Nicholas Bruscia

Structural Papercuts University at Buffalo, State

University of New York

Scaling Disclinations in Self-Reactive Surfaces

ABSTR ACT
This paper reviews and explores the topological properties of surface disclinations applied 1 [+x°] wedge disclination
prototype.
to elastic sheets and suggests how these properties may be reproduced at an architectural
scale. A variety of surface disclinations and their translation from digital and physical form-
finding processes to thin plywood prototypes are discussed. Initial phases of this research
have been focused on the bending behavior of various sheet disclination types and have
studied a variety of computational form-finding techniques that demonstrate this behavior in
an architectural workflow. Several large-scale prototypes of architectural disclinations were
produced to test the scalability of topologically induced surface curvature, discussed within
the context of bending-active plate structures.

536
INTRODUCTION
The basic topological concept of a disclination acknowledges
the role of the “defect” in the composition of a material
structure. However, the basic principles of disclinations
can be applied to material systems at multiple scales. For
example, the process of strategically inserting geometric
disclinations in woven lattices results in out-of-plane buck-
ling, producing concentrations of either positive or negative
2a
curvature (Martin 2015) (Fig. 2a). Similarly, thin sheets
absorb the strain induced by disclinations by buckling into
repeatable, complex forms (Harris 1977). Since complex
surfaces must often be postrationalized with a geome-
try-based approach prior to construction, it is useful to
investigate approaches that are directly related to material
properties that reinforce rationality from the start, helping
to define alternative and more efficient design processes
and fabrication techniques.
2b

Surface Disclinations
Disclinations depend on rotational symmetry, usually
around the center axis of a torus or a sphere. This differs
from dislocations and dispirations, which rely on transla-
tional and screw symmetry, respectively (Harris 1978). The
work in this paper focuses specifically on compact disclina-
tions of rotational movement to force out-of-plane bucking
2c
in thin sheets. For example, wedge disclinations in flexible
sheet materials can be built to conceal the topological
condition that creates curvature through self-reaction, a
rather elegant construction technique (Fig. 2b). The strain
applied to the material during assembly is eventually distrib-
uted smoothly (Harris 1977), and it has been empirically
observed via physical models that some surfaces resulting
from wedge disclinations are bi-stable since the surface
exhibits snap-through buckling as it is forced to move
between two stable positions. When stable, the surface
remains in a state of self-reaction where strain is distrib-
uted smoothly (Kroner and Anthony 1975).

Disclinations in sheet materials can be created with a

simple procedure. By slicing through the material along a
straight line but not entirely across, one can choose how
to reconnect the surface ends in order to induce self-reac-
2d
tive curvature. By removing material prior to reconnection,
positive curvature is created. By adding material prior 2a <6 and >6 edge count polygons 2b [+60°] and [-60°] wedge disclina-
introduced to the regular lattice tions: a 60° sector is removed to
to reconnection, negative curvature is created as the
produce positive and negative form a cone or added to the disk
surface reacts by buckling into a [-x°] wedge disclination. Gaussian curvature (Ayres et al. to form a saddle-like surface
For example, a [-360°] wedge disclination performed on a 2018). (Harris 1977).

circular sheet gives rise to severe deformation resulting 2c [+90°] and [-90°] wedge disclina-
tions illustrated as cubic lattices,
in a saddle-like surface (Fig. 2d). Formally, this results in
shown here in comparison to
a surface drawn from two double cones, as the surface similar topologically induced
can be generated by moving a straight line fixed at one end bends in woven lattices and thin
sheets (Harris 1977).
(Harris 1977).
2d Top-down view: [-360°] wedge
disclination creates extreme
buckling. The inserted “wedge”
itself is a full circle (Harris
1977).

