A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirement For The Award of The Degree of

MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA
A Project Report submitted in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
CHADUVULA VISHNU VARDHAN (11701012)

DULLA VENKATA SAI KARTHIK (11701016)
ETHAMAKULA YOGITHASREE (11701017)
THULIPUDI ANURADHA (11701051)
Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Dr. B. SARATH BABU, M.Tech., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

SVU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SRI VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY
TIRUPATI - 517502
2021
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TIRUPATI - 517502
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation thesis entitled

“MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA '' is a bonafide work
done and submitted by
CHADUVULA VISHNU VARDHAN (11701012)
DULLA VENKATA SAI KARTHIK (11701016)
ETHAMAKULA YOGITHASREE (11701017)
THULIPUDI ANURADHA (11701051)
students of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering,
Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara University
College of Engineering, Tirupati. It is a result of research work
carried out by them under my guidance and supervision for partial
fulfillment of the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Chemical Engineering.
GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr. B. SARATH BABU Dr. B. SARATH BABU
Assistant Professor Dept. Of Chemical Engineering
Dept. Of Chemical Engineering S.V.U College of Engineering
S.V.U College of Engineering Sri Venkateswara University
Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati- 517502
Tirupati - 517502
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TIRUPATI - 517502
DECLARATION
We do hereby declare that this study work, entitled “MANUFACTURE OF
CAUSTIC SODA”, submitted to the Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri
Venkateswara University College of Engineering, Tirupati, in partial fulfilment for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering, Sri
Venkateswara University College of Engineering, Tirupati, has been originally done by
us, under the guidance of Dr. B. SARATH BABU.
We also declare that this thesis is original and has not been submitted, in part or full,
for any other degree or diploma of this or any other university. The extent of
information, incorporated in this thesis, derived from the existing literature is duly
acknowledged.
Ch. Vishnu Vardhan (11701012)
D. Venkata Sai Karthik Reddy (11701016)
E. Yogithasree (11701017)
T. Anuradha (11701051)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our institution, “Sri

Venkateswara University College Of Engineering”, Tirupati, which
has provided us an opportunity to fulfill our long cherished dream.
It is our privilege to express sincere gratitude to Dr. B. Sarath Babu our

Supervisor/Guide, Head of the Department, Deparment of Chemical
Engineering, Sri Venkateswara University College of Engineering, Tirupati
for his valuable guidance, constructive criticism, untiring help and
continuous support from the start to till the end of our work which enabled
us to complete our dissertation work successfully.
We are also thankful to Mr. C. Bharadwaj Kumar Co-guide, Faculty,

Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara University College
of Engineering for providing necessary guidance and suggestions during our
project work.
It is pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to the

entire faculty, Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara
University College Of Engineering, Tirupati, for their support, who have
directly or indirectly had a hand in the successful completion of our project
work.
We express our thanks and wishes to our Friends for their co-operation and
timely help throughout our work.
Most of all, We would like to thank the Almighty, my ever-loving parents,

family members and well-wishers for giving us the most needed moral
support for the successful completion of our project work.
Ch. Vishnu Vardhan (11701012)

D. Venkata Sai Karthik Reddy (11701016)
E. Yogithasree (11701017)
T. Anuradha (11701051)
ABSTRACT
Chlor-alkali market in India has witnessed healthy growth in recent years,
largely driven by increasing demand from end user industries due to higher
output from the chemicals sector. Caustic Soda finds major application in
diverse industries, such as soap & detergents, pulp & paper and textile
processing among others. According to AMAI (Alkali Manufacturers
Association of India), the Installed capacity of caustic soda plants as on 31
March 2021 was 38.80 Lakh MTPA and the Production during the year 2017-
18 was 32.42 Lakh MT. Solid wastes that are generated in chlor-alkali plants
are produced from the diaphragm cell plants and the membrane cell plants.
The major waste stream from the processes consists of brine sludge, which is
produced from the brine purification step. The quantity of brine sludge
generated is in the range 10–45 kg per metric ton of chlorine. This sludge
may contain a variety of compounds, typically magnesium, calcium, iron, and
other metal hydroxides, depending on the source and purity of the brines. This
thesis aims at study of manufacturing Caustic Soda economically and
efficiently in India. Although, Caustic Soda is the most common compound,
this is one of the most imported products in India. The thesis focuses on the
design of a 10 TPD caustic soda plant.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE
No.
ABSTRACT i
CONTENTS i
LIST OF TABLES iii
LIST OF FIGURES iv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Physical Properties 2
1.2 Chemical Properties 2
1.3 Applications 3
CHAPTER 2 MANUFACTURING METHODOLOGIES 5
2.1 Manufacturing of Caustic Soda 5
2.1.1 Diaphragm Cell Process 6
2.1.2 Mercury Cell Process 8
2.1.3 Membrane Cell Process 11
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 13
2.3 Process Selection 14
CHAPTER 3 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 15
3.1 Raw Materials 17
3.2 Brain Purification 18
3.3 Electrolysis 19
3.4 Membrane 20
3.5 Caustic Concentration 20
3.6 Thermodynamic Feasibility 21
CHAPTER 4 MASS BALANCE 23
4.1 Overall Balance 23
4.2 Equipment wise Mass Balance 24
4.2.1 Saturator and Strainer 24
4.2.2 Reactor & Settler 25
4.2.3 Filter 27
4.2.4 Storage 28
4.2.5 Electro reactor 29
4.2.6 Evaporator & Cooling Tower 30
CHAPTER 5 ENERGY BALANCE 32
5.1 Saturator & Strainer 32
5.2 Reactor & Settler 33
5.3 Elector Reactor 34
5.4 Evaporator & Cooling Tower 35
CHAPTER 6 COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS 37
6.1 Fixed Cost 37
6.2 Manufacturing Cost 38
6.3 Production Cost 39
CHAPTER 7 PLANT LAYOUT 41
REFERENCE 48
LIST OF TABLES Page
No.
1.1 Physical Properties of NaOH 2
2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of caustic soda manufacturing
13
Processes
3.1 Estimated energy use in caustic soda manufacture 15
3.2 Composition of Salt for feed preparation 17
3.3 Reagents for Brine Purification 17
3.4 Components of Membrane cell 20
4.1 Start-up Overall Mass Balance 23
4.2 Normal Operation Overall Mass Balance 23
4.3 Start-up & Normal operation mass balance for S & STR 25
4.4 Start-up & Normal operation mass balance for R & ST 26
4.5 Start-up & Normal operation mass balance for Filter 27
4.6 Start-up & Normal operation mass balance for Storage 28
4.7 Mass balance for Electro reactor 30
4.8 Mass Balance for Evaporator & Cooling Tower 31
5.1 Energy Balance for Saturator & Strainer 32
5.2 Energy Balance for Reactor & Settler 33
5.3 Energy Balance for Electro Reactor 34
5.4 Energy Balance for Evaporator & Cooling Tower 35
6.1 Land & Building Cost 37
6.2 Equipment Cost 37
6.3 Auxiliary Units Cost 38
6.4Prime Cost (300 Working Days) 38
6.5 Production cost 39
Page
LIST OF FIGURES
No.
2.1 A diaphragm cell 5
2.2 A mercury cell 6
2.3 A membrane cell 6
2.4 Diaphragm cell process flow 8
2.5 Mercury cell process flow diagram 10
2.6 Membrane cell process flow diagram 12
3.1 Flow sheet of Caustic Soda Production 16
4.3 Filter 27
4.4 Storage 28
4.5 Electro reactor 30
4.6 Evaporator and Cooling Tower 31
5.3 Electro reactor 34
5.4 Evaporator and Cooling Tower 35
Chapter - 1 Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
Sodium Hydroxide was discovered by Humphrey Day while in England in the year 1807. It
was called a fixes alkali, for quite a few years after its discovery it was considered an
elementary substance.
Caustic soda also known as lye and sodium hydroxide, is an inorganic compound denoted
with the formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting of sodium cations
Na+ and hydroxide anions OH-.
Sodium hydroxide is a highly caustic base and alkali that decomposes proteins at ordinary
ambient temperatures and may cause severe chemical burns. It is highly soluble in water, and
readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air. It forms a series of hydrates
NaOH·nH2O. The monohydrate NaOH·H2O crystallizes from water solutions between 12.3
and 61.8 °C. The commercially available "sodium hydroxide" is often this monohydrate, and
published data may refer to it instead of the anhydrous compound. As one of the simplest
hydroxides, it is frequently utilized alongside neutral water and acidic hydrochloric acid to
demonstrate the pH scale to chemistry students.
The industrial production of caustic soda yields brine sludge as solid waste. Brine sludge is
untreatable and is usually disposed in landfills.
It is produced by electrolysis of brine with chlorine as the by product. The production

