and raised for honey and wax.
A single honeybee can pollinate thousands of flowers daily. Pollination supports a number of ecosystem services
including food chain development without which a lot of plants would die off.
Among other roles, the honey bee is the sole producer of honey. Honey is a valuable economic commodity and
is used for medicinal purposes. For thousands of years, honey has been used by man for food. It is estimated
that about 100g of honey provides equivalent nutrition to 6 liters of milk. It contains sugars, vitamins and
minerals that are easily absorbed by the body. Medically, honey can be used as a sedative, laxative or antiseptic.
Economic importance of honey bees:
• From the bees, we get honey. It is partly digested mixture of nectar and pollen. It is regurgitated by
honey bees. Honey has a food value so also medicinal value. It is used as a laxative and as antiseptics.
• From the bees, we get bee wax. It is used to manufacture cosmetics, face creams, paints and polishes,
ointments, etc.
• The venom of bees is used in the treatment of arthritis and snake bite.
• The bees are the chief pollinators. They perform cross pollination, leading to an increase in yielding of
plant products due to hybridization.
Role of Honey Bees in Agriculture
• One in three bites of food we eat is dependent on honey bees for pollination.
• Of the 100 crops that provide 90 percent of the world's food, over 70 are pollinated by bees.
6.4 Silk and silkworm
Silk is obtained from the cocoons of the silkworm. Chemically speaking, silk is made of proteins secreted in the
fluid state by a caterpillar, popularly known as 'silkworm'. These silkworms feed on the selected food plants and
spin cocoons as a 'protective shell' to perpetuate the life. Silkworm has four stages in its life cycle viz., egg,
caterpillar, pupa and moth. Man interferes this life cycle at the cocoon stage to obtain the silk, a continuous
filament of commercial importance, used in weaving of the dream fabric. Silk is a wonderfully strong, light,
soft, and sensuous fabric produced from cocoons of the Bombyx caterpillar, or silkworm. Of all the fabrics, silk
is regarded as the finest and most beautiful.
Silkworms are not worms but caterpillars, the larvae of moths. They belong to two families: Bombycidae (the
commercial silkworm), which feed on mulberry leaves, and Saturniideae (the so called wild silkworms), which
primarily eat oak leaves.
All butterfly and moth caterpillars produce silk, as do spiders, but only silkworms produce the lustrous, long
fiber that is made into commercial silk. Most commercial silks comes from the Bombyx mori, a silkworm that
originated in China. Over 300 varieties of this caterpillar are found in China today. More than 600 varieties are
found in Japan. Tussar wild silkworms are bright yellow in color and may reach a length of six inches. Their silk
is strong but rough and doesn't die very well.
Geographically, Asia is the main producer of silk in the world and produces over 95 % of the total global output.
Though there are over 40 countries on the world map of silk, bulk of it is produced in China and India, followed
by Japan, Brazil and Korea. China is the leading supplier of silk to the world. India is the second largest
producer of silk and also the largest consumer of silk in the world.
Types of silk
There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from different species of silkworms
which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are: Mulberry, Oak Tasar, Tropical Tasar, Muga and Eri.
Properties:

• Silk filament is strong, as steel of the same thickness.
• Much stronger than cotton or wool.
• Silk is lower in density than cotton or wool or nylon.
• It is highly moisture absorbent material.
• Silkworm is hardy and disease resistant
Economic importance of silk
A. In business: Sericulture is a small scale, agro based cottage industry.
B. As source of Employment:
C. Clothing:
– Sericulture substitutes the cotton textile industry.

– Fine delicate clothes are prepared form silk threads.
D. Importance of silk: There are many other uses of silk:
– Silk is used in the preparation of garments.

– Silk is used in the preparation of parachute cords.
– Preparation of fishing line and elastic web
– In preparation of race tyres of cars and two wheelers.
– In insulation coils for telephone and wireless receivers.
6.5 Mushroom cultivation
Mushroom is a fungi producing a fleshy body, especially one consisting of a stalk with an umbrella cap.
Mushrooms are the above ground fruiting bodies of FUNGI, which contain the organism’s reproductive spores.
As the mushroom develops from an underground mycelium and pushes upward, it is protected by a thin
membrane which eventually ruptures. Leaving fragments on the cap.
Mushroom cultivation is a relatively new concept in Nepal. It was introduced in 1974 by Nepal Agriculture
Research Council (NARC), who initially only introduced the ‘White Button Mushroom’ in 1977. After which
the Plant Pathology division of NARC started distributing spawn. Then after, Oyster mushroom was introduced
to farmers in 1984, which were farmed by only a handful farmers in Bhaktapur and Kathmandu district.
Currently, there are over 5000-6000 mushroom farmers in Kathmandu only who at an average produce over
10000 kg a day. Pokhara and Chitwan are other major mushroom producers.
Nutritional value of Mushrooms:
• Protein: Most mushroom have a high protein content, usually around 20-30% dry weight.
• Fiber: Helps lower cholesterol and is important for the digestive system.
• Vitamin D: Essential for the absorption of calcium.
• Copper: Aids in helping the body absorb oxygen and create red blood cells.
• Selenium: An antioxidant that helps neutralize free radicals, thus preventing cell damage and reducing the
risk of cancer and other diseases. Mushrooms contain more selenium than any other form of produce.
• Potassium: An extremely important mineral that regulates blood pressure and keeps cells functioning
properly.

• Other important minerals: Phosphorous, zinc and magnesium Low levels of fat, calories and sodium, No
cholesterol.
Utility value of Mushroom species
Edible Medicinal Toxic Others

110 13 45 6
(Adhikari, M.K., 2005. Mushroom Diversity in Nepal: A Glimpse)
Types of cultivated mushrooms in Nepal
Currently, there are 5 species of mushroom cultivated commercially.
Types Name Distribution

White Button Mushroom Gobre Chyau (Agaricus bisporus) Hills
Oyster Mushroom Kaney Chyau (Pleurotus ostreatus) Hills, Terai in winter
Shiitake Mirge Chyau (Lentinus edodes) Mid hills
Straw mushroom Parale Chyau (Volvorielle volvacea) Terai
Ganoderma Rato Chyau (Ganoderma lucidium) Hills
Among them, White button Mushroom is the most popular, covering 85 % of the total mushroom production of
the country.
Wild mushrooms
There are many species of wild mushrooms found in various areas of Nepal. Villagers consume wild mushroom,
but the harvest of wild mushroom is in very less amount. Many species have been placed under medicinal plant
by the department of the forest. Some important wild mushrooms of very high commercial value are:
1. Boletus edulis (Cep, or Bolete)

2. Cantharellus cibarius (Chantharelle)
3. Cordyceps sinensis (Yarsagumba in Nepali)
4. Craterellus connucopiodes (Horn of plenty)
5. Ganoderma lucidum
6. Morchella conica (Morel)
7. Morchella esculenta (Morel)
8. Tricholoma matsutake (Matsutake)
Among these, Cordyceps sinensis has become an important source of income for many people in the mid-
western region. Most of morels collected in the forest of Nepal are exported abroad. It is not yet cultivated
artificially.
Benefits of mushrooms
• Mushroom has very high nutritional value. It has plenty of nutrients and popularly called “vegetable meat”.
• It consists of protein, Carbohydrate, Vitamins, Minerals, Fibre, etc. Also, it is almost fat free. The fatty acid
found is in an unsaturated form which is essential for our body. It could be the very good solution energy
food crisis.
• Mushrooms are neither a plant nor an animal it is rich in disease-fighting phytochemicals it boosts
immunity provides protection against colds, flu, and other viruses, there are many health benefits of
mushroom-like prevention of cancer, diabetes and tumors.
• It keeps the immune system healthy and strong and boosts heart health.