LABOR AND PRACTICE 537

3a Josef Albers, curved-crease sculpture. 3b Naum Gabo, Spheric Theme.
3c 2-circle [-x°] disclination. 3d 3-circle [-x°] disclination.
Naum Gabo was perhaps the first to document this technique
in built form in the 1930s, but it was later discussed as a
wedge disclination by crystallographer William Harris who
characterized them with negative or positive angle measures,
which is the notation adopted in this paper (Harris 1977).
Similarly, Turkish sculptor Ilhan Koman cataloged the various
surface variants as factors of pi (Akgün, Koman, and Akleman
2006). In both instances, the degree of rotational move-
ment and the amount of material inserted into (or removed
from) a single disk is made explicit. Another way to describe
surface disclinations may be possible with the Gauss-Bonnett
theorem that relates a surface’s geometric curvature to its
topological Euler characteristic. While a proper investiga-
tion into this relationship is beyond the scope of this paper,
its relevance to this work is illustrated by mathematician
Edmund Harriss’s Curvahedra system and its application to
large sheet metal sculptures (Harriss 2020).
BACKGROUND AND REL ATED WORK
This paper borrows its title from László Moholy-Nagy, who
in Vision in Motion described beginning design exercises
of manipulating flat sheet materials into three-dimensional
structures (1947). Paper cutting and bending is an effec-
tive form-finding process since some basic understanding
of the strength of materials, role of grain direction, and the
varying tension and compression forces can be inferred from
small-scale models. For example, both grain direction and
slight overlapping of material can determine in which of the
two stable states the model will tend to rest. If unintended,
this may bias the bending behavior and affect the evaluation
of the model. Building on the origins of foundational design
538
4 Ilhan Koman, π+π+π+... sculptures.
exercises of the Bauhaus and later at the Hochschule für
Gestaltung Ulm (Ulm School of Design), it is useful here to
recall the pedagogical work of Josef Albers that produced
the first account of a curved crease model (Fig. 3a) consisting
of concentric circles (Demaine et al. 2011). The alternating
concentric mountain and valley folds along the curved
creases results in a saddle-like form quite similar to Naum
Gabo’s Variation on a Spheric Theme (Fig. 3b), and Harris’s
[-x°] wedge disclination in a circular disk (Figs. 3c, 3d). In
comparison, the [-x°] wedge disclination can also produce
a wide variety of results since it is not limited to the surface
area of a single circle. This is demonstrated by Ilhan Koman’s
developable sculptures in [π+π+π+....] form, which clearly
illustrate the variety of distinct surface types that emerge
from this process (Akgün, Koman, and Akleman 2006) (Fig. 4).
These examples and their history of multidisciplinary explo-
ration help demonstrate that working with paper leads to a
fundamental understanding of form making and efficiency
of means. Since the material will be utilized to its maximum
potential, complex design proposals with little waste result
from a simple material process (Demaine et al. 2011).
While the primary motivation driving the research is to
explore surface disclinations at an architectural scale, the
work takes inspiration from several case studies that have
either directly or indirectly influenced the results to date. An
appreciation for thin sheets formed within the limitations of
their material characteristics is inspired by the Plyform work
of Charles and Ray Eames in conjunction with the Molded
Plywood Division of Evans Products in 1943. The Eameses
constructed a variety of large-scale molded plywood parts
Structural Papercuts Bruscia