capacity of NaOH was found to be 3.751 million tonnes per annum in 2017, still it is the most
imported chemical in India. It is the most widely used chemical on industrial scale.
Up to the 20th century, mercury cell was the dominant technology in Europe and the
diaphragm cell technique predominated in United States and the membrane cell in Japan. The
result of the own restructuring period in which the chlor-alkali sector is immersed to satisfy
environmental concerns over mercury and asbestos emissions and market demand.
The energy consumption of the electrolytic technology is reduced, the impact of other stages
such as raw materials extraction and production becomes more significant. Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) is a widely used tool in process selection, design and optimization to
identify clean technologies.
Department of Chemical Engineering, S.V.U.C.E., Tirupati Page 1

1.1 Physical Properties
Physicalstate Solid
Appearance White Pellets
Odour Odour less
MolecularWeight 39.997g/ml
VapourPressure 1 mmHg @739 ºC
BoilingPoint 1390 ºC@ 460 mm Hg
Freezing/MeltingPoint 318 ºC
FlashPoint 176 -178°
Solubility Soluble in water , polar solvents like ethanol and
insoluble in ether and other non – polar solvents
SpecificGravity/Density 2.13 g/cm3
MolecularFormula NaOH
MolecularWeight 40
pH 145%aqueoussolution)
Table 1.1 Physical Properties of NaOH
1.2 Chemical Properties
Sodium hydroxide is highly soluble in polar solvents such as water, ethanol, and methanol.
NaOH(s)+H2O(l)→NaOH(a) ∆𝐻=−44.2 kj/mol
Reaction with acids
Sodium hydroxide is a strong base and reacts with protic acids to produce water and the
corresponding salts.
NaOH(aq) +HCl(aq) →NaCl(aq) +H2O(l) ∆𝐻=−55.9kj/mol
In general, such neutralization reactions are represented by one simple net ionic equation:
OH- + H+  H2O

Such reactions with a strong acid releases heat, and hence are exothermic. Such acid-base
reactions can also be used for titrations. However, sodium hydroxide is not used as a primary
standard because it is hygroscopic and absorbs carbon dioxide from air.
Reactions with Acidic Oxides
Sodium hydroxide reacts with acidic oxides, such as sulphur dioxide. Such reactions are often
used to "scrub" harmful acidic gases (like SO2 and H2S) produced in the burning of coal and
thus prevent their release into the atmosphere.
For example:
2NaOH+SO2→Na2SO3+H2O
Corrosive Nature
Sodium hydroxide is also mildly corrosive to glass, which can cause damage to glazing or
cause ground glass joints to bind. Sodium hydroxide is corrosive to several metals, like
aluminium which reacts with the alkali to produce flammable hydrogen gas on contact.
2NaOH + SiO2  Na2SiO3 + H2O
2 Al + 6NaOH  3 H2 + 2 Na3AlO3
Toxicity
Sodium hydroxide does not produce systemic toxicity, but is very corrosive and can cause
severe burns in all tissues that it comes in contact with. Sodium hydroxide poses a particular
threat to the eyes, since it can hydrolyse protein, leading to severe permanent eye damage.
1.3Applications
Sodium hydroxide, strong base widely used in industries and also used in situations where the
alkalinity of the mixture needs to be increased or to neutralise acids. Sodium hydroxide is
mostly used as an aqueous solution since solutions are cheaper and easier to handle.

Common uses:
 Water Treatment
 Food technology
 Tissue digestion
 To remove grease from pipes
 Glass
Industries making use of NaOH:
 Petrochemical industry
 Pulp and paper industry
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Dye industry
 Cleaning agent
 Soaps and detergents
 Dissolving amphoteric metals and compounds

Chapter 2 Manufacturing methodologies
2 MANUFACTURING METHODOLOGIES
2.1 Manufacturing of Caustic Soda
There are three types of electrolytic processes used for production of caustic soda from
brine:
i. Diaphragm cell process
ii. Mercury Cell process
iii. Membrane cell process
A chlor-alkali process implies the electrolysis of common salt or sodium

chloride. In each process, a salt solution is electrolyzed by the action of
direct electric current, which converts chloride ions to elemental chlorine.
The overall process reaction is as follows:
2NaCl + 2H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2NaOH
In all the three methods the caustic soda and hydrogen are produced at the
negative electrode (Cathode) and Chlorine is produced at the positive
electrode (Anode).
Figure 2.1. : Diaphragm Cell
Department of Chemical Engineering ,S.V.U.C.E ,Tirupati Page 5

Figure 2.2: Mercury Cell
Figure 2.3: Membrane Cell
2.1.1 Diaphragm Cell Process
In this process, there two compartments separated by a permeable

diaphragm. Brine is introduced into the anode compartment and flows
into the cathode compartment. Diaphragmprevents the reaction of the
caustic soda with the chlorine. A diluted caustic brine leaves the cell. The
caustic soda must usually be concentrated to 50% and the salt removed,
this is doneusing an evaporative process.

The diaphragm is made up of porous mixture of asbestos and polyester.

The solution can seepthrough it from the anode compartment into the
cathode side.
At Anode:
The negative ions, chloride and hydroxide ions get attracted towards the
positively charged anode. It is easier to liberate hydroxide ions (to give
oxygen) than chloride ions (to give chlorine). At the anode there are
more chloride ions compared to hydroxide ions. The majorreaction takes
place at the anode is:
2Cl-(aq) - 2e- →Cl2(g)
The Chlorine is contaminated with small amounts of Oxygen

because of the reaction involving hydroxide ions giving electrons as
well. So, the Chlorine has to be purified toremove this oxygen.
At Cathode:
A dilute solution of sodium hydroxide solution is also produced at the

Cathode along withHydrogen. It is highly contaminated with unchanged
sodium chloride solution.
The Sodium hydroxide solution leaving the cell is concentrated by

evaporation. During thisprocess, most of the sodium chloride
crystallises out as salt. The salt can be separated, dissolved in water and
passed through the cell again.
Even after concentration, the sodium hydroxide will still contain a small
percentage of sodiumchloride.

