Unit 3 - Solar Energy and Wind Energy

UNIT III
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar Constants
• Diameter of the sun: 1.9*10^6 km
• Mean distance between earth and sun: 1.5*10^8 km
• The rate at which the solar energy arise at the top of the atmosphere is called
solar constant (Isc).
Definition: Solar Constant is the amount of energy received in unit time on a
unit area perpendicular to the sun direction at the mean distance of the earth
from the sun.
Units: as per National Aeronautics Space Administration Standard Value-
1.35kW/hr.
116.5 Langlays.
429.2 BTU
SOLAR RADIATION
While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is

relatively constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface varies
widely due to:
• Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
• Local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour,
clouds, and pollution
• Latitude of the location and
• The season of the year and the time of day.
The amount of energy reaching the surface of the Earth every hour
is greater than the amount of energy used by the Earth's
population over an entire year.
BEAM AND DIFFUSED SOLAR RADIATION
• Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun

without having been scattered by the atmosphere.
• Diffuse radiation is that received from the Sun after its direction
has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.
Solar Collectors
The device with which solar energy incident on a given area is
gathered used to heat the flowing fluid.
Types of Solar Collectors
1. Focussing type / Mirror type
2. Non-Focussing / Flat plate type
In both the types, cold fluid enters the collectors and get heated
due to solar energy to a sufficiently high temperature.
Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors

1. Mirror strip collector
2. Frensel lens collector
3. Parabloid collectors
Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

1. Honeycomb collectors
2. Double exposure flat plate collectors
3. Thermal trap collectors
4. Packed bed collectors

• Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct radiation over
a large area and focus it onto a small absorber area.
• The collectors can provide high temperatures more efficiently than
flat-plate collectors, since the absorption surface area is much
smaller. However, diffused sky radiation cannot be focused onto the
absorber.
• Most concentrating collectors require mechanical equipment that
constantly orients the collectors toward the sun and keeps the
absorber at the point of focus.
Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors – Working System

• Unlike solar (photovoltaic) cells, which use light to produce electricity,
concentrating solar power systems generate electricity with heat.
• Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors and lenses to concentrate and
focus sunlight onto a thermal receiver, similar to a boiler tube.
• The receiver absorbs and converts sunlight into heat. The heat is then
transported to a steam generator or engine where it is converted into
electricity.
• There are three main types of concentrating solar power systems: parabolic
troughs, dish/engine systems, and central receiver systems.

1. Mirror strip collector
A series of mirror strips are arranged in curvature, so that the
reflection of all the mirrors are focussed at a point and the energy
is collected and transferred to the working fluid.

1. Frensel lens collector
• A special lens called frensel lens is used to collect and transfer
the energy.
• The Fresnel Collector is a linear concentrating solar thermal
collector optimized for industrial applications. It can provide
heat at up to 400°C and operate with pressures of up to 120
bars. Besides being operated with water, thermal oil or high-
temperature glycol, it can also generate steam directly.
Frensel lens collector


1. Parabloid collector
• A special lens called frensel lens is used to collect and transfer
the energy.
• A parabolic dish collector is a concentrating solar collector that
is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has mirror-
like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point.
Parabloid collector
Sun rays
Receiver
Parabola
Two-axes
tracking
mechanism
Parabloid collector


1. Honeycomb Collector
• Flat-plate solar thermal systems use a flat solar collection
surface to capture sunlight, which is used to heat fluid that is
then directed into a storage tank.
• Honeycomb models place transparent insulation in the shape of
a honeycomb above the energy-collecting surface, which allows
solar radiation to pass through to the collection surface while
suppressing convection to minimize heat loss.

1. Honeycomb Collector

2. Double exposure flat plate Collector
• A flat-plate collector has been designed to absorb heat from the
back, as well as the front, the usual insulation being omitted
from the back. The peak energy collection has been increased by
48 percent, as compared with a conventional flat-plate collector.
• To enable absorption from the lower absorber surface, it is
necessary for the insulation mounted in the lower part of the
collector box to be removed and the lower box surface replaced
by glass cover.