• Mushrooms are low in calories, fat-free, cholesterol-free and very low in sodium, yet they provide
important nutrients, including selenium, antioxidant mineral, calcium, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin D,
copper, potassium, protein, iron and phosphorous.
6.6 Tans and dyes
Tannin
It is a generic name given to a wide variety of chemical compounds secreted by tissues. Almost all the plant
tissues secret tannin although their quantity may vary from species to species. Tannins are complex organic
compounds which are astringent and acidic. They are glucosidal in nature and consist of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen like the carbohydrates. They are water soluble.
Tanning: It is a process by which animal skin and hides are treated with tannins. Skins and hides are changed
into leather through this process.
Uses of Tannin:
Tannins are of great economic importance. They convert animal hides into leather by uniting with their proteins.
The leather thus formed is stable, resistant to air, moisture, temperature and bacterial action.
• Tannin also reacts with iron salts to form dark-blue or greenish-black compounds, which are the
basis of ink.
• Tannins are also used in medicines because of their astringent properties.
• They are also used in oil drilling to reduce the viscosity of the drill.
Sources of tanning materials:
Tannin is found in almost all the plants but only some species contain substantial amounts. Tannins can be
obtained from the following sources:
• Bark tans: Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), Oak (Quercus spp.), wattle (Acacia mollissima), larch (Larix
decidua), Babul (Acacia nilotica), Sal (Shorea robusta), Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna)
• Wood tans: Chestnut ( Castanea dentata),
• Leaf tans: Sumac (Rhus spp.), Anogeissus latifolia, Amala,
• Fruit tans: Myrobalan nuts (Terminalia chebula), Babul pods, Amala (Emblica officinalis)
• Root tans: Tanners dock (Rumex hymenosepalus)
Dyes:
Dyes is the name given to the substances which are used for imparting color and staining purposes.
Vegetable dyes have been in use since times immemorial. The use of vegetable dyes has, however, declined
after the discovery of synthetic dyes from coal-tar. Only a few natural dyes have been able to compete with the
synthetic one. Most plant tissues secret dyes as a part of their natural physiology. Dyes are simple compounds
hydrogen and oxygen with nitrogen present in some cases.
Uses
Dyes are mainly used in textile industries for giving fast colors to the fabrics, and for coloring paints, varnishes,
leather ink, paper, wood, cosmetics, medicines, and toothpaste.

Sources of natural dyes
Natural dyes are obtained from various parts of a number of plants. Some examples are ;
 Woods dyes: Santaline- Santaline is obtained from the heartwood of Pterocarpus santalin. The red dye is
obtained from the wood and root of the plant. The dye is used to color idols etc.
the dye is also obtained from P. tinctorius, Artocarpus (Artocarpus heterophyllus), & Badahar (A.
lakoocha) Acacia. Cutch extract from Khair.
 Bark dyes: Not so important. Alnus spp. Casuarina equisitifolia – for toughening fisherman’s net, Myrica
esculata, Terminalia alata.
 Flower and fruit dyes: Flowers of Palas, Tuni (Toona ciliata). Flowers of Sindure (Mallotus Philippines) –
Kamela powder.
 Root dyes: Chutro (Berberis aristata), Majitho (Rubia cordifolia).
 Leaf dyes: Indigo – the leaves of several species of Indigofera contains a soluble colourless glucoside,
which oxidises in water to form the insoluble indigo. Due to the introduction of synthetic dyes, this
vegetable dye has lost its importance.
6.7 Leaf, fiber, flosses, and oil seeds
Leaves
The leaves are used for many purposes. Few species of importance are as:-
• Bauhinia recemosa – the leaves are used for wrapping bidis.

• Bauhinia vahlii (Bhorla) – leaves are used for thatching, umbrellas, cups and plates.
• Sal – leaves are used for making platters.
• Palas – leaves are used for making platters and cups.
• Dyospyros melanoxylon (tendu) – the leaves are a premier source of bidi leaves.
• Eucalyptus : oil
Fibers and flosses
Classification based on origin and structure:
• Soft fibers from baste or, stem like jute and hemp
• Hard fibers from leaves like Agave, manila (Musa textilis) and Argeli.
• Surface fibers from the surface of stems, leaves. Or, seeds like cotton, simal, kapok.
Classification best on use
• Textile fibers – cotton, jute, hemp and flax.

• Brush fibers – hard fibers for making brushes and brooms
• Planting and weaving fibers – hard fibers with flat and pliable strands for making hats and baskets.
• Filling fibers – used for filling upholstery etc.
• Natural fabrics – tree bastes extracted from the bark of some tree species
• Paper making fibers – used for manufacture pulp and paper
Flosses
Flosses are obtained from the fruits of a number of trees and shrubs like Bombax ceiba, Calotropis gigantia,
Ceiba pentandra.
Coirs: The coir fibers are obtained from the thick fibrous husk of the fruit of Cocus nucifera or coconut palm. It
is used in making mats brushes and brooms, ropes and coir mattress.
Oil seeds: Seeds of different plants yield different kinds of oils. However, few of them only can be used for
commercial extraction.
• Sal seeds, Shorea robusta, are popular in Nepal for the extraction of sal butter. Azadiracta indica is famous
for neem oil, Madhuca butyracea (butter tree) is for ‘Chiuri butter” Madhuca indica for ‘mahuwa butter’.
• Seed oils in general used alone or, along with other raw materials in the manufacture of different kinds of
products like scents, soaps, medicine, drugs, and confectionaries.
Distillation Products like grass oil and leaf oil:
Distillation of grasses like Citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus), lemon grass (Cybopogon flexosus),
Palmarosa grass (Cybopogon martini).
Distillation of leaves like: Eucalyptus leaves (Eucalyptus spp), dhsingare leaves (Gultheria fragmantissma), and
mint leaves for mint oil (Mentha arvensis).
Distillation wood like: Sandlewood oil (Santalum album), Pinewood oil (Pinus spp), agar oil (Aquilaria
agallocha) produce aromatic oils that are used in making various cosmetics, medicinal and sanitization products.