Figure 2.4.: Diaphragm Cell Process Flow
2.1.2 Mercury Cell Process
The mercury cell has two sections, the denuder and the electrolyser which
is an elongated and slightly inclined steel bar. The cell has a steel bottom
with rubber-coated steel sides, as well as end boxes for brine and mercury

feed and exit streams with a flexible rubber or rubber-coated steel cover.
Mercury will flow through this cell and act as the cathode, while the brine
flows on top of the mercury.
Parallel activated titanium anode plates are suspended from the cover of
the cell. The current flowing through the cell decomposes the brine,
producing chlorine at the anode and sodium metal at the cathode. The
sodium combines with mercury to form an amalgam. The amalgam flows
from the electrolyser to the decomposer.
The sodium–mercury amalgam reacts with deionized water in the

composer to form hydrogen and caustic soda in the presence of a catalyst.
Graphite is the most common catalyst that is used for this process. The
catalyst will be activated by oxides of iron, nickel, or cobalt, or by carbides
of molybdenum or tungsten. A major part of mercury is removed in an
initial cooling unit usingwater as a coolant and returned to the electrolyser.
The hydrogen gas is cooled by refrigeration for removing water vapor and
mercury and is cooled further for additional removal of mercury prior to
sale or use as fuel.
The impurities in the solution can be removed or reduced with the addition
of certain chemicals and filtration processes. In most cases, the caustic
solution then goes to storage or is evaporated if a more concentrated
product is required. Generally, the caustic soda solution that flows out
from the decomposer has a concentration of 50% sodium hydroxide.
The chlorine liberated at the anode is cooled to remove water, sodium

chloride, and other impurities, including mercury. Normally, the
condensate will be steam-stripped and returned to the brine system. After
the cooling process, the chlorine gas is further dried by scrubbing with
sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid can be used until its concentration is 50%–
70%. Then this diluted acid is regenerated for sale, reuse, or pH control.
The dry chlorine gas is compressed and liquefied. The liquefying
procedure results in a mixture residual of non-condensable gases, or tail
gases, which are usually scrubbed with caustic soda or lime. The
scrubbing process generates a hypochlorite solution, which is decomposed

and used on site or sold.
About 12%–16% of the sodium chloride is converted in the cells. The

brine that has been used is dechlorinated and then recycled using the brine
purification process carried out by acidifying the brine to a pH 2–2.5 and
passing it down a packed column or spraying it into a vacuum
vessel. The chlorine in the vacuum system that has been removed is
combined with the chlorinestream.

2.1.3 Membrane Cell Process

In a membrane cell, a Per-fluoropolymer membrane containing cation
exchange groups separates the anode and cathode compartments. This
separator selectively transmits sodium ions, but suppresses the migration
of hydroxyl ions from the catholyte to the anolyte.
The saturated brine is fed into the anode compartment where chlorine is
liberated at the anode; the sodium ions migrate to the cathodic compartment
along with some water. Hydrogen ionizes at the cathode compartment, and
caustic soda will be produced as the hydroxyl ions combine with the
sodium ions. Because of the corrosive nature of the chlorine produced, the
anode has to be made from a nonreactive metal such as titanium, whereas
the cathode can be made from steel. About 50% of the sodium chloride is
converted in the cell. The depleted brine is dechlorinated and returned to
the brine purification system.

Figure 2.6.: Membrane Cell Process Flow

2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Table 2.1: Advantages and disadvantages of Caustic Soda manufacturing Processes

Process Advantages Disadvantages
Diaphragm Process • Use of well brine • Use of asbestos
• Low electricity • High steam

consumption. consumption
• Low purity caustic
• Low Chlorine
quality.
Mercury Process • 50% caustic direct • Use of mercury
from cell
• High purity chlorine • Expensive cell
and hydrogen operation
• Simple brine • Larger floor space
purification.
• Costly environment
protection.
Membrane Process • Low energy • Cost of membrane

consumption
• Low capital • High oxygen content
investment in chlorine
• High purity caustic • Use of solid salt,
high purity brine
• Insensitivity to cell
load variations and
shutdowns

2.3Process Selection
The diaphragm process for caustic soda production is an efficient process.

It has the flexibility to use well brine and consumes less electricity.
Regardless of that, this process is majorly not used in the chlor-alkali
industries. This is because of the use of Asbestos separator in the cell
which is detrimental to the human health. Asbestos fibres are easily
inhaled and carried into the lower regions of the lung where they can
cause fibrotic lung disease (asbestosis) and changes in the lining of the
chest cavity (pleura). These diseases can lead to reduced respiratory
function and death. Long-term inhalation of asbestos fibres also increases
the risk of lung cancer and mesothelioma. Enlargement of the heart can
also occur as an indirect effect from the increased resistance of blood flow
through the lungs.
The mercury cell process for caustic soda production yields 50% pure
caustic soda directly from the cell and also releases high purity chlorine
and hydrogen gas from its anode and during denuding of sodium-amalgam
(Na-Hg) respectively. Irrespective of the high purity product yield, the
mercury process is discarded because of the use of mercury in its operation.
Elemental and methylmercury are toxic to the central and peripheral
nervous systems. The inhalation of mercury vapour can produce harmful
effects on the nervous, digestive and immune systems, lungs and kidneys,
and may be fatal. The inorganic salts of mercury are corrosive to the skin,
eyes and gastrointestinal tract, and may induce kidney toxicity if ingested.
Neurological and behavioural disorders may be observed after inhalation,
ingestion or dermal exposure of different mercury compounds. Recent
evidence suggests that mercury is responsible for a reduction of micro-
biological activity vital to the terrestrial food chain in soils.
Based on the above discussion of different processes employed for caustic

soda production, we select membrane cell process because it has no
detrimental impact on the environment and human health.

Chapter 3 Process description
3 PROCESS DESRIPTION
The process opted for the production of caustic soda is the Membrane cell
process. This process was selected because it had no detrimental effect on
the environment, compared to the other production technologies viz.
Mercury cell technology and Diaphragm cell technology. Another reason
for opting the membrane cell technology is that it is the least energy
intensive technology among Mercury cell Technology, Membrane Cell
Technology and Diaphragm Cell Technology. The main distinctive
characteristic of a membrane cell is the use of a cation exchange
membrane as a separator of the anode and cathode compartments in the
electrochemical reactor.
Table 3.1: Estimated energy use in caustic Soda Manufacture