3. Thermal Trap Collector
• A thermal trap collector consists of one or many slabs of
semitransparent material of finite thickness with air-gaps in
between, and an ideal withdrawal mechanism at the base of the
trapping system to withdraw all available energy.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY
• Solar Water Heating

• Solar Electric Power Generation
• Solar Heating of Buildings [Space Heating]
• Solar-distillation
• Solar-pumping
• Solar Drying
• Solar Furnaces
• Solar Cooking
• Solar Water Heating

Solar Water Heating

• The system is generally installed on the roof or open ground,
with the collector facing the sun and connected to a continuous
water supply.
• Water flows through the tubes, absorbs solar heat and becomes
hot.
• The heated water is stored in a tank for further use.
• The water stored in the tank remains hot overnight as the
storage tank is insulated and heat losses are small.
• Solar Electric Power Generation [Tower Concept]

Solar Electric Power Generation [Tower Concept]

• A solar power tower system uses a large field of flat, sun-tracking
mirrors called heliostats to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver on the top of a tower.
• Sunlight can be concentrated as much as 1,500 times. Some power
towers use water as the heat-transfer fluid.
• Advanced designs are experimenting with molten nitrate salt because
of its superior heat transfer and energy storage capabilities.
• The thermal energy-storage capability allows the system to produce
electricity during cloudy weather or at night.
Solar Heating of Buildings [Space Heating]

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION
PYRANOMETER
PYRANOMETER
• A pyranometer is a sensor that converts the global solar radiation it receives
into an electrical signal that can be measured. Pyranometers measure a
portion of the solar spectrum.
• The shape of the dome, and the refractive index of the material, improves the
response of the sensor when the sun is close to the horizon, ‘bending’ the
incoming radiation beam. The highest specification pyranometer available
uses Quartz domes for a wider spectral response.
• The higher refractive index further improves the directional response and
better thermal conductivity than glass provides other performance benefits.
SUNSHINE RECORDER
SUNSHINE RECORDER
• A sunshine recorder is a meteorological instrument used for recording
the amount of sunlight that a particular location receives throughout
a day. Inside the recorder's adjustable frame are two important pieces: a
paper strip, and a glass sphere that can focus the sunlight strongly enough to
singe the paper.
• If the sky is clear, the paper is slowly burned as the sun moves across the sky.
If there are clouds, the focused light will not be strong enough to burn the
paper. It can be difficult to interpret the output of a sunshine recorder - rain
can interfere with the paper's burning, and cloud cover is not an all-or-
nothing affair. Furthermore, the paper strip must be manually changed every
day.
PYRHELIOMETER
A pyrheliometer is a device that measures solar irradiance
coming directly from the sun. The SI units of irradiance are watts
per square metre (W/m²).
ANGSTROM PYRHELIOMETER
• A pyranometer is operated based on the measurement of the
temperature difference between a clear surface and a dark surface.
• The black coating on the thermopile sensor absorbs the solar
radiation, while the clear surface reflects it, and hence less heat is
absorbed. A pyrheliometer is used to measure direct solar radiation
from the sun and its marginal periphery.
• Angstrom’s pyrheliometer consists of two identical strips S1 and S2 of
area A. One junction of a thermocouple is connected to S1 and the
other junction is connected to S2.
• A sensitive galvanometer is connected to the thermocouple. Strip S2 is
connected to an external electrical circuit
• When both the strips S1 and S2 are shielded from the solar
radiation, the galvanometer shows no deflection as both the
junctions are at the same temperature.
• Now strip S1 is exposed to the solar radiation and S2 is shielded
with a cover M. As strip Si receives heat radiations from the sun,
its temperature rises and hence the galvanometer shows
deflection.
• Now current is allowed to pass through the strip S2 and it is
adjusted so that the galvanometer shows no deflection. Now, the
strips S1 and S2 are again at the same temperature.
ABOTT SILVER DISC PYRHELIOMETER