Unit: 7 Resin Collection and Processing (3)
Resin are exuded by the plants partly as a normal phenomenon and partly as a result of disease or injury.
Resin is:
– Insoluble in water
– Collected from artificial wounds
– Soluble in ether, alcohol
– Brittle, amorphous and more or less transparent
– Burnable and has lusture.
Types of resin:
(Based on source) (Based on product)

a. Gum naval: tapping trunk of alive pine trees a. Hard resin: Has little essential oil, is hard, solid and
brittle. E.g. Dammar, shellac etc.
b. Sulphate navel: During the Conversion of pine
wood chips to pulp b. Oleoresin: Contains essential oil, is in liquid form. E.g.
turpentine
c. Wood naval: Resin saturated pine stumps long
after tree has been felled c. Gum resin: Both gum and resins. E.g. yellow gum
7.1 Importance of resin collection
Resin tapping and its related activities like extraction, collection and transportation are one of the major sources
of employment for a large number of rural poor people.
Based on the quantity of resin collected and exported outside the district, revenue is generated to central as well
as local government and Community Forest User Groups. The social economic advantage of oleoresin tapping
in Nepal are as follows:-
a. Employment opportunities
b. Enhancement of business and industries
c. Revenue for government income of community forest. User groups and
d. Source of foreign currency
7.2 Resin collection techniques

More than 90% of the pine resin production in the world is concentrated in three countries: China,
Brazil, and Indonesia. India, Argentina, Mexico, Nepal, Russian Federation, Portugal, Spain, Cuba,
Vietnam, Madagascar, Fiji, Honduras, South Africa, Colombia, Malaysia, and Uruguay are also
producers of pine resin. In 2010, the total world production of pine resin reached the amount of
1,114,000 metric tons. More than 80 species of pine trees have been tapped for the production of resin
in the world. Almost three-quarters of it are produced from natural pine stands mainly from P.
massoniana, P. yunnanensis and P. merkussii; the other quarter derives from planted stands, mainly of
P. elliottii and various species of P. caribaea.
Species tapped for pine resin production
During the history of pine tapping activities around the world, about 80 pine species have been tapped
for the production of resin.
More than 90% of the resin produced comes from five pine species:

P. massoniana,
P. yunanensis,
P. elliottii,
P. caribaea and
P. merkussii.
Also, P. kesiya, P. oocarpa, P. pinaster, P. roxburghii and P. tabuleiformis, are tapped for the
production of pine resin.
Tapping techniques
Around 1850, Pierre Hugues developed the first pine resin tapping technique in the Landes de Gascogne,
France, system that is applied even nowadays, for example, in Indonesia. In 1869, Steele is granted an US patent
in which he describes the basis of the fish bone tapping technique. Later, the technique through some
modifications performed in the 1950’s by Mazek Fialla in Europe, and become known today as the Rill method,
applied in India.
There are two popular kinds of tapping are:
1. Light and continuous tapping:
- This is done in all trees above 0.9 m in girth.

- Trees between 0.9-1.8 m in girth are tapped in one channel and above 1.8 m girth in two channels for
five years.
- And at the end of five years, a new channel is tapped leaving 10 cm space from old channels in an
anticlock wise direction, and so on till tapping has progressed around the tree.
- Under this tapping, a tree is always kept under tapping without any period of rest.
- It gives a sustained yield, provides all the year round employment to the labour and gives better yield
without impairing health the trees.
2. Heavy tapping:
- This is also known as "tapping to death", and common in developed countries.
- In this method, maximum possible quantity of resin is exuded by making many possible channels at 10
cm space.
- It is generally initiated five years in advance of main felling in prospective regeneration area and two
years in advance in areas marked for thinning.
- The lowest girth prescribed for heavy tapping is 60 cm.
We can identify four tapping techniques currently used around the world: Chinese method, American method,
French method, Rill method. Recently a new method, Borehole method, has been developed in India.
1. Chinese method:
A downward-pointing V-shaped groove is cut every day, deep enough to reach the secondary xylem. The first
groove is cut about 1.2 m above the ground, and subsequent grooves are cut below it. The groove reaches
roughly half way around tree’s circumference. No chemical stimulant is used. This method is used mainly in
China.
2. American method:
A horizontal groove is cut every 15 to 18 days. The grooves are cut upward, the first at 20 cm above the ground.
Only the bark and phloem are removed. The length of the grooves is about one third of the tree’s circumference
and the height varies from 2 to 3 cm. A stimulant paste with 18 to 24 percent sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is applied.
In the paste formulation, stimulants are also used as chemical adjuvants, such as, for example, CEPA (2-
chloroethyl-phosphonic acid, an ethylene precursor) or salicylic acid. This method is used in Brazil, Argentina,
Portugal and Spain.
3. Hugues or French method:
Slices of 8 to 10 cm wide are cut into the trunk every 10 to 15 days, reaching the secondary xylem. The cut
surface may extend to 1.8 m from the ground after two years of extraction. This method was developed in the
mid-nineteenth century in France and is now used mainly in Indonesia.
4. Mazek or Rill method:
V-shaped grooves, 2 to 3 mm wide are cut every 3 to 7 days. The grooves are cut upwards. A stimulant of 50
percent H2SO4 and 50 percent hydrochloric acid (HCl) is applied in the form of a spray. This method is currently
used in Indonesia, India.
5. Borehole method:
The borehole method involves drilling holes into the wood to open the maximum number of resin ducts.
1. Holes of 2.5 cm (1.00 inches) in diameter are drilled to a depth of 10 cm (4.00 inches) measured from
the bark-xylem interface.
2. These holes are drilled with a slight slope towards the opening, so that oleoresin drains freely.
3. Multiple boreholes are arrayed evenly around the tree’s circumference, at an interval of one month
during tapping season.
4. A chemical spray of 1:1 mixture of 10 percent 2-chloroethyl-phosphonic acid (CEPA or Ethephon) and
20 percent sulfuric acid is applied inside holes with a fine spray bottle.
5. A spout is tightly fixed in the hole.
6. The polythene bag is attached to the spout with the help of tie for the collection of oleoresin and
replaced when filled with oleoresin during the period of tapping.
The advantages of Borehole method:

The advantage of this method over conventional methods includes higher labor productivity, improved product
quality, reduced tree stress and insect pest problems. The yield has been found to be affected by tree size and
treatments for borehole diameter, depth, number, spacing, orientation, chemical stimulants, and type of
collection container.

- The oleoresin yields of 600-900 g are generally obtained from one borehole or nearly 2 kg per tree with
three boreholes. The average yield per tree is almost the same if a number of boreholes on a tree are
adjusted as per the maximum carrying capacity of the tree.
- Even the tapping can also be extended to lower diameter classes depending upon their potential of
production without having any impact on their health. It will not only supplement the yield but also
tackle the problem of reduction of blazes.
- The biggest advantage of this method is that the quality of the oleoresin is much superior and without
dust and other impurities.
- The tapping can be as per the ease of tapper and owner.
- It would also save the labor and thus bring down the cost of resin tapping.
- Besides the quality of rosin, turpentine oil and other products manufactured from it will also be much
better and fetch higher prices.
- No dark and black rosin grades are produced from borehole oleoresin. It will also ease out the
processing of oleoresin at factory level by reducing some tedious steps.
Rill method of resin tapping in Nepal (As per the Resin Collection Guideline, 2064):
1. With the help of bark shaver, the loose and rough bark over a surface area of about 45cm x 30cm,
leaving a space of about 15 cm from ground level, is removed.
2. The position of the blaze and groove is marked on the stem in the vertical position, with the marking
gauge and wooden board. Blaze size 32 cmx 16 cm.
3. The central groove (4 mm deep & 7-9 mm wide) is cut with the help of the groove cutter, drawing the
cutting tool from above downwards. 2 mm deep rill is prepared on both side of grove maintaining an
angle of 45 degrees with the groove.
4. The lip (7cmx6.5 cm) is then fixed to the tree with two bullock shoe nails so that it fits snugly against
the tree.
5. A 5 cm long wire nail is driven into the tree about 2.5 cm below the mid point of the lip for hanging the
collection pot on it.
6. For freshening the blaze, the freshening knife is held at the lowest point of the central groove and is
pulled along the blaze line marked on the tree.
7. The same operation is repeated on the other side of the groove.
8. For second and subsequent freshening which are repeated at the weekly interval, the guide of the
freshening knife should move touching the upper side of the previous rill.
9. The rills should be parallel to each other and should neither extend beyond the limits of the blaze nor
fall short of it.
10. The average width of the bark left between consecutive rills is 5 mm and the average width of the rill is
6-7mm.
11. Every week, one rill is added on both sides. (During the collection period of 8 months, 32/32 rills)