Estimated Energy use in Manufacture of Caustic Soda/Chlorine Co-Products - 1997
Energy Specific Energy Average Specific Total Industry
(Btu/lb of Cl2) Energy Use
(Btu/lb of Cl2) (10-12 Btu)
Electricity 4353 – 5561 4957 128.8
Fuel Oil and LPG 62 – 112 87 2.3
Natural Gas 1601- 2880 2240 58.3
Coal and Coke 208 – 374 291 7.6
Others 208 – 374 291 7.6
Net Processing 6432 – 9301 7867 204.5
Energy
Electricity Losses 9039 – 11547 10293 267.6
Energy Export 0 0 0.0
Total Process 15471 – 20848 18160 472.2
Energy
Department of Chemical Engineering,S.V.U.C.E ,Tirupati Page 15

fig .3.1 flow sheet

3.1.1 Raw Materials
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is the most important raw material for caustic
soda production. Sodium Chloride can be produced by solar evaporation of
sea water, inland brine, mining rock salt deposits and solution mining. For
our process, we procure industrial grade salt from a supplier. The quantity
required directly depends on the plant capacity. The composition of salt
obtained is summarized below.
Table 3.2: Composition of Salt for Feed Preparation

COMPOSITION OF SALT FOR FEED PREPARATION
Compound Wt. % Kg in 1 Ton Salt Mol. Wt. Kilo Moles
Name
NaCl 84.6 846 58.45 14.474
MgCl2 2.56 25.6 95.22 0.269
CaSO4 1.02 10.2 136 0.075
MgSO4 0.81 8.1 120.37 0.067
Insoluble 11.01 110.1 ----- -----
Total = 1000 kg
Water (H2O) is required to dissolve salt to make brine, which is used in

the electrochemical cell for the production of caustic. Water also plays the
role of Catholyte in the cell. Therefore, the amount of water required for
the process is the sum of water that dissolves the salt and water used in the
electrochemical cell.
Certain reagents viz. BaCO3, Na2CO3 and NaOH (20%) are also
required to treat the crude brine produced by dissolving the raw salt in
water. The quantity of reagents required directly depends on the number of
impurities present in the crude industrial salt.
Table 3.3: Reagents for Brine Purification

REAGENTS FOR BRINE PURIFICATION
S. No. Name kmol Mol. Wt. Kg Required

1. BaCO3 0.142 197.34 28.08
2. Na2CO3 0.075 106 7.95
3. NaOH 0.672 40 26.89
3.1.2Brine Purification
The first step of the process is the production of saturated brine.

Membrane cell requires pure brine for the reaction and thus, we begin by
preparing the feed. The methodology of purifying brine consists of
dissolving all the soluble salt content in water and separating the insoluble
impurities. Next, we go for precipitating and filtering out the soluble
impurities by reacting them with suitable reagents.
Salt and water are added to the saturator (S1) which is heated, so as to
make up for the endothermic dissolution of salt in water. The temperature
is maintained at 250C. The solubilityof salt in water is 0.36gnacl/gwater The
components are mixed thoroughly and with the result in solution with
insoluble impurities is sent into a strainer (STR1). The is a filter that
removes the suspended impurities (insoluble) from the solution.
The resulting brine is free of suspended particles, but still has dissolved
impurities. To remove these impurities, reagents like BaCO3, Na2CO3 and
20% NaOH are used to precipitate them in a reactor (R1). This process is
carried out to remove impurities such as Calcium, Magnesium, metals
along with iron and heavy metals. These impurities can affect the cell
performance. Calcium is removed by precipitating as a carbonate by
adding source of carbonate ion while Magnesium and other metals are
removed by precipitating them as a hydroxide by adding source of
hydroxide. Sulphate ion also can be removed by precipitation, using either
calcium or barium ion. Precipitated impurities are separated via settler
(ST1), and then by filtration (F1). Settled solids (Brine sludge) in the
settler are removed. Treated Brine normally contains few ppm of hardness.

This is undesirable for membrane cell process, and therefore an ion-

exchange membrane is used to reduce hardness to ppb level. This
completes the brine purification step. The purified brine is stored in a
storage tank (SR1), which functions as the direct supplier of brine to the
electro chemical reactor.
The reactions occurring in the brine purification reactor are given below.
SO42- + BaCO3 → BaSO4 + CO32-
Ca++ + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2Na+
Mg++ + 2NaOH → Mg (OH)2 + 2Na+
3.1.3Electrolysis
Brine is fed into the anode compartment, where chlorine gas is generated
and the sodium ion and associated water of hydration migrate through the
membrane into the catholyte at the temperature 80oC to 900C. In the cell,
50% brine takes part in the reaction.
Depleted Brine is discharged from the anolyte to maintain the minimum

NaCl concentration. By controlling the water addition rate directly, to the
catholyte or by recirculation of Sodium hydroxide to Cathode side,
Sodium hydroxide can be concentrated up to 32-35%. If needed, to reach a
concentration of 50% Sodium hydroxide, Sodium hydroxide liquor
Produced has to be concentrated by evaporation (using steam). The
following reactions occur in the cell.
Anode half-cell reaction:
2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Cathode half-cell reaction:

2H2O + 2e- → H2+ 2OH-
Overall cell reaction: NaCl + H2O → NaOH + 1 H2 + 1 Cl2
Table 3.4: Components of Membrane Cel-l

Component Membrane cell
Anode Titanium
Cathode Steel
Membrane Nafion
Cathode product 32%NaOH
Anode Product Cl2
Evaporator product 50% NaOH
Steam consumption 45-550kg
Cell voltage 2.8-3.3
Current density 2-4 kA/m2
3.1.4 Membrane
Membrane is the most important component of the membrane cell
technology system. CurrentEfficiency of Cell, voltage, and energy
consumption are greatly dependent on its quality.
Ideal Membrane should satisfy following factors:
High selectivity for the transport sodium ion.
Negligible transport of chloride hypo chloride and chlorate ions.

Zero back migration of hydroxide ion.
Low electrical resistance.
Good Mechanical properties.
Long term Stability for practical use.
3.1.5 Caustic Concentration

32% NaOH is obtained from the electro Chemical Reactor. Since, 50%
concentrated NaOH is required the double effect falling film evaporator
E1 is used and further cooled down to room temperature in CT1 as a final
product.
Evaporation is done by exchanging the heat in evaporators to evaporate

water using steam. Multi effect evaporators are used for this purpose. The
evaporators are operated co-counter. Heat available in the outlet of final
evaporator can be used to pre-heat the feed stream for firstand second
evaporators. Also vapour from final evaporator can be used for pre-
heating.
Sodium borohydride is commonly added to evaporation system to
reduce corrosion of the equipment and to reduce the nickel content in
the finished product. Cooling of concentrated
Sodium hydroxide from evaporators is done by giving heat to Sodium

hydroxide feeds forevaporators and finally cools down by using
cooling water
3.2 THERMODYNAMIC FEASIBILITY
The change in Gibbs free energy, ΔG is the minimum electrical work that
must be supplied toan electric cell to drive the electrochemical reaction
and is given by
∆G0 = −n FE0
For membrane cell,
E0Cell = E0Anode – E0Cathode = 1.36 - 0.828 = 0.532 Volts
∆G0 = −2 ∗ 96500 ∗ 0.532
∆G0 = -102676 J/mol

∆G0 << 0
The change in free energy is defined as the change in enthalpy as follows
∆G = ∆H − T ∆S
CP = 49.469 + 7.0001 ∗ 10−3 ∗ T − 1.3918 ∗ 10−6 ∗ T2 + 0.095206 ∗ 10−9 ∗ T3
− 0.25693 ∗ 106 ∗ T 2
∆H = ∫298.15 CP dT
∆S = ∫298.15 T dT
Using the above equations, we calculate the change in Gibbs free

energy at T = 90°C,ΔG = -324.68 J/mol
We observe that the Gibbs free energy change for the membrane process is
negative for the opted temperatures (i.e., 900C). Therefore, we conclude
that the process is thermodynamicallyfeasible.