5 Charles and Ray Eames, airplane fuselage, 1943.
for the U.S. Navy, built from enormous pieces of wood veneer
and pressed into doubly curved aircraft sections. The scale
at which they managed to mold plywood components and
the pinch-forming techniques they devised to hold specific
curves may be best exemplified by their airplane stabilizer tail
and airplane fuselage (Fig. 5). A similar source of inspiration
comes from the construction of early wooden monocoque
shells built for racing airplanes in the early 1900s, specifically
because the fuselage was constructed from multiple layers
over a removable framework. For example, the Deperdussin
monoplane was constructed of three 1/16 inch layers of
tulip wood glued over a mold (Hoff 1946). The prototypes
discussed in this paper were built to a similar thickness, but
from two layers of 3 mm bendable poplar plywood without a
mold or supporting framework.
Various early paper models and the finished prototype of the
[+x°] wedge disclination share a likeness to Skating Shelters
by Patkau Architects. The standard 4 × 8 ft dimension of
plywood sheets was a limitation to overcome, resulting in
the assembly of larger panels consisting of lapped layers.
The layers were cut to a pattern specific to a recipe of grain
orientation and bending bias (Patkau Architects 2017). The
shelters are constructed from bendable anisotropic plywood
designed to bend along one axis relative to the sheet propor-
tions, which are made of a single veneer core and two thicker
outer layers with grain orientation in the same direction. The
prototypes discussed adopt the double-layer approach to
scalability and make use of a bendable poplar plywood with
grain orientation in either the short direction (barrel grain)
or the long direction (column grain). Similar in spirit and in
LABOR AND PRACTICE
materiality, perhaps surface disclinations may also be seen
as an elegant combination of the structural and geometric
qualities of bent surfaces.
This work also takes inspiration from prior research on
bending-active plate structures, a structural system that
is characterized by the use of large elastic deformations of
initially flat planar materials (Knippers et al. 2011). These
systems use bending to enhance their structural properties,
as opposed to traditional building structures that aim to limit
the amount of bending. Controlling a material’s flexibility to
produce self-stabilizing potential energy has proven to be a
versatile approach to designing lightweight shell structures
(Schleicher and La Magna 2016). Prominent examples include
Buckminster Fuller’s plydomes, the 2010 and 2015–16
Research Pavilions by the ICD/ITKE at the University of
Stuttgart, as well as the Berkeley Weave and Bend9 installa-
tions at UC Berkeley’s College of Environmental Design.
METHODS
In order to demonstrate the potential application of surface
disclinations in an architectural context, it is necessary to
understand their topological and geometric nature. While it is
possible to approximate surface disclinations with manually
constructed conic sections, the natural surface curvature
created by bending against restrictive material constraints
is seen as an opportunity for nuanced formal variation
and control via computational simulation. The geometric
construction of the approximated topology prepares the
physics-based simulations that are explored alongside
paper model bending. An iterative physical modeling process
using paper stock assists, and in specific cases provides an
alternative to, the computational form-finding techniques
developed in this phase. For example, it was empirically
observed that how the paper stock is reconnected (the sided-
ness of the material overlap) will determine which of the two
stable states the model will tend toward. Reproducing this
behavior digitally is interesting territory to explore. At this
stage, however, the simulations are intended to approximate
either of the two stable states that are revealed by the paper
models. This seemingly inherent characteristic of bi-stability
has inspired future work toward large-scale components
designed to counteract one another as they are forced
to connect between stable states. The opposing potential
energies may find a productive equilibrium, suggesting the
possibility for larger structures.
Acknowledging the role of the paper models and their
ability to demonstrate interesting topological behavior, a
materials-based form-finding approach is preferred over
a top-down approach to form-conversion in this phase,
although the latter may become a useful technique for more
539
a Lengthen concentric polylines. b Bending forces counteract polyline expansion.
a Fold base mesh to increase srf area. b Apply bending forces, allow mesh to take shape.
complex assemblies that require an array of embedded discli-
nations. To date, [-x°] disclinations have been of particular
interest since their resultant form cannot be fully predeter-
mined through explicit 3D modeling. As mentioned previously,
the material is self-reactive in the forming process (physical
models benefit from surface self-collision), the simulation of
which has proven to be a challenge worthy of pursuit.
Computational Form Finding