12. The depth of the rill is about 2 mm into the wood.
13. After making a freshening on both arms of the blaze, the chemical stimulant, a 20% solution of the
mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid in equal proportions, is sprayed on the freshly cut rill by squeezing
the plastic bottle and moving its nozzle in a steady motion along the rill.
14. The resin is collected in a collection can.
15. The central groove should also be cleaned with each collection with groove cleaner.
16. At the end of tapping season, the nails are pulled out and lips removed.
17. For installation during the second year of tapping the position of the blaze is marked above the top of
the first year blaze and the operations of the first year are repeated. A similar process is followed till the
fifth year.
18. After 5th year of tapping, a new blaze is made at the bottom of the trees, leaving 7.5 cm wide space
along the circumference of the tree from the edge of the first blaze.
Factors affecting resin yield:
- The genetic character of the tree
- Size and growth vigor of the tree
- Anatomy and structure
- Temperature and other climatic condition
- Elevation aspect and slope
7.3 Manufacturing Process of Rosin and Turpentine:

Crude pine resin consists of two principal constituents; a liquid known as turpentine and a solid known as rosin.
These two substances can be separated by distillation, by application of heat, the oil of turpentine passing over
as a distillation product and rosin remaining behind as a residue.
Processing of resin
1. The resin is processed to obtain rosin and turpentine. The crude resin contains impurities such as water,
chips of bark, needles, insects, and dirt.
2. The crude resin is filled into big vats called ‘melters’. These are large steel vessels having V-shaped
bottoms which are provided with steam jackets for heating the resin.
3. After filling, some quantity of turpentine is added, melter is covered, water sealed and heated with the
aid of steam.
4. The whole mass is thoroughly mixed by means of a helical belt mixer and allowed to rest overnight.
5. Due to liquefaction of heated resin, heavy impurities go down at the bottom and lighter impurities float
at the top, and then removed with certain tools.
6. The resin is then led to a sludge tank keeping behind the heavy impurities in the vats.
7. The clean resin is pumped into a steel vat with a steam jacket for distillation.
8. The lighter oil recovered first then the heavier ones.
9. After recovery of all the turpentine rosin is left behind.
10. It is drawn off and packed in special wooden casks.
11. The turpentine oil is further subjected to distillation to obtain pure turpentine oil.
12. The amount of turpentine and rosin obtained varies considerably, the yield of turpentine may be 17-20
percent by weight, and of rosin about 74 percent, while impurities and water amount to about 6-9
percent.
7.4 Grading and marketing of rosin and turpentine

Rosin and turpentine oil are classified into different grades.
Rosin is graded on the basis of its color: Pale, Medium and Dark.
Rosins are further classified into different grades on the basis of color values.
Turpentine is classified in two grades: Grade I and Grade II.

- Gum rosin or pine rosin is classified in different grades based on the color and the softening point of the
rosin.
- Softening point is the temperature in which rosin may deform.
- In general the softening point of the rosin reduces as the rosin color gets darker.
- Rosin varies in color, according to the degree of heat applied in distillation, from an opaque, to almost
pitch-black substance through grades of black, brown and yellow to an almost perfectly transparent
colorless glassy mass.
- The high grade resins (X, WW, WG) are precisely processed; easy to use; high purity; has excellent
properties, very effective.
- The commercial grades are numerous, ranging by letters from A (the darkest) to N (extra pale).
Rosin grade Pale X - Extra clear

WW - Water white
WG - Window glass
N - Nancy
Medium M - Medium
K - Kity
H - Harry
Dark D - Dark
B - Black
Grading of turpentine:
-
- brownish colour
Marketing:
- Nepal exported rosin and Turpentine worth Rs 1.70 billion to India and Pakistan in Fiscal Year 2015/16.
- As per Trade and Export Promotion Centre (TEPC), “Until few years ago, rosin exports used to be in
millions. Now it is fetching billions of rupees,”
- Around 10.34 million kilograms of rosin, and raw materials were exported in F.Y. 2014/15
- Nepal used to export rosin to China until 2012/13.
- However, there has not been any such export to China in the past three years (20132016).
- Has started exporting rosin to Pakistan since 2013/2014; Rosin worth Rs 20.32 million was exported to
Pakistan in previous year.
Some Rosin and Turpentine Industries of Nepal:

7.5 Uses of Rosin and Turpentine
By distillation method, resin gives two main products that are Rosin and Turpentine. In the normal condition
oleo pine resin processing gives 76% rosin, 18% turpentine.
Rosin is the major product obtained from pine. It is a brittle, transparent, glassy solid insoluble in water but
soluble in a number of organic solvents.

Uses of Rosin:
Synthetic rubber, Paint, Foodstuff, Adhesive, Printing oil, Electrical equipment, Papermaking, Soap,
Construction material, linoleum and floor covering, Metal processing, Bactericide, Fine chemical, Plastic, Oils
and greases, Rubber, Printing inks, Shoe polish and related materials.
Rubber industry, Paper making industry, Paint industry, Adhesive industry, Food industry, Electric industry, and
Allied industry etc. Gum Rosin can be used as a glazing agent in medicines and chewing gum. In
Pharmaceuticals, Gum Rosin functions as an ingredient in several plasters and ointments.
Uses of Turpentine:
Turpentine is a clear liquid with a pungent odor and bitter taste and is composed of a number of organic
compounds, primarily a series of volatile fractions known as terpenes
Turpentine is used as Solvent or thinner, Synthetic borneol, Synthetic camphor, Synthetic resin, Pesticide,
Military use, Shoe polish, Rubber, printing inks, Adhesives and plastics, Furniture, Insecticide and disinfectants.