Chapter 4 Mass balance
4 MASS BALANCE
4.1 Overall Balance
Calculations are made on the basis of one hour of operation. Total

capacity of the plant is 10TPD and working 300 days in a year.
MASS IN + MASS GENERATED = MASS OUT + MASS ACCUMILATED
Table 4.1 Start-up Overall Mass Balance
MASS MASS MASS MASS

COMPONENT
IN OUT ACCUMULATED GENERATED
Salt 720.00 - 0.00 0.00
Water 2000.00 - 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen gas 0.00 5.21 0.00 0.00
Chlorine gas 0.00 184.82 0.00 0.00
Caustic Soda 0.00 416.49 0.00 0.00
Vapour 0.00 1080.28 0.00 0.00
Ba2CO3 20.22 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2CO3 5.72 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaOH (20%) 96.77 0.00 0.00 0.00
H20 536.23 0.00 0.00 0.00
Brine Mud 0.00 417.02 0.00 0.00
Sludge 0.00 45.29 0.00 0.00
Insolubles 0.00 79.27 0.00 0.00
Brine 0.00 0.00 1150.56 0.00
Total 3378.94 2228.38 1150.56 0.00
Table 4.2: Normal Operation Overall Mass Balance
MASS MASS MASS MASS

COMPONENT
Department of Chemical Engineering ,S.V.U.C.E,Tirupati Page 23

IN OUT ACCUMULATED GENERATED
Salt 480.00 - 0.00 0.00

Water 1333.33 - 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen gas 0.00 5.21 0.00 0.00
Chlorine gas 0.00 184.82 0.00 0.00
Caustic Soda 0.00 416.49 0.00 0.00
Vapour 0.00 798.28 0.00 0.00
Ba2CO3 13.48 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2CO3 3.82 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaOH (20%) 64.51 0.00 0.00 0.00
H20 536.23 0.00 0.00 0.00
Brine Mud 0.00 278.01 0.00 0.00
Sludge 0.00 30.20 0.00 0.00
Insolubles 0.00 52.85 0.00 0.00
Brine 0.00 0.00 665.52 0.00
Total 2431.38 1765.86 665.52 0.00
4.2Equipment Wise Mass Balance
4.2.1 Saturator and Strainer
Figure 4.1: Saturator & Strainer
In S1, raw salt and water are dissolved to form saturated solution. A hot
water jacket is providedto maintain a constant 25OC temperature, since

dissolution of salt in water is endothermic.
A strainer STR1, follows the saturator to remove insoluble impurities from the solution.
Table 4.3: Start-up and Normal operation mass balance for S &
STR
START UP NORMAL OPERATION
Stream 1 2 3 Stream 1 2 3
Fluid Salt Water Insolubles Fluid Salt Water Insolubles
Component Component
in stream 720.00 2000.00 79.27 in stream 480.00 1333.33 58.25
(Kg/hr) (Kg/hr)
Water in Water in
stream 0.00 2000.00 0.00 stream 0.00 1333.33 0.00
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Equipment Equipment
S1 S1 STR1
Code Code
Mass Input 2720.00 Mass Input 1813.33 1813.33
Mass Output 2720.00 Mass Output 1813.33 1813.33
Mass Mass
0.00 0.00 0.00
Accumulation Accumulation
Mass Balance 0.00 Mass Balance 0.00 0.00
4.2.2Reactor and Settler
Figure 4.2: Reactor & Settler
The saturated brine coming from Brine Saturator is treated by means of

appropriate chemicals to perform primary brine purification in order to
precipitate most of the raw salt contained impurities.
The insoluble compounds formed following the reactions reported above

are removed from brine first by settling. To promote the settling of the
solids, a flocculating agent (Magna floc) is added to the brine.
Table 4.4: Start-up and Normal operation mass

balance for R and ST
Stream 4 5
START-UP Sludge Coagulant
BaCO3 & NaOH
Fluid Sludge
Na2CO3 (20%) Magna floc
Component in stream 20.22 kg , 5.72
19.35 45.29
(Kg/hr) kg 3
---
Water in stream (kg/hr) 0.00 77.41 0
Equipment Code R1 ST1

Mass Input 2763.44 2766.44
Mass Output 2763.44 2721.14
Mass Accumulation 0.00 45.29
Mass Balance 0.00 0.00
NORMAL OPERATION
Stream 4 5 Sludge Coagulant
NaOH
Fluid BaCO3 & Na2CO3 Sludge
(20%) Magna floc
Component in stream
13.48 kg , 3.48 kg 12.9 30.20
(Kg/hr) 2
----
Water in stream (kg/hr) 0.00 51.61 0
-

Mass Input 1842.30 1842.30
Mass Output 1842.30 1812.09

4.2.3 Filter
Figure 4.3: Filter
Brine filters are required to remove the suspended solids overflowing with
the brine from the settler/clarifier. The filter design consists of a multi-
layered sand filtering bed and one upper layer of anthracite coal.
Table 4.5: Start-up and Normal operation mass balance for

Filter START UP
Stream 6 7
Fluid Brine Mud Pure Brine
Component in stream (Kg/hr) 31.61 609.12
Water in stream (kg/hr) 385.41 1692.00
Equipment Code F1
Mass Input 2718.14
Mass Output 2718.14
Mass Accumulation 0.00
Mass Balance 0.00
NORMAL OPERATION
Stream 6 7
Fluid Brine Mud Pure Brine

Component in Stream (Kg/hr) 21.07 406.08
Water in stream (Kg/hr) 256.94 1128.00
Equipment Code F1
Mass Input 1812.09
Mass Output 1812.09
Mass Balance 0.00
4.2.4 Storage
Figure 4.4 Storage

The mass balance for the storage tank for normal operation is 383.52 kg.
This is because ofmass accumulation of 1150.56 kg in the start-up
operation.
When shifted to normal operation, the O/P stream of SR1 contains

1534.08 kg of mass. O/Pstream has the constant demand of 2301.12kg.
This difference is met by the accumulated mass of 1150.56kg. Thus, the
balance 383.52 kg of mass remains in the storage tank.
Since we assume ideal mixing in the saturator and 100% efficiency of

filter, the accumulatedmass of brine has no effect on further operations.
Table 4.6: Start-up and Normal operation mass balance for Storage START UP
Stream I/P Recycle O/P

Pure
Fluid Pure Brine Pure Brine
Brine
Component in stream (Kg/hr) 609.12 304.5 609.12
Water in stream (kg/hr) 1692 845.86 1692.00
Equipment Code SR1
Mass Input 3451.68
Mass Output 2301.12
Mass Balance 0.00
NORMAL OPERATION
Stream I/P Recycle O/P

Pure
Fluid Pure Brine Pure Brine
Brine
406.08
Component in stream (Kg/hr) 208.04 609.12
Water in stream (kg/hr) 1128 577.89 1692.00
Equipment Code SR1
Mass Input 2301.12
Mass Output 2301.12
Mass Balance 383.52
4.2.5 Electro – Reactor