• An instrument that uses a blackened silver-disc reflector with a
shutter to create temperature fluctuations that are proportional
to the intensity of the solar radiation incident upon it. Using the
reading obtained from the instrument's thermometer, the
varying flux of incident solar radiation can be determined by
alternately exposing and shuttering the disc at set intervals.
ABOTT SILVER DISC PYRHELIOMETER

Advantages
The advantages of the Pyrheliometer include the following.
•Very low power consumption
•Operates from a wide range of voltage supplies
•Ruggedness
•Stability
Pyrheliometer Applications
The applications of this instrument include the following.
•Scientific meteorological
•Observations of Climate
•Testing research of Material
•Estimation of the solar collector’s efficiency
•PV devices
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
• Wind is the stabilization movement of air between areas of high and low
atmospheric pressure, created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surfaces:
land, water, and air.
• The greater the pressure difference between these areas, the harder the wind
blows. Wind also exists as the circulation of air around a high or low pressure
area.
• Wind energy is the converting of wind power to electrical power through the
use of windmills or turbines. electricity produced is sent to transformers
where voltage is increased and sent to the power grid via transmission lines.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
• All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power),
ultimately comes from the sun.
• The earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (per hour) from
the sun About one or 2 percent of this energy is converted to
wind energy which is about times more than the energy
converted to biomass by all plants on earth Differential heating
of the earth’s surface and atmosphere induces vertical and
horizontal air currents that are affected by the earth’s rotation
and contours of the land. ~ e.g.: Land Sea Breeze Cycle
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
• The power in wind is proportional to the cubic wind speed (v^3)
due to
• Kinetic energy of an air mass is proportional to v^2
• Amount of air mass moving past a given point is proportional to
wind velocity (v)
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION
1. The Nature of Wind
• The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform
heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. The air immediately above a
warm area expands, it is forced upward by cool, denser air which
flows in from surrounding areas causing wind.
• The nature of the terrain, the degree of cloud and the angle of the sun
in the sky are all factors which influences this process.
• In general, during the day the air above the land mass tends to heat up
more rapidly than the air over water. In coastal regions this manifests
itself in a strong onshore wind.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
• At night the process is reversed because the air cools down
more rapidly over the land and the breeze therefore blows off
shore.
• Despite the wind’s intermittent nature, wind patterns at any
particular site remain remarkably constant year by year.
• Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and costal area than
they are well inland.
• The winds also tend to blow more consistently and with greater
strength over the surface of the water where there is a less
surface drag.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
2. The Power in Wind
• Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of
slowing down the mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can
extract part of the energy and convert is into useful work.
• There are three factors determine the output power generated from
the wind mill, they are
• (1) The wind speed
• (2) The cross section of wind swept by rotor, and
• (3) The overall conversion efficiency of rotor, transmission system
and generator or pump.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
3. Forces On The Blades And Thrust On Turbines
As discussed earlier, here blades of propeller-type wind turbine is
considered there are two types of forces which are acting on the
blades. They are
(1) Circumferential force acting in the direction of wheel rotation
that provides the torque, and
(2) Axial force acting in the wind stream that provides an axial
thrust that must be countered by proper mechanical design.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
BASIC COMPONENTS OF WECS
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence
wind energy conversion machines should be located preferable in areas
where the winds are strong and persistent.
Some of the main site selection consideration are given below:
 High annual average wind speed
 Availability of anemometry data
 Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site
 Wind structure at the proposed site
 Altitude of the proposed site
 Terrain and its aerodynamic
 Local Ecology
 Distance to road or railways
 Nearness of site to local centre/users
 Nature of ground
 Favourable land cost
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
1. High annual average wind speed

• The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values
of velocity of wind, the small increases in velocity markedly
affect the power in the wind. For example, Doubling the velocity,
increases power by a factor of 8.
• It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS with high wind
velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle
fundamental parameter of concern in initially appraising WESCS
site.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
2. Availability of anemometry data:

• The aenometry data should be available over some time period at the
precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that this
should be accomplished before a sitting decision is made.
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site
• The curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is
the principal initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical
output and hence revenue return of the WECS machines.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
• The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t) Curve
was flat, i.e., a smooth steady wind that blows all the time; but a
typical site is always less than ideal.
5. Altitude of the proposed site
• It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the
useful WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the wind
tend to have higher velocities at higher altitudes.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
• It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the
prevailing wind into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind
power.
7. Local Ecology
• If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower
structure cost. If trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which
tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub heights will be needed
resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
8. Distance to road or railways
• This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy
machinery, structure, materials, blades and other apparatus will have
to be moved into any chosen WECS site.
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users
• This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence
losses and cost.
• After applying all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one
narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two they would be
relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
10. Nature of ground
• Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are
secured.
• Ground surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there,
as it could possibly later wash out the foundation of a WECS,
destroying the whole system.
11. Favourable land cost
• Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs,
enters into the total WECS system cost.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
ADVANTAGES
 Wind energy has low operating costs
• As far as upfront costs go, wind farms or individual turbines can be expensive
to install. However, once up and running, operating costs are relatively low;
their fuel (wind) is free, and the turbines don’t require too much maintenance
over the course of their lifetime.
 Wind energy is space-efficient
• Cumulatively, wind farms can take up a lot of land space; however, the actual
turbines and equipment don’t use up a lot of real-estate. This means that land
used for wind turbines can often also be used for other purposes, such as
farming.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
ADVANTAGES
 Wind energy is clean and renewable
• Unlike coal, natural gas, or oil, generating electricity from wind doesn’t result in
greenhouse gas emissions. While there are some environmental considerations that
come with building large wind farms, once operational, wind turbines themselves
don’t require burning any fossil fuels to operate.
• Additionally, wind energy is completely renewable and will never run out. In
opposition to traditional fossil fuels resources that replenish very slowly, wind
naturally occurs in our atmosphere, and we don’t have to worry about supply issues in
the future.
 Wind energy is a job creator
• In terms of job creation, the wind energy sector is the fastest growing in the United
States. Currently there are more than 100,000 workers in the field with the potential
to support more than 600,000 in coming years.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
DISADVANTAGES
 Wind energy is clean and renewable
• Unlike coal, natural gas, or oil, generating electricity from wind doesn’t result in
greenhouse gas emissions. While there are some environmental considerations that
come with building large wind farms, once operational, wind turbines themselves
don’t require burning any fossil fuels to operate.
• Additionally, wind energy is completely renewable and will never run out. In
opposition to traditional fossil fuels resources that replenish very slowly, wind
naturally occurs in our atmosphere, and we don’t have to worry about supply issues in
the future.
 Wind energy is a job creator
• In terms of job creation, the wind energy sector is the fastest growing in the United
States. Currently there are more than 100,000 workers in the field with the potential
to support more than 600,000 in coming years.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
ADVANTAGES
• Wind is a reliable and infinite renewable energy resource.
• Wind energy is cost effective, and prices are dropping still.
• Wind energy reduces carbon emissions when used instead of
fossil fuels.
• Few running costs when the turbines are up and running.
• Offshore wind farms can take advantage of offshore wind flow,
without affecting the landscape view.
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
DISADVANTAGES
• Wind energy can be unpredictable as the amount of electricity
generated is dependent on the speed and direction of the wind.
• Wind farms can affect the visual appearance of the landscape.
• Wind turbines can damage the habitats of birds and marine
life.
• Wind farms can be expensive to construct
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
WIND ENERGY COLLECTORS
UNIT III
WIND ENERGY
WIND ENERGY COLLECTORS
1. Horizontal axis type
2. Vertical axis type

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UNIT III

While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is

• Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun

Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors

Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors

Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors – Working System

Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors

Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors

Frensel lens collector

Focussing type / Mirror type Collectors

Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

Non-Focussing / Flat plate type

• Solar Water Heating

• Solar Water Heating

Solar Water Heating

• Solar Electric Power Generation [Tower Concept]

Solar Electric Power Generation [Tower Concept]

Solar Heating of Buildings [Space Heating]

ABOTT SILVER DISC PYRHELIOMETER

ABOTT SILVER DISC PYRHELIOMETER

1. High annual average wind speed

2. Availability of anemometry data:

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