This section describes the computational form-finding
techniques carried out in this research to date, in compar-
ison to other known approaches to similar modeling
problems. The multistep form-finding techniques described
below utilize physics-based dynamic relaxation tech-
niques in Kangaroo2 (Piker 2013), and are consciously
developed within the tradition of form-finding strategies
of architects and engineers from the 1950s onward that
incorporated materials and forces in the systematic
exploration of lightweight structures (Schleicher and La
Magna 2016). Now a common tool in architectural design
and research, Kangaroo2 has played an important role in
visualizing the resultant geometry of surface disclinations
based on the application of forces and counterforces in
meshes drawn specifically for this purpose. In addition,
the real-time feedback allows for simple numeric input
to control the outcome. For example, a single simulation
can very quickly produce [-x°] wedge disclinations from
very small fractions of π, up to or nearing a full π inser-
tion ([-360°]). Multiple π insertions are possible if surface
self-collisions are solved or if a different approach is taken
to model the initial topology. However, the exact amount
540
c Check unrolled mesh for spiral overlap. d Use generating lines to create ruled srf. 6
c Check unrolled mesh for spiral overlap. d Use generating lines to create ruled srf. 7
of π inserted into a flat disk need not be predetermined if
the simulation accounts for self-reactive bending; the user
simply increases or decreases a number slider to achieve
more or less curvature in the surface. In this example, the
numeric input is not entirely abstract; the number slider
domain is set between 1.0 and 2.0, which is a multiplying
factor of the concentric mesh edge lengths that relate
directly to real-world dimensions.
Digitally “inserting” material into the disk through differen-
tial edge expansion is comparable to predetermined paper
stock insertions and mathematical insertions of factors
of π since the formal result is the same. This is perhaps
equally intuitive, since one can first use visual judgment
to confirm the desired outcome and extract specific
dimensions and the amount of surface area addition later,
postsimulation in a multipart workflow. In summary, a
topology approximation is modeled using line and mesh
elements that organize the applied forces with the goal
of finding an accurate, developable surface that can be
unrolled within a very small percentage of dimensional
and area deviation (<0.5%, as determined by Rhinoceros
3D ruled NURBS surface creation and unrolling in dozens
of trials) (Robert McNeel & Associates 2020). The unrolled
surface is then discretized into parts that fit onto standard
plywood sheet sizes for CNC fabrication.
Technique 1—Expanded Concentric Polylines: The [-x°] wedge
disclination is created by inserting a wedge of material into
a circular disk. When reconnected, the increased surface
area is forced within the original dimensional boundary,
Structural Papercuts Bruscia
a Sphere and double-cone intersection. b Trim/join alternating conic sects. at tangents.
a Pull together selected mesh vertices. b Weld mesh to align vertices and continue
bending across seam.
forcing out-of-plane buckling. To simulate the expansion of
surface area, a simple quad mesh is produced as a control
polygon. The concentric polylines are extracted and forced to
expand while the radial polylines are forced to maintain their
starting lengths. The factoral input of linear expansion can be
converted to document the increase in rotational degrees (the
starting point being 360° for a flat disk). Bending forces coun-
teract the expansion within the constant diameter, forcing
an out-of-plane reaction (Fig. 6). In this and the following
examples, the mesh is tested for unroll planarity, and radial
polylines are straightened in place upon convergence and
used to produce a ruled NURBS surface for further discret-
ization into smaller parts, which are detailed for full-scale
assembly.
Technique 2—Relaxed Folded Mesh: A circular boundary
surface is separated into four quadrants. Each surface is
rotated along its two bounding radii, forming two intersecting
surfaces within each quadrant. The line of intersection is
used to create new surfaces resembling a series of accordion
folds. The polysurface is converted into an evenly distributed,
quad-dependent triangle mesh with up to twice as much
surface area as the original circle but maintains its original
diameter. Bending forces applied to the mesh allow it to relax
naturally into the expected saddle-like form (Figs. 7, 10a).
Technique 3—Double-Cone Intersection: To demonstrate the
[-x°] wedge disclination’s conic geometry, a simple approx-
imation is produced by intersecting a set of two opposing
double cones with a large and small sphere, all of which
share a common center point (Fig. 8). The intersection
LABOR AND PRACTICE
c Create mesh and expand concentric mesh edges. d Use generating lines to create ruled srf. 8
c Snap together lower mesh anchoring vertices. d Rotate folds toward vert. center axis. 9
between the cones and spheres creates circles that can be
split into continuous curves that form the outer and inner