(4)
(5)
(1) (3)
ER1
(6) (2)
Figure 4.5: Electro reactor Reaction:
NaCl + H2 → NaOH + H2 + Cl2
Brine decomposition = 50%
Table 4.7: Mass balance for Electro reactor

-
Stream (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Pure Brine Water NaOH Cl2 H2 Recycle
Fluid (32%) brine
609.12 536.23 208.25 184.82 5.21 304.56
Component in stream
(Kg/hr)
Water in stream (kg/hr) 1692.00 536.23 442.52 0.00 0.00 1692.00
Equipment Code ER1
Mass Input 2837.35
Mass Output 2837.35
Mass Balance 0.00
4.2.6 Evaporator and Cooling Tower

Figure 4.6 Evaporator &

Cooling Tower
Table 4.8: Mass Balance for Evaporator & Cooling Tower
Stream 10 11 12 13 14
NaOH Steam NaOH Water Vapour

Fluid (32%) (50%)
Component in stream 208.25 129.20 208.25 234.28
1589.25
(Kg/hr)
Water in stream (kg/hr) 442.52 0.00 208.25 1589.25 0.00
Equipment Code E1 CT1
Mass Input 779.97 2005.74
Mass Output 779.97 2005.74
In E1, the 32% caustic soda is concentrated to 50% caustic soda.

In CT1, the temperature of 50% caustic soda is reduced from 100OC to 25O

Chapter 5 Energy Balance
5 ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 Saturator and Strainer
Figure 5.1: Saturator & Strainer
Table 5.1: Energy Balance for

Saturator & StrainerSTART UP
- S1 STR1
Energy Input (kJ) 972836.48 222202.01
Energy Output (kJ) 222202.01 222202.01
Energy generated (kJ) -750634.47 0.00
Energy Balance (kJ) 0.00 0.00
NORMAL OPERATION
Equipment Code S1 STR1

Energy Input (kJ) 741253.33 154437.07
Energy Output (kJ) 154437.07 154437.07
Energy generated (kJ) -586816.27 0.00
Heat input=msalt*50.16*(25-0)+mwater*4.18*(25-0)
Heat output=mbrine*3.4067*(25-0)
Heat utilized in dissolution=heat input-heat output

5.2 Reactor and Settler
Figure 5.2: Reactor & Settler
Table 5.2: Energy Balance for Reactor & Settler
START UP
- R1 ST1
Energy Input (kJ) 222202.01 222271.03
Energy Output (kJ) 222271.03 222271.03
Energy generated (kJ) 69.0193 0.00
NORMAL OPERATION
Energy Input (kJ) 154437.07 154483.08
Energy Output (kJ) 154483.08 154483.08
Energy generated (kJ) 46.012867 0.00

MgCl2 + 2NaOH Mg(OH)2 + 2NaCl
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
MgSO4 + BaCO3 MgCO3 + BaSO4
ΔHreaction = ΔHProducts – ΔHreactant
 ΔHreaction = ((nMg(OH)2 x 77.03 + nNaCl x 50 + nCaCo3 x 83.43

+ nNa2SO4 x 128.2nBaSO4 x 101.8 + nMgCO3 x 75.6) – (nMgCl2 x
71.09 + nNaOH x 59.52
+ nCaSO4 x 99.7 + nNa2CO3 x 112.3 + nMgSO4 x 96.204 + nBaCO3 x 85.35)) x
25
Energy balance for exothermic reaction: Heat i/p + Heat generated = Heat o/p
5.3 Electro-reactor
(4)
(5)
(1) (3)
ER1
(6) (2)
Figure 5.3: Electro reactor
Table 5.3: Energy Balance for Electro Reactor

Equipment Code ER1
Energy Input (kJ) 591930.50
Energy Output (kJ) 591708.33

Energy generated (kJ) 222.17
Energy Balance (kJ) 0.00
Heat i/p = Heat o/p + Heat generated
Heat i/p = Energy o/p from settler + mbrine *4.48 * 25 + mWater *4.18 *50
Heat o/p=mH2*80*14.43+mCl2*0.48*80+((mBrine/2)+15)*3.247*80
The temperature of the output streams from the reactor is 800C
Caustic soda at 32wt% is produced.
5.4 Evaporator and Cooling Tower
Figure 5.4: Evaporator and cooling tower
Table 5.4: Energy Balance for Evaporator & Cooling Tower
Equipment Code E1 CT1
Energy Input 508765.8 199291.7

(kJ)
Energy Output 508765.8 199291.7
(kJ)

Energy generated 0.00 0.00
(kJ)
Heat transfer equipment => Energy input = Energy output

Overall energy balance for evaporator:
Fhf+S λS=V1hv1 +V2hv2 +P2h2
No heat is generated in these two equipment .Since they are heat transfer equipment.
Assuming no heat losses. The above balance holds true.
For evaporator:
Energy input=mNaOH 32%*3.594*80+msteam* λS at 1200C
For cooling tower
Energy input=mNaoh50%*3.19*25+mNaoh50%*((3.19*75)/(15*4.18))*4.18*25

Chapter 6 Cost estimation and economics
6 COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS
6.1 Fixed cost

Table 6.1: Land & Building Cost
Total Cost Depreciation
No. Item Cost (Rs.)
(Rs.) % Rs.
1 Land 1000x1000 50,00,000 ---- ---- 50,00,000
2 Factory buildings 90,00,000 4,50,000 5 90,00,000
3 Office buildings 35,00,000 1,50,000 5 35,00,000
4 Laboratory
equipment 4,00,000 40,000 10 4,00,000
5 Safety and
mechanical
appliances 4,00,000 10,000 10 4,00,000
6 Roads fencing etc 75,000 3,750 5 75,000
TOTAL 1,83,75,000 60,35,000
Table 6.2: Equipment Cost

Depreciation
No. Item Cost (Rs.) Qty Total Cost % Rs
(Rs.) .
1 Saturator 50,000 1 50,0000 5 2500
2 Strainer 20,000 1 20,000 10 2000
3 Reactor 1,00,000 1 1,00,000 10 10,000
4 Clarifier 50,000 1 50,000 5 2500
5 Filter 20,000 1 20,000 10 2000
6 Storage Tank 10,000 , 1,3 6,10,000 5 30,500
2,0,0000
7 Heat exchanger 40,000 5 2,00,000 10 20,000
8 Electro Reactor 45,00,000 1 45,00,000 10 4,50,000
Department of Chemical Engineering , S.V.U.C.E ,Tirupati Page 37

9 Evaporator 3,00,000 2 6,00,000 10 60,000
10 Cooling Tower 1,60,000 2 3,20,000 5 16,000
11 Compressor 30,000 1 30,000 5 1,500
12 Drier 30,000 1 30,000 10 3,000
13 Scrubber 70,000 1 70,000 5 3,500
Rs. 70,50,000 Rs. 6,03,500
Total
Table 6.3: Auxiliary Units Cost