Unit 8: Bamboo and Cane Products (3)
8.1 Bamboo products and their use:

The bamboos are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae. These are
the largest members of the grass family.
- They grow to be 12 -15 m tall with some smaller and larger species.
- These light demanding species can thrive well in variety of climatic regions from cold mountains to hot
tropical regions.
- In Nepal, Bamboos are spread in all ecological regions, but are more common in the eastern parts.
These plants have been found in 73 districts across the country. Bamboos are abundant in eastern,
central and western parts of Nepal. Far western regions of Nepal are yet to be explored.
- Bamboos in Nepal are often classified into Large statured (Bans) and 2) Small statured (Nigalo).
- Large-statured bamboos mainly grow in lowland and mid-hills whereas small-statured bamboos are
distributed in high mountains.
- 53 species of 12 genera are found in Nepal.
Uses and Importance

- Bamboo has very historical and cultural association in Nepal. For thousands of years, it has been used
inseparably in our everyday lives. And the modern day uses are increasing.
- There are more than 1500 documented uses of bamboo species. (Vaiphei, 2006 cited in Sapkota 2010)
- Bamboos are indispensable part of rural life where they have numerous vernacular uses such as in
fences, scaffolding, sheds for livestock, ladders, providing support to climbing vegetables, making of
granary (भकारी, डालो, etc.).
- 70% of the farmers grow bamboo in their farms. (Karki et al., 1996)
- In average, one HH in Nepal consumes 46 culms per year.
Income Generation and Livelihood
 Hundreds of different handicrafts and furniture can be made from bamboo and these products are in
great demand by farmers, artisans, and rural as well as urban enterprises. (Karki et al., 1996)
 Much of the processing between raw material and finished products can be done by the communities
that grow and harvest the bamboo, so a large proportion of the value addition can be retained with them.
 As bamboo has an incredibly fast growth that enables its harvest from the fourth year of planting, it is
highly renewable and thus can provide a continuous supply of raw materials. This suggests an enormous
potentiality of establishment of bamboo-based cottage industries which is important for improving the
income level of poor people.
 According to a study conducted in 2007, the value of world bamboo market was $7 billion/year and the
global market is expected to grow to $15-20 billion/year by 2017. (MDBRPP/DFRS, 2010)
Building Material
 Bamboo provides an affordable, locally available, durable and highly renewable source of building
material.
 Compendium of Environmental Statistics of Nepal, 2015 states that 20.2% houses in Nepal have used
bamboo as outer wall material with the largest proportion (39.5%) in Terai region. (CBS, 2016)
 Habitat for Humanity (HFH) Nepal has constructed 54,000 houses by 2014 using low-cost and eco-
friendly bamboo housing techniques. (Udas/CEN, 2014)
 Earthquake Resistant Structures

Fodder
 Bamboos are largely used as fodder source, especially in the Terai where it is ranked third in preference.
Soil and Water Conservation
 Bamboo is particularly useful in preventing soil erosion, as the interlocking rhizomes keep saturated top
soil firmly in place. Therefore, planting on steep hillsides and river banks can reduce damage during
floods, landslides and earthquakes. (Bradshaw, 1997)
Bamboo as Food
 Bamboo shoots locally known as “Tama” and “Tusaa” are commonly and widely consumed as vegetable
and pickle.
 Some species of Bamboo are used in medicinal purposes also - rural people have been using its leaves to
cure intestinal worms and stomach disorders; its tender shoots in respiratory diseases, wounds and ulcers.
Some common Bamboo Species of Nepal:
In Nepal, 12 genera and more than 50 species of bamboo are found. 8 species are getting rare.
Arundinaria bamboos
Bambusa arundinacea
B. balcooa (Dhanubans, Ban bans)
B. glaucescens var. solid (Syn. B. multiplex) B. multiplex (Chinese hedge bamboo)
B. nepalensis (Tamabans, Phusure bans)
B. nutans subsp. Nutans (Tharubans, Sate bans)
B. nutans subsp. Cupulata (Malbans)
B. tulda (Kada bans, Karaicho bans, Chab bans)
B. vulgaris
B. almaii (Mugibans)
Borinda chigar (Chigar)
B. emeryi (Kalo nigalo)
Cephalostachyum latifolium (Syn. Schizostachyum latifolium) (Ghopi) bans, Murali bans)
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Choya bans, Ban bans)
D. hookeri (Kalo, Bhalu bans)
D. giganteus (Dhungre bans, Rachhasi bans)
D. strictus (Latthi bans)
Drepanostachyum falcatum (Tite nigalo, diu nigalo) (Syn. Sinarundinaria falcata)
D. intermedium (Tite nigalo) (Syn. S. intermedia)
D. khasianum (Ban nigalo) (Syn. S. Jainiana) Himalayacalamus brevinodus (Malinge nigalo)
H. cupreus
H. fimbriatus (Tite nigalo)
H. porcatus (Seto nigalo)
H. hookerianus (Padang)
H. falconeri (Thudi nigalo, Singhane)
H. asper (Ghumre nigalo, Malinge nigalo)
Melocanna baccifera (Lahure bans)
Phyllostachys nigra (Nigalo, Kalo nigalo)
Pleioblastus sp.
Sasa megalophylla
Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Rato nigalo)
T. spathiflorus subsp. Nepalensis (Jarbuto)
Yushania maling (Malingo, Khosre malingo)
Y. microphylla (Mailing, malingo)

8.2 Cane Products and Their Uses:
The Rattans are climbing ‘palms’ belonging to subfamily Calamoideae and are native to SE Asia. Rattan is a
component of tropical forests and is rarely cultivated.
- 70% of the world’s rattan population exists in Indonesia. It also grows in the Philippines, Srilanka,
Malaysia, Bangladesh, India and Nepal in the tropical zones.
- The stems are the mostly used parts of rattan which can grow up to several metres in length (species
dependent).
- In Nepal, it is mainly found in lowlands of Terai belt and up to the mid-hills.
- Out of 600 species in the world, only 8 species occur in Nepal.
- Ten species of two genera have been reported but only seven species have been identified during the
survey by Chowdhary and Paudel in 1996.
The identified species in Nepal are:
- Calamus acanthospathus (Gauri Bet)
- Calamus leptospadix (Dangre Bet)
- Calamus latifolius (Phekre Bet)
- Calamus inermis (Putali Bet)
- Calamus tenuis (Pani Bet)
- Calamus erectus (Tokri Bet)
- Plectocomia himalayansis (Himali Bet)
Uses of Rattan
- The most important and common use of rattan is as a raw material in furniture making. Rattan furniture are
extremely desirable because they are lightweight, durable, suitable for outdoor use and in most cases
environment-friendly.
- Rattan comes in great use in handicraft and arts including rattan baskets, plant containers, and other
decorative works.
- Rural people use rattan for household purposes such as weaving baskets, mats, winnow, to make partition
walls of houses, walking sticks, etc.
- Mature and long-sized rattan are used as rope to drag heavy logs.
- In some villages of India, the shoot is used as vegetable.
- In 2010, scientists in Italy used rattan wood to produce artificial bone and successfully tested this bone-from-
wood in sheep.
- Income is generated by selling raw rattan canes, rattan seeds and seedlings. It utilizes the labour and skill of
local people. (Since 1996, Sati Karnali CFUG in Kailali has earned about $40,000 each year from rattan
sale.)