surface profiles. A ruled surface is drawn between the
profiles and subdivided into an evenly distributed, quad-de-
pendent triangle mesh. One could also simply trim the cones
using the intersecting circles and the tangent lines between
the cones, producing congruent conic sections that can be
combined to form the approximated surface. The mesh is
relaxed and bending forces are applied, resulting in a more
natural saddle-like form, and the concentric mesh edges are
expanded or contracted to control the surface geometry. Note
that this technique of inscribing cones into the cube is useful
to create initial surfaces of [-720°] (4π) by adding a third
double cone between the remaining two opposite faces of the
cube followed by the previous steps. For a clear example, and
a technique to account for formal variation by adjusting cone
apertures and inscribing their base circles in n-gonal poly-
hedra, see Verhoeff and Verhoeff’s (2014) modeling of their
Lobke sculptures.
These techniques result in near-identical surfaces. This is
intentional and highlights that while the base topology and
simulation strategy are devised with a particular disclination
variant in mind, the result is a reliable approximation suitable
for the transition to larger scales.
Additional Approaches
In addition to the above, other digital form-finding techniques
were used to simulate [+x°] wedge disclinations. The develop-
ment of the base topology as well as the controlled motion to
induce bending were directly related to the way in which the
541
 10a Folded mesh bending with polygonal profile.
10b 2-pentagons with 72° overlap.
paper models were formed. This technique is more straight-
forward since these particular interpretations of the [+x°]
wedge disclination do not involve the addition (or lengthening)
of material. Rather, they are designed with the removal of
material in mind, and are digitally pinched together to form
single conic shells as well as small clusters of two, three, and
four connected conic shells (Fig. 9). This is similar in setup to
the “effective pinching” technique demonstrated by Schleicher
et al. (2015), and similar in practice to the simulation tech-
niques demonstrated by Soriano et al. (2015). While the
former example is not defined as a disclination, since a rota-
tional transformation is not required, the latter does exhibit
the result of rotational movement in the mesh after a wedge of
material is removed in order to simulate positive curvature in
an elastically bent sheet. Methods described in Soriano et al.
for modeling the effect of mesh singularities on elastic planar
meshes toward negative curvature may be compared to the
techniques described above. Specifically, a separate square
mesh portion is inserted into a half-length cut within a larger
square mesh, forcing the mesh to curve into a saddle-like
form; a process that compares to technique 2. Second, their
“plate network” simulation process is similar to technique
1 in that the base topology begins flat until a change in the
topology forces the buckling, and because material overlap
that occurs in reality is avoided in favor of a faster and more
reliable digital simulation (Soriano et al. 2015). Another
comparable technique is demonstrated by Ayres, Martin,
and Zwierzycki (2018) that uses a variety of adjustments to
low-polygon meshes in order to establish an appropriate
valence structure required for a triaxial woven pattern prior
to relaxing the form into a more accurate depiction of the
542
10c [-288°] wedge disclination prototype.
woven lattice. Technique 3 may be comparable, as the crude
base mesh is developed with a predetermined disclination
form, which is then relaxed to approximate the bending
behavior.
Finally, some paper modeling exercises have helped define
the physical vs. digital modeling relationship. The [-x°] wedge
disclination prototype above was designed with two penta-
gons that overlap 72° (sharing one edge) at the start and end
of the bending sequence (Figs. 10b, 10c). The full face overlap
specifies the amount of material insertion by degree, in this
case creating a [-288°] wedge disclination with a polygonal
outer profile, and sets the appropriate amount of layer
overlap needed for consistent bending across seams. Since
the paper model dictates the limits of form finding by virtue
of the number of polygonal faces, a variety of digital modeling
techniques could apply so long as they satisfy the intended
degree of rotational bending and material overlap.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The challenges of scaling self-reactive surfaces are partially
due to the dimensional limitations in sheet materials (Leinhard
and Knippers 2013). A common approach to scaling the
bending active technique has been to localize the bending
forces into smaller parts within an aggregate assembly
(Schleicher et al. 2015). Instead, this phase of the work opted
to build large, flat two-layer plywood sheets. The sheet, shaped
specifically to accommodate the desired finished form, is
itself discretized prior to bending. To test the scalability of
the surface disclination workflow described previously, a
series of plywood prototypes onto which a partial fiberglass
Structural Papercuts Bruscia