Depreciation
No. Item Cost (Rs.) Qty Total Cost
% Rs.
(Rs.)
1 Boiler 7,00,000 1 70,000 1 Boiler
Plant
2 Plant 2,00,000 1 10,000 2
electrification
electrification
Water
Water
3 2,00,000 1 10,000 3 treatment
treatment
plant
plant
Refrigeration
4 Refrigeration 3,00,000 1 15,000 3
plant
plant
Total Rs. Rs. 1,50,000
14,00,000
6.2 Manufacturing Cost
Table 6.4 Prime Cost (300 Working Days)

No. Item Requirement Cost/Unit Total Cost (Rs.)
1 Electricity 954x105kWh 3.75/KWh 35,77,50,000
2 Steam 1140 ton 2000/ton 2,28,000
3 Water 11.7x105ton 0.5/ton 5,85,000
4 NaCl 34.56 ton 500/ton 17,280
5 Graphite 2,38,000 lb 10/lb 23,80,000
6 Fuel 1356 ton 400/ton 5,42,400

TOTAL 3752680
Category Numbe Salary Tota

r l
General manager 1 20,000 240000
Senior engineer 2 10,000 240000
Senior officer 2 10,000 240000
superintending 3 8,500 306000
engineer
Shift engineer 10 5,000 600000
Operator 20 3,000 720000
Skilled labour 30 2,000 720000
Labour 20 1,500 360000
R&D 1 3,000 36000
Chemists 6 2,000 144000
Medical Staff 2 2,500 60000
15 1,500 270000
Mantainance staff
3936000
Provident fund and insurance at 787200
20%
TOTAL 47,23,200
6.3 Production Cost

Table 6.5: Production cost
Depreciation on fixed capital 41,86,000
Overhead expenses 4,96,15,410
Working capital 40,97,61,600
46,35,63,010
By product sales at Rs. 2per kg of chlorine and hydrogen =18,32,13,010
Net production cost=28,03,05,000
Yearly product:

Hence the cost per kg = Rs.12.46
The cost after rounds off=Rs.125/kg
Selling price:
Production cost per kg=12.50
Net profit at 20% production cost=2.50
Taxes at 30% net gross profit=0.75
Total=15.75
Keeping selling price=Rs. 15.75
Annual returns:
Net profit after taxes =2,50,00,000
Annual return on fixed capital=net profit/fixed capital=5,23,05,000/2,50,00,000=2.1 years
The commissioning of plant will take one year and the cost are forecasted for the next year. The
selling price will be comparable with the market price and so we can go ahead with the erecting ofthe
plant.

Chapter 7 Plant layout
7 PLANT LAYOUT
Plant layout is the most effective physical arrangement, either existing or in
plans of industrial facilities i.e., arrangement of machines, processing
equipment and service departments to achieve greatest co-ordination and
efficiency of 4 M’s (Men, Materials, Machines and Methods) in a plant.
Need of plant layout: [35]
• There are design changes in the product.
• There is an expansion of the enterprise.
• There is proposed variation in the size of the departments.
• Some new product is to be added to the existing line.
• Some new department is to be added to enterprise and there is

reallocation of theexisting department.
• A new plant is to be set up.
When plant layout is done, the following reasons are minimized:
(1) Damage to persons and property in case of a tire or explosion
(2) Maintenance costs
(3) The number of people required to operate the plant
(4) Other operating costs
(5) Construction costs
(6) The cost of the planned future revision or expansion
All of these goals cannot be met. For example, to reduce potential losses in
case of fire, the plant should be spread out, but this would also result in
higher pumping costs, and might increase manpower needs. The engineer
must decide within the guidelines set by his company which of the
aforementioned items are most important. [14]
The first thing that should be done is to determine the direction of the
Department of Chemical Engineering, S.V.U.C.E Page 41

prevailing wind. Wind direction will determine the general location of
many things. All equipment that may spill flammable materials should be
located on the downwind side. Then if a spill occurs the
prevailing winds are not apt to carry any vapours over the plant, where
they could be ignited by an open flame or a hot surface.
For a similar reason the powerhouse, boilers, water pumping, and air
supply facilities should be located 250 ft. (75 m) from the rest of the plant,
and on the upwind side. This is to minimize the possibility that these
facilities will be damaged in case of a major spill.
Every precaution should be taken to prevent the disruption of utilities,

since this could mean the failure of pumps, agitators, and instrumentation.
For this reason, it may also be wise to separate the boilers and furnaces
from the other utilities. Then, should the fired equipment explode, the
other utilities will not be damaged. Other facilities that are generally
placed upwind of operating units are plant offices, mechanical shops, and
central laboratories. All of these involve a number of people who need to
be protected. Also shops and laboratories frequently produce sparks and
flames that would ignite flammable gases. [36]
Items that should be located upwind of the plant
• Plant offices
• Central laboratories
• Mechanical and other shops
• Office building
• Cafeteria
• Storehouse
• Medical building
• Change house
• Fire station
• Boiler house
• Electrical powerhouse
• Electrical Substation
• Water treatment plant
• Cooling tower
• Air compressors
• Parking lot
• Main water pumps
• Warehouses that contain non-hazardous, non-explosive, and non-flammable

materials
• Fired heaters
• All ignition sources
Items that should be located downwind of the plant
• Equipment that may spill inflammable materials
• Blow down tanks
• Burning flares
• Settling ponds
• Storage Facilities
Tank farms and warehouses that contain non-hazardous, non-

flammable, and nonexplosivematerials should be located upwind of the
plant. Those that do not fit this category should not be located
downwind of the plant, where they could be damaged and possibly
destroyed by a major spill in the processing area. Nor should they be
located upwind of the plant where, if they spilled some of their
contents, the processing area might be damaged. They should be
located at least 250 ft. (75m) to the side of any processing area.
Sometimes storage tanks are located on a hill, in order to allow the

gravity feeding of tank cars. Care must be taken under these
circumstances to see that any slop over cannot flow into the
processing, utilities, or service areas in case of a tank fire.
• Spacing of Items
The OSHA has standards for hazardous materials that give the
minimum distances between containers and the distance between these
items and the property line, public roads, and buildings. These depend
on the characteristics of the material, the type and size of the
container, whether the tank is above ground or buried, and what type
of protection is provided. They also prohibit the storage and location
of vessels containing flammable and combustible materials inside
buildings, unless special precautions are taken.
• Processing Area
There are two ways of laying out a processing area. The grouped
layout places all similar pieces of equipment adjacent. This provides
for ease of operation and switching from one unit to another. For
instance, if there are 10 batch reactors, these would all be placed in the
same general area, and could be watched by a minimum of operators;
if they were spread out over a wide area, more operators might be
needed. This type of scheme is best for large plants. The flow line
layout uses the train or line system, which locates all the equipment in
the order in which it occurs on the flow sheet. This minimizes the
length of transfer lines and, therefore, reduces the energy needed to
transport materials.
• Elevation
If there is no special reason for elevating equipment, it should be

placed on the ground level. The superstructure to support an elevated
piece of equipment is expensive. It can also be a hazard should there
be an earthquake, fire, or explosion. Then it might collapse and destroy
the equipment it is supporting as well as that nearby. Some pieces of