Unit 9: Value Chain and Enterprise Development (3)
9.1 Definition of Value Addition, Chain and Process:

Value Chain: The process and activities by which a company adds value to an article including production,
marketing and the provision of after sales services.
In general, a value change refers to a chain of value-added activities and firms involved in taking a product from
its inception to consumers.
It describes the full range of activities which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through
the different phases of production, delivery to final consumers. (Kaplinsky/Morris, 2000).
It helps to explain the connection between all the actors in a particular chain & shows who adds value where
along the chain. Value chain analysis is a strategy tool used to analyze internal firm activities. Its goal is to
recognize, which activities are the most valuable to the firm and which ones could be improved to provide a
competitive advantage.
A value chain analysis involves four major steps for identification, prioritization, and promotion of
commodities: identification of the value chain, value chain mapping, preparing market map and upgrading
strategy.
The value chain analysis has been described here in detail.
- Reveal links between producers,
- exporters and global markets
- Identify constraints all along the chain to competing in the marketplace
- Clarify the relationships in the chain from buyers to producers
- Highlight the distribution of benefits among buyers, exporters and producers in the chain
Value Chain Process:
Value Addition: The amount by which the value of an article is increased at each stage of its production,
exclusive of initial costs.
Value addition involves 3 steps:
1. Post harvesting Practices (Cleaning, Drying, Grading, Packaging)
2. Processing of intermediate goods: (Distillation, Extraction)
3. Production of consumer good: (formulation, mixing, compounding, packaging)
Importance of Value Addition Challenges of Value Addition

Employment generation Raw material management and sustainability
Reduction in the weight and volume Technology
Increased quality Market and market information
Easy Handling and Transportation Cost transfer and transmit
Increase in price and value Competition in consumer market for consumer products
Legal challenges
Quality loss
A six step approach to VC Development:

1. Value chain 2. VC
selection analysis
6. Performance 3. Market
monitoring and based solution
assessment identification
4. Market
5. VC
based
development
solution
facilitation
assessment
9.2 Types of Value Chains:
In terms of geographical coverage
- Local VC: all activities confined at local level
- National VC: all activities confined at national level
- Regional VC: all activities confined at regional level i.e. South Asia, East Europe etc.
- Global VC: design, assemble, production of parts, marketing and branding activities in different
countries around the globe
In terms of activities
- Primary activities oriented VC
- Secondary/support activities oriented VC
- Production level VC
- Marketing level VC
- Physical VC: activities that involve people in the business
- Virtual VC: activities that is confined in computer, computer-based business
In terms of sector
- Product oriented VC: e.g. Forest, agricultural etc.
- Service oriented VC: e.g. hospitality industries, health care
Types of Value Chain Governance
Market-based.
- “arm’s length” transactions between buyers & sellers
- litle or no formal cooperation among participants
Balanced
- .– fairly equal decision-making among participants
- .– cooperation but no one dominates
Directed
– controlled by firm(s) who determine product specifications, trade rules, etc.
Hierarchical
Captive
Relational
Modular
9.3 VCA of Important NTFPs:

Case Study of Swertia Chiraita (Value Chain Analysis of Chiraita)

Marketing: demand and supply
About 45 percent of Chiraito in the Himalayan region is collected from Nepal (Joshi and Dhawan 2005). High
trade of Chiraito originated from Nepal is from eastern development region of Nepal (Swankhuwashabha,
Terhathum Taplejung districts). The national consumption of Chiraito is only 5 percent of the total production,
with 95 percent going to international markets (India, Tibet, Germany, Sweden, Italy, Holland, and the US)
(FAN AND RRN, 2014). Each year, more than 300 tons of cultivated and wild collected Chiraito is exported
from Nepal to India (152 tons). Nepal is the supplier of 50 % of the world's total volume of Chiraito. The
estimated data by Olsen (2005) shows that a minimum volume of 373 tonnes (valued at USD 876,000) and
maximum of 1,878 tonnes (valued at USD 4,411,000) of crude Swertia chirayita is being traded from Nepal
annually.
Product Flow:
The trading of Chiraito begins with collection from forests and ends with export to India and Tibet. There are
three tiers of actors viz. micro, meso and macro level players in the value chain. At the micro level, there are the
collectors, farmers, village and district level traders and exporters. At the meso level there are CFUGs and
LFUGs. At the macro and policy level, there are institutions such as the District Chamber of Commerce and
Industries (DCCI), DFO, Department of Forest (DoF) and Department of Plant Resources (DPR), which
formulate and implement policies (FAN AND RRN, 2014).
Current Market Channel
Collector - > Village Trader -> Regional Trader - > Exporter Collector - > Village Trader - > Exporter
Collector - > Village Trader - > Regional Trader - >Wholesaler - >Exporter
Value Chain Actors and their roles:
S.N. Value Chain Actors Functions
1. CFUGs and LFUGs Cultivation: Many CFUGs and farmers are engaged in
Chiraito cultivation.
2 Collectors Large number of farmers and local cultivators; difficult to know
the exact number.
3 Village level traders Some individuals in the villages; purchase Chiraito from
collectors and sell to the district level traders.
4 District level traders Often based on district headquarters; these traders directly export
collected Chiraito to Kathmandu,
Britamod or Tibet/ China through Kimathangka Border.
5 Exporters Export Chiraito to India and China
6 Domestic Manufacturers of Consume only 5% of Chiraito in Nepal
Herbal Medicines
7 Enablers Activities of enablers ranged from collection to end use,
advocacy for simplifying trade policy and procedures, organizing
groups and networks for reinforcement, and market information
and linkages for better access. Regulating agencies are also
working as a facilitator in many cases.
Economic Aspects of Chiraito

Cultivation
According to the report published by Forest Action Nepal (FAN), the total cost of production is NRs 2,09,000
for three years. About 850 kg can be produced in a hectare and if sold at NRs 600 per hectare (calculated in the
market rate in September 2013), the total sale becomes NRs 5,10,000. According to this calculation, the profit
per year per hectare is estimated to be NRs 1,00,300. For wild collection, the harvest quantity is based on the
availability in the wild and generally, a collector can collect 2-3 kg of dried Chiraito in a day. The whole plant is
sun-dried and care is given so that all the parts of Chiraito, including the leaves are intact. To prevent the fungal
growth the plant needs to be well dried. The increment in price for processed Chiraito ranges from NRs 20-30
per kg.
Price Trend:
The study conducted by (FAN and RRN, 2014) shows the price trend of Chiraito in recent year is slightly
increasing. The price fluctuation of Chiraito was due to lack of easy trade to Tibet/China during political
insurgency in Nepal, but its price dramatically increased because of the easy trade developed after the political
settlements in the country.
The market for Chiraito is getting competitive rather than monopolistic as traders carry out business to either
Tibet or India depending on the price variation. The recent report (January 2014) has shown the increasing
demand of Chiraito in Tibet/China. Chiraito is traded and helicopters are being used for transportation by paying
NRs 1000 per kg for exporters near Tibet/China border (Kimathangka).
The price fluctuation of Chiraito and quantity of export totally depend on the market in India and China. At
present, it seems that the demand from Tibet is increasing.
SWOT analysis of Chiraito
The SWOT analysis by (FAN and RRN, 2014) indicates that despite some threats and weaknesses, the Chiraito
cultivation is most potential for improving livelihoods and income of people in rural areas in Nepal. Therefore,
upgrading strategies such as grading of the product, compression, adoption of improved cultivation technique,
providing legal knowledge, and producing and promoting technical expertise were recommended.
9.4 Business Plan (Micro and Meso)