11b Expansion and contraction in joints.
layer was tailored, stitched, and cured with epoxy resin were
constructed. Each utilized a similar technique to overcome
the dimensional limitations of plywood sheets by interlocking
serrated profiles, allowing continuous bending across panel
seams. New connection types have proven necessary as
thin materials have become more common in research on
timber shell construction. Typical jointing techniques that are
optimized for thicker materials do not account for consistent
bending across ultra-thin materials (Schwinn, Krieg, and
Menges 2016). In order for the assembled flat sheet to bend
across seams evenly and without concentrating the stresses
to a single layer, a deeply serrated edge profile for each layer
part was devised (Fig. 11a). The layers blend into one another,
thereby avoiding a continuous split in the two-layer sandwich.
In other words, the seam is never perpendicular to the bending
direction (or parallel to the bending axis), and the two-layer
thickness is maintained across the vast majority of the seam.
As prototyped from 3 mm thick plywood with uniform grain
direction, the two-layer serrated seam technique performs
very well for bending across surfaces with dimensions larger
than stock material constraints, although in some cases a
considerable reduction in bending resistance was observed.
There are added benefits to the double-layer construction,
for example, the ability to orient grain directions to influence
the local bending behavior, as demonstrated in the ICD/ITKE
2015-16 Research Pavilion (Schwinn, Krieg, and Menges
2016). Also, the double-layer construction allows for lapping
across large dimensions that avoid the awkward accumulation
of material and consistency of thickness throughout. A draw-
back is that the layers need to be joined while in a deformed
LABOR AND PRACTICE
11a Plywood layer blending with serrated profiles.
11c Fiberglass sew-up.
state, making a glued connection difficult and increasing the
chances of delamination (Bechert et al. 2016).
An additional challenge is that due to material thickness,
the layers slide as they bend at different rates. Tolerance is
achieved by fitting M3 bolts and nylon-inserted locknuts, which
act to set the position of each part within their respective
layers but allow 1–2 mm of movement during the bending
process (Fig. 11b). Bending occurs prior to the tightening of
the bolts, which locks the layers and sets the form. In this
phase of the research, the bolts remain during and after the
composite lay-up, an area of necessary improvement (Fig. 11c).
To follow, a fiberglass “jacket” was added to provide stiffness
and protection from the elements. The textile was cut to match
the surface profiles, manually sewn onto the pre-bent plywood
assembly through CNC-machined holes along the edges. This
is also an area of intended improvement, and will likely be
substituted with the application of preimpregnated composite
strips. The layup sequence and geodesic patterning as they
may relate to the analysis of surface stresses and areas
of weakness are seen as necessary steps toward realizing
surface disclinations at an architectural scale.
OUTLOOK AND CONCLUSION
The work outlined in this paper is intended to demonstrate
the potential of surface disclinations at a large scale, and
is proposed as the preliminary step toward a more robust
fabrication technique and associated computational
workflow. A wider range of surface disclination strate-
gies and how they may combine to form larger aggregate
constructs is currently being developed in parallel with new
543
12 [+/-90°] twist disclination prototype.
developments in the form-finding process and simulation
approaches. A more direct connection between the composite
lay-up process and simulation is seen as an important
step to directly connect the on- and off-screen work. This
includes finite element methods for analyzing potential
bending stresses both during assembly and under loading
to help predetermine fiber directions along the surfaces
for increased structural stability. Using holographic guides
to assist with the manual application of preimpregnated
composite strips to the plywood core is a future goal and
an interesting challenge, as this would further necessitate
precise calibration between paper models, simulations, and
construction. Another important improvement to the fabri-
cation process will be to drastically reduce the number of
temporary fasteners to prevent fiber lay-up interference,
if and when the plywood surfaces are intended to act as
cores in a moldless composite construction process. Finally,
further work to determine the scalability of the inherent
snap-through buckling behavior holds exciting potential for
the application of self-reactive surface disclinations at an
architectural scale.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented in this paper was funded by the Nohmura
Foundation for Membrane Structure’s Technology and was
conducted at the intersection between research and teaching
together with students from the Situated Technologies Research
Group at the University at Buffalo, State University of New York. The
author would like to express their gratitude towards Heidi Flores,
Rossella Giangreco-Marotta, James Hedger, Russ Kolker, Rania
544
13 [+180°] wedge disclination prototype.
Moussa, Rebecca Flanagan, Stanicka Mathurin, Mehrad Naghizadeh,
Kajal Patel, Yogesh Ravichandar, and Timothy Zeng for their contrib-
uting work as part of the fall 2019 STRG design studio. The author
would also like to thank the peer reviewers for their extremely
helpful comments and suggestions.
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IMAGE CREDITS
Figures 1, 10c: He 2019.
Figure 2a: Ayres et al. 2018.
Figures 2b, 2c, 2d: Harris 1977.
Figure 3a: Koch, Conrad. © HfG-Archiv/Ulmer Museum.
Figure 3b: Naum Gabo, The Museum of Modern Art.
Figure 4: Tuncelli, in Akgün 2006 .
Figure 5: © Eames Office.
Figures 10b, 10c: Hedger and Kolker 2019.
Figures 9, 11a: Flores and Moussa 2019.
All other drawings and images by the author.
Nicholas Bruscia is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Architecture at the University at Buffalo, State University of New York,
where he is also a researcher in the Sustainable Manufacturing and
Advanced Robotics Technology (SMART) Community of Excellence.
A strong interest in architectural geometry and enthusiasm for
calculated formal and structural elegance informs much of his work
with materials and fabrication processes. He has over a decade of
experience in applied digital design media, and his primary role in
collaborative projects has focused on the workflow associated with the
design and realization of large-scale prototypes.
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