equipment will be elevated to simplify the plant operations. An
example of this is the gravity feed of reactors from elevated tanks. This
eliminates the need for some materials-handling equipment. Other
pieces may have to be elevated to enable the system to operate. A
steam jet ejector with an inter condenser that is used to produce a
vacuum must be located above a 34 ft (10 m) barometric leg.
Condensate receivers and holding tanks frequently must be located
high enough to provide an adequate net positive suction head (NPSH)
for the pumpbelow. For many pumps an NPSH of at least 14 ft. (4.2 m)
H2O is desirable. An elevation plan should be drawn to scale showing
the vertical relationships of all elevated equipment.
• Maintenance
Maintenance costs are very large in the chemical industry. In some

cases, the cost of maintenance exceeds the company’s profit.
• Construction and Building
Proper placing of equipment can result in large savings during the

construction of the plant. For instance, large columns that are field-
erected should be located at one end of thesite so that they can be built,
welded, and tested without interfering with the construction of the rest
of the plant.
• Buildings
Included with the layout of the plant is the decision as to what types of
buildings are to be constructed, and the size of each. When laying out
buildings, a standard size bay (area in which there is no structural
supports) is 20 ft. x 20 ft. (6m x 6m). Under normal conditions a 20 ft
(6 m) span does not need any centre supports. The extension of the bay
in one direction can be done inexpensively. This only increases the
amount of steel in the long girders, and requires stronger supports.
Lavatories, change rooms, cafeterias, and medical facilities are all
located inside buildings. The minimum size of these facilities is

dictated by OSHA. It depends on the number of men employed.
Research laboratories and office buildings are usually not included in
the preliminary cost estimate. However, if they are contemplated their
location should be indicated on the plot plan.
• Processing Buildings
Quality control laboratories are a necessary part of any plant, and must
be included in all cost estimates. Adequate space must be provided in
them for performing all tests, and for cleaning and storing laboratory
sampling and testing containers. The processing units of largest
chemical plants today are not located inside buildings. The only
equipment enclosed in buildings is that which must be protected from
the weather, or batch equipment that requires constant attention from
operators. Much of the batch equipment used today does not fit this
category. It is highly automated and does not need to be enclosed.
When buildings are used, the ceilings generally vary from 14 to 20 ft
(4 to 6 m). Space must be allowed above process vessels for piping
and for access to valves. One rule of thumb is to make the floor to-
floor heights 8- 10 ft. (approximately 3m) higher than the sides of a
dished-head vertical tank. Packaging equipment generally must be in an
enclosed building, and is often located at one end of the warehouse. If
the material being packaged is hazardous, either this operation will be
performed in a separate building, or a firewall will separate it from any
processing or storage areas.
• Warehouse
The engineer must decide whether warehouses should be at ground

level or at dock level. The latter facilitates loading trains and trucks,
but costs 1520% more than one placed on the ground. It is usually
difficult to justify the added expense of a dock-high warehouse. To
size the amount of space needed for a warehouse, it must be
determined how much is to be stored in what size containers. The
container sizes that will be used are obtained from the scope. Liquids
are generally stored in bulk containers. No more than a week’s supply

of liquid stored in drums should be planned. Solids, on the other hand,
are frequently storedin smaller containers or in a pile on the ground.
Control Rooms
The control centre(s) and the electrical switching room are always
located in an enclosed building. It is important that both of these
services be maintained so that the plant can be shut down in an orderly
manner in the case of an emergency. Therefore, these buildings must
be built so that should an external explosion occur, the room will not
collapse and destroy the control centre and switching centre. To avoid
this, either the structure must have 3-4 ft. (l-l.2 m) thick walls, or the
roof must be supported independently of the walls.

REFERENCES
[1] M. Gopala Rao, M. S. Chemical Technology.
[2] T Budiartoa, E. E. (2016). Dynamic Model of Chloralkali Membrane

Process.
[3] Thomas F. O'Brien, T. V. (1934). Handbook of Chlor-Alkali

Technology Volume I:Fundamentals. Springer.
[4] Bergner, D. (1982). Membrane cells for chlor-alkali electrolysis.

Journal of AppliedElectrochemistry.
[5] Chatterjee, S. N. (n.d.). Design And Development of

Electrochemical Chlor-AlkaliCells. Calcutta: Springer.
[6] Dittman, G. L. (1977). Calculation Of Brine Properties.

Lawrence LivermoreLaboratory.
[7] Gaurav Oathak, D. A. (2016). Utilization of brine sludge in non-traffic paver

blocks.
International Journal for Scientific Research & Development.
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MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA

A Project Report submitted in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of

CHADUVULA VISHNU VARDHAN (11701012)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the dissertation thesis entitled

GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Ch. Vishnu Vardhan (11701012)

D. Venkata Sai Karthik Reddy (11701016)

We express our deep sense of gratitude to our institution, “Sri

It is our privilege to express sincere gratitude to Dr. B. Sarath Babu our

We are also thankful to Mr. C. Bharadwaj Kumar Co-guide, Faculty,

It is pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to the

Most of all, We would like to thank the Almighty, my ever-loving parents,

Ch. Vishnu Vardhan (11701012)

Chlor-alkali market in India has witnessed healthy growth in recent years,

processing among others. According to AMAI (Alkali Manufacturers

Association of India), the Installed capacity of caustic soda plants as on 31

may contain a variety of compounds, typically magnesium, calcium, iron, and

thesis aims at study of manufacturing Caustic Soda economically and

efficiently in India. Although, Caustic Soda is the most common compound,

design of a 10 TPD caustic soda plant.

Na+ and hydroxide anions OH-.

It is produced by electrolysis of brine with chlorine as the by product. The production

Department of Chemical Engineering, S.V.U.C.E., Tirupati Page 1

1.1 Physical Properties

1.2 Chemical Properties

NaOH(s)+H2O(l)→NaOH(a) ∆𝐻=−44.2 kj/mol

Reaction with acids

NaOH(aq) +HCl(aq) →NaCl(aq) +H2O(l) ∆𝐻=−55.9kj/mol

Department of Chemical Engineering, S.V.U.C.E., Tirupati Page 2

Reactions with Acidic Oxides

2NaOH + SiO2  Na2SiO3 + H2O

Department of Chemical Engineering, S.V.U.C.E., Tirupati Page 3

Industries making use of NaOH:

Department of Chemical Engineering, S.V.U.C.E., Tirupati Page 4

2.1 Manufacturing of Caustic Soda

i. Diaphragm cell process

ii. Mercury Cell process

iii. Membrane cell process

A chlor-alkali process implies the electrolysis of common salt or sodium

2NaCl + 2H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2NaOH

Department of Chemical Engineering ,S.V.U.C.E ,Tirupati Page 5

Figure 2.2: Mercury Cell

Figure 2.3: Membrane Cell

2.1.1 Diaphragm Cell Process

In this process, there two compartments separated by a permeable

Department of Chemical Engineering ,S.V.U.C.E ,Tirupati Page 6

The diaphragm is made up of porous mixture of asbestos and polyester.

2Cl-(aq) - 2e- →Cl2(g)

The Chlorine is contaminated with small amounts of Oxygen

A dilute solution of sodium hydroxide solution is also produced at the

The Sodium hydroxide solution leaving the cell is concentrated by

Department of Chemical Engineering ,S.V.U.C.E ,Tirupati Page 7

Figure 2.4.: Diaphragm Cell Process Flow

2.1.2 Mercury Cell Process