The idea of a business plan is to bring together all the key elements of business in one document. This includes
what products or services to sell, what challenges might meet, what it will cost to produce and how much sales
revenue is expected in starting period and in the future.
A written document that describes in detail how a new business is going to achieve its goals. Business plan
always requires dealing with the questions, such as why, what, who, how, where, when, and how much.
Components of Business plan
- Marketing plan: A document that describes marketing strategy and a list of actions.
- Production plan: A document that contains process f production, quantity and quality of products and cost
required for production and provides cost per unit.
- Financial plan: A document with an annual projection of income and expenses for an enterprise.
- Organization and management plan: A written plan that describes how enterprise will be operated, its
organizational structure, resource allocation, staffing, management etc.
- Raw material plan: A document with source of resource supply, raw material quality and quantity, legal
obligations, storage, harvesting method etc.
General Structure of Business Plan:

1. Executive Summary
a. Opportunity
 Problem Summary
 Solution Summary
 Market Summary
 Competition
 Overview
 Why Us?
b. Expectations
 Forecast
 Financial Highlights by Year [chart]
 Financing Needed
2. Opportunity
a. Problem & Solution
i. Problem Worth Solving
ii. Our Solution
b. Target Market
c. Competition
i. Current Alternatives
ii. Our Advantages
3. Execution
a. Marketing & Sales
i. Marketing Plan
ii. Sales Plan
b. Operations
i. Locations & Facilities
ii. Technology
iii. Equipment & Tools
c. Milestones & Metrics
i. Milestones Table
ii. Key Metrics
4. Company
a. Overview
b. Team
i. Management Team
ii. Advisors
5. Financial Plan
a. Forecast
i. Key Assumptions
ii. Revenue by Month [chart]
iii. Expenses by Month [chart]
iv. Net Profit (or Loss) by Year [chart]
b. Financing
i. Use of Funds
ii. Sources of Funds
c. Statements
i. Projected Profit & Loss
ii. Projected Balance Sheet
iii. Projected Cash Flow Statement
6. Appendix
a. Monthly Financial Forecasts
b. Additional Documentation
Importance of Business plan:
Getting an integrated view of business

Keep management on track
Getting funding, loans etc.
Clarity in all aspects of business
Create road map to success
Inform leaders, employees, partners etc.

Unit 10: Marketing of NTFPs (3)
A market is a particular place where commodities are bought and sold.

Marketing is distribution of product either from its place of production or from the part at which it is imported
to people. Marketing refers to the ways the producers and consumers are brought to their decisions.
Marketing system is the channels through which commodity passes through a sequences of stages or events.
10.1 Importance
- Main source of income to earn livelihood for communities residing to the fringe areas of Forest.
- Marketing and trade of NTFP is of economic importance to country.
- Main source of living for indigenous community.
- Helps in the sustainable utilization promoting conservation.
- Helps to sustain the national and local forest based industries.
- Provides the estimate of flow of resources.
10.2 Marketing Channel

There are four levels of intermediates between the source and the markets through which raw materials are
normally handed (Edward, 1996). They are village traders, road-head traders, Terai trader and Indian traders;
each handled the progressively large volume of trade.
Current local trader: They bring products harvested from nearby forests and pastures to village level trader
levels and /or district level trader who stockpile the material and resell it to Terai traders.
Terai Traders: The Terai (regional) traders often place orders for specific products with the district traders or
some of the areas directly to arrange the purchase of the products. The Terai traders then supply the products to
markets of India.
Indian traders: (International) Indian wholesalers come from time to time to trading towns and road-head. The
major collection points are in the hills. They have an agreement with a shopkeeper who, in turn, are in touch
with a network of village-based trader and collectors throughout the less accessible parts of the country. Several
medicinal plant wholesalers are also based in Kathmandu and use the same network of middleman to buy
material and sell them to their contacts in India. The general market channel for NTFPs in domestic.

NTFPs
Forest User Groups

(90%) (10%)
Village
Traders
Local processors
Traders
Terai Wholesalers/Regional
Traders
Export of Crude Herbs (Indian

overseas) apropos 90% of total Processing unit (public and
volume of trade private) approx. 10% of total
volume of trade
Export of processing
products (essential oil,
retinoid etc.)
10.3 Revenue Sharing Mechanism

Only a small fraction of the final price goes to the
collectors.
The revenue sharing mechanism where most benefitted
are:
Regional Traders > Road head Traders > Village
Traders > Harvesters
In Nepal, CFUGs retain 100% of takings from NTFPs and
Timber, except for the species (Acacia catechu and
Shorea robusta) if sold for commercial purpose outside
CFUG, for which a 15% royalty is paid to central
government.

10.4 Problems and Prospects of NTFPs Marketing in Nepal
Problems
- Lack of Marketing infrastructure
- Lack of institutional support
- Collection of NTFPs without resources inventory and thus causing the disappearance
- The uprooting of entire plants which hinders further regeneration
- Felling trees to collect needle especially in the case of lauth salla
- Haphazard fire and harvesting of premature crops
- Political agencies over the kingdom, which eventually affects on NTFPs harvesting
- Frequently changing government rules
- Most of the traders with inadequate marketing knowledge and skills.
- Lack of expertise and research
- No coordination and cooperation among institution.
- Lack of cultivation of NTFPs
- Inadequate distribution of benefits amongst the stakeholders.
- The dependency of market price only upon the limited retailer.
- The less developed market for many products and high price fluctuations
- Stakeholders are unknown about production.
- No proper listing of NTFPs
- Lack of information and technology for product development
- High profitability tendency of middleman through the labor of local people
Prospects
- Biodiversity conservation
- Utilization of infertile / waste land
- NTFPs demonstration
- Household use and medical care
- Establishment of NTFP based cottage industries and handicraft.
- Livelihood improvement and consequently supporting to poverty alleviation

Unit 11: Forest Certification (4)
11.1 Importance of certification

Forest Certification is a relatively new system of formal voluntary scheme where a third party (verifiers) acts as
a certifier, who gives the written assurances that the quality of forest management practiced by the proponent
forest manager is according to predetermined standards. It is the verifying tools that a forest meets the
requirements of a standard and it is widely used in all sectors to provide independent confirmation that standards
are being met.
Certification involves the external verification of forest management quality, which raises the need for adequate
auditing systems. As defined by FSC, “Forest certification is the process of evaluating forests or woodlands to
determine if they are being managed according to an agreed set of standards”. ISO has defined forest
certification as “the procedure by which a third party gives written assurance that a product, process or service
conforms to specific requirements.”
Why certification? (Importances)
- For industry and trade- it is an instrument for environmental marketing.
- For buyers and consumers- it provides information on the impacts of products they purchase.
- For forest owners and managers-it is a tool for gaining market access or market advantage, or perhaps
for capturing price premiums. It also serves to demonstrate responsible forest management through
independent third party certificationregardless what the market wants.
- For the environmental movement- it is a way of influencing how production forests are managed.
Product
claiming
Certification systems:
FSC: Forest Stewardship Council
PEFC: Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification
IFOAM: International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement
FLO: Fair Trade labelling Organization
ANSAB: Asia Network for sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources.
NTFP certification has evolved as a prospective solution to the myriad ecological, economic and social
challenges associated with commercialization.
Opportunities and Challenges of NTFP Certification:
Opportunities:
- Inform the consumer and companies and provide them an alternative to the exploitative use of resources.
- Integrating NTFP into timber assessments
- Decreasing logging of valuable NT species

- Managing for long term perspective
- Distinguish legal gathering from illegal harvesting
Challenges:
- Lack of ecological and technical knowledge
- Unpredictable resource production
- Cost of NTFP certification
- Chain of Custody
11.2 Certification Criteria
General Criteria:
1. Certification should guarantee that the NTFP were harvested by individuals or group living within the
forest.
2. Should Guarantee that NTFP management and extraction is sustainable.
3. NTFP should originate from forest that are productive not Protective.
Certification is based on an assessment of the social, environmental and economic aspects of forest management
described in the 10 Principles and 56 Criteria (“standards”) of the FSC. If the forest operation meets these
principles and criteria, then it can receive a certificate and has the right to use the FSC label.
FSC principle and Criteria:
Principle 1: Compliance with laws and FSC Principles – to comply with all laws, regulations, treaties,
conventions, and agreements, together with all FSC Principles and Criteria.
Principle 2: Tenure and use rights and responsibilities – to define, document and legally establish long-term
tenure and use rights.
Principle 3: Indigenous peoples’ rights – to identify and uphold indigenous peoples’ rights of ownership and use
of land and resources.
Principle 4: Community relations and worker's rights – to maintain or enhance forest workers' and local
communities’ social and economic well-being.
Principle 5: Benefits from the forest – to maintain or enhance long-term economic, social and environmental
benefits from the forest.
Principle 6: Environmental impact – to maintain or restore the ecosystem, its biodiversity, resources, and
landscapes.
Principle 7: Management plan – to have a management plan, implemented, monitored and documented.
Principle 8: Monitoring and assessment – to demonstrate progress towards management objectives.
Principle 9: Maintenance of high conservation value forests – to maintain or enhance the attributes which define
such forests.
Principle 10: Plantations – to plan and manage plantations in accordance with FSC Principles and Criteria.
Nepal is the 1st country in Asia and 5th in the world to acquire the FSC certification for MAPs and NTFPs.
Also the 1st country for group certification.

11.3 Quality standard of value-added products:
1. Quality Assurance:
Quality assurance is about the prevention. Its purpose is to ensure that the VAPs are not below the standard
expected. It is applied to production process as the quality is most affected at that point. ISO are quality
assurance system. It prevents the degradation of quality.
2. Quality Control:
It is about identifying which products do not meet the organisation standards. It identifies low quality products
which have escaped quality assurance. Such products are escaped
As NTFPs go on production, a series of value is added in chain. So there must be a standard to check the quality
of Products in each stage of chain.

11.4 Policy and legislation with NTFPs Certification:
There is two popular model of certification i.e. individual and group certification practiced worldwide. Whereas
the group model is so popular in developing countries, due to the cost- effectiveness. Nepal has also been
adopted the group model due to the size of CFUGs, adjoining forest patches, availability of proper manpower
and management points of view. The average size of CFUG is 85 ha. (DoF, 2007 cited in Acharya, 2007) and
individual CFUGs cannot afford enough money and resources in the certification process. Whatever the size of
the forest and numbers of forest owners, there is no restriction on joining under one scheme (Acharya, 2007). As
a non-profit program, Smart Wood developed the resource manager certification model to reduce the costs of
certification. Smart Wood has been committed to creating an effective model so that small landowners have the
option of participating in certification (Smart Wood, 2002). FECOFUN has the crucial role to implement forest
certification in CFUGs as a resource manager. FECOFUN is certificate holder and responsible to FSC to
compliance its P & C in all certified CFUGs. It is equally responsible to all certified CFUGs for capacity
building, monitoring, and coordination to all CFUGs.
Certification Practice in Nepal
• Tenth five-year plan recognized forest certification as one of the major tools to access in the
international market and create a competitive situation
• NTFP Policy 2061 also recognize the involvement of rural poor family in NTFP management and
forest certification to be adopted for SFM and market access
• Interim Plan: National Planning Commission proposed to allocate some budget for forest
certification initiatives
Policies and Legislation for Promoting NTFP:
1957- Private Forest Nationalization Act

1970-Forest Products Utilization Established systems of permits and license For FPs and NTFPs
1988- NCS Emphasized on the development of MAP resources base.
1988 MPFS Heavy emphasis on CF, local control, separate program on NTFPs
with MAPs as its main component.
1992-97 – 8th five year plan Promoted income and employment opportunities, improvement of
harvesting, processing and marketing of NTFPs.
1993 Forest Act
1995- F. Regulation Detailed description of the restrictive procedures required to
utilize NTFPs and MAPs.
2005- Herb and NTFP Policy
Policies and Legislation with NTFPs certification:
1. Tenth five year Plan recognized forest certification as one of the major tool to assess in the international
market and create competitive situation.
2. NTFP Policy 2061 recognized involvement of rural poor family in NTFP management and Forest
certification to be adopted for SFM and market access.
3. Interim Plan: NPC proposed to allocate some budget for forest certification initiatives.
4. MPFS
5. Forest Sector Policy 2000

6. Herbs and NTFP Development Policy identifies the need for aid and mentioned government should provide
aid to CFUG for certification.
7. Forest Policy 2015: A mechanism will be established to develop quality standard and certification of forest
products for the promotion of national and international marketing of NTFPs.

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Prepared by: Abiral Acharya

6th semester, IOF, TU

What is a Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP)?

(3) Boulder, soil, stone, pebble, sand, or

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 1

1.2 Importance and scope of NTFP

# NTFP shares 33% of the total plant species of the world.

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 2

 Employment generation through sustainable utilization and management of NTFP.

 Management and conservation of NTFP

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 3

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 4

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 7

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 8

Livelihood assets or capital

Natural capital Financial capital

Physical Capital Social capital

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 9

Fig. Sustainable livelihood framework

2.1 Role of NTFPs in Livelihod

Fig. value ladder of NTFPs in livelihoods

2.2 Employment and income generation

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 10

2.3 Ethno- botanical value of NTFP

Add other uses you know

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 11

Unique features of NTFP inventory

Key elements of NTFP inventory Different stages of NTFP inventory

3.2 Sampling and Measurement

Inventory of species - Used parts Root and Rhizomes e.g.Suganhawal, jatamansi)

Sampling intensity for various life forms of NTFPs

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 13

< 100 1 0.5 0.05 - 0.1

Area & size of sample plots

1 500 12.61 22.36 x 22.36 20 x 25

3 300 9.77 17.32 x 17.32 20 x 15

4 200 7.97 14.14 x 14.14 20 x 10

7 10 1.78 3.16 x 3.16 5x2

3.3 Estimation and assessment of NTFP

Frequency = Number of samples in which species occur/Total number of sample X 100

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 15

4.2 Harvesting practices

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 16

4.3 Sustainable harvesting

Principal NTFPs by ecological zones of Nepal

Sustainable harvesting methods:

Some other Considerations:

When is Best to Harvest Jatamansi?

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 18

4.4 Post Harvesting Technique

S.N. Name Traditional method Scientific Method Value

The pulp of fruit

Objectives of the Post harvesting techniques:

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 20

5.1 Importance and scope

NTFPs: Compiled by Abiral Acharya 21

5.2 Identification of MAPs

1. Scientific Name , Local name, Common Name