POPULAR PUBLICATIONS WATER DEMAND Choice Multi no The ratio of maximum daily demand to average daily demand of water in a ‘community i is [WBUT 2013, 2018] 18 b) 1.2 c) 1.48 d)2.7 Answer: (a) - Per capita demand is \a) total yearly water requirement (litres) / 365 x population b) total yearly water requirement (litres) / population ¢) total yearly water requirement (litres) / design population d) total yearly water requirement (litres) / 365 x design population Answer: (a) \& The suitable method for forecasting population for a young and rapidly increasing city is [WBUT 2013, 2015] / IWBUT 2013) a) arithmetic increment method 50000 31623 4 |Development Manual Formula 6. What are the different Factors affecting per capita demand of water? [MODEL QUESTION] EVEN-5POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Answer: : i) Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses. ii) Presence of industries, iii) Climatic conditions, iv) Habits of people and their economic status. Hee ¥) Quality of water: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe, the consumption will increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc. vi) Pressure in the distribution system. : vii) Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys. viii) Cost of water. ; ix) Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate, 1 a) In two periods of each of 20 years, a city has grown from 30,000 to 1,70,000 ‘and then to 3,00,000. Determine (WBUT 2013] 1) the saturation population ii) the equation of the logistic curve iii) the expected Population after the next 20 years. Answer: Population initially grows exponentially. So, N,= Noe* So, 170000 = 30000 e®2” Thi On R=0.086 ihe yi From the data it is clear that the maximum sustainable yield of population growth is at 170000, Therefore the carrying capacity (K) = 340000 The growth rate (r) of the logistic growth ~R = I-Nolk = 0.086 = [1-(30000/340000)) = 0.093 N=k+ (Ite 7) = 295659 5) With the help of the following data, estimate the Population of the city for the years 2020, 2030 and 2040 using (i) Geometric Increaze Method and (ii) incremental Increase Method. Comment on the two methods on the basis of the values obtained. IWBUT 2013] Year Population 1930 25000 _ [4940 27500 1950, 34100 1960 41500 1970 47050 EVEN-6ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 4980 | 1990 | Answer: Geometric incremental vent : Population Tncrease in population | % increase in population 1940 27500 2500 2500/2500 x 100 = 10 1950 34100 6600 24 1960 41500 7400 21.7 1970 47050 5500 13.2 1980 54500 7450 15.8 1990 61000 6500 11.9 Total 35950 96.6 ‘Avg. per decade 5991.6 16.1 Population on the year 2000 will be = 61000 + 16.1/100 x 61000 = 70821 2010 will be = 70821 + 16.1/100 x 7082 2020 will be = 82223 + 16.1/100 x 8222 2030 will be = 95460 + 16.1/100 x 95460 = 1110829 2040 will be = 1110829 + 16.1/100 x 1110829 = 128672 Incremental method : Year Population | Increase in population | Incremental increase 1930 25000 1940 27500 2500 1950 34100 | 6600 +4100 1960 41500 7400 +800 1970 47050 5500 +1900 1980 54500 7450 +1950 1990 61000 6500 -950 Total 35950 7800 ‘Avg. per decade 5991.6 1560 Population on the year 2020 will be = 61000+ (5991+ 1560) x 3 = 83653 2030 will be = 61000+ (5991+ 1560) x 4 = 91204 2040 will be = 61000+ (5991+ 1560) x 3 = 98755 “ay What is meant by design period and population forecasts? Why is the ‘pulation forecast necessary the in design of public water supply schemes? [WBUT 2014] EVEN-7POPULAR PUBLICATION! Answer: A i iod: ne is known The sunbe of years for which the design ofthe water works have teen ay wat as designing period. This period should neither be too short ee iy good period. wrorks are de are designed for design periods of 22-30 years, which is a fairly Population forecasts f sin forseaitias, Determination of population in various periods is know a Poslation nese it eas) The extension and expansion of the water works, network of pipe | side heed tasks. So, forecasting of population is required during the designing of meet the future demand of the town. ” for (2X8) Discuss the “Logistics curve method” and “Geometric ineretee ee x ‘determining the future populations of a locality and derive a standai "5 ar 2014) ‘such a curve. Answer: Logistic curve method e If the population is ploted with respect to time, the curve so obtained under. normal condition shall be shown’ Tine (> i The early growth of population is shown by curve JK at an increasing rate of ae. The. growth rate between point K and M, & constant, This part of the curve also passes through the point of inflexion L. Later part of the curve point M to N follows the decreasing rate i.e, a ~P)(Where, Ps= saturation value of population). The ‘s” shaped curved so obtained (JKLMN) is called logistic curve. Geometric Increase Method: This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population decade to decade remains constant. In this method the average Percentage of growth of last few decades is determined the population forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase, per decade will be same, Re a +i) P, = Population of n decade P= present population I,= avg. % of growth EVEN:8ENVIRONMENTAL EF :NGINEERING BO? the help to following data: estimate the population of the city in the yr 2020, 2040 using (i) G yr 2028, Gil) Decreas ) Geometric increase method (Il) Incremental eet eel rate of increas |_Year_| Pop Year | Population 1930 25000 1970 | 47050 1940 27500 1980 | 64500 1950 | 34100 | 1990 | 61000. 1960 | 41500 | | - Answer: i) Geometric increase method: Year | Population | Increment | Geometrical increase Rate of growth 1930 25000 1940 27500 2500 0.1 - 1950 34100 6600 0.24 1960 41500 7400 0.22 1970 47050 5550 0.13 1980 54500 7450 0.16 1990 61000 6500 0.12 Geometric mean = (Osl * 0.24 x 0.22 * 0.13 0.16 x 0.12)" = 0.148 = 14.8% Population in 2020 = 61000 (1+ 0.148)° = 92290 Population in 2030 = 61000 (1+ 0.148)! = 105949 Population in 2040 = 61000 (1+ 0.148)* = 121629 ii) Incremental increase method: Year | Population | Increase | Incremental increase 1930 25000 1940 27500 2500 } 1950 34100 6600 4100 1960 41500 7400 800 1970 47050 5550 =1850 1980 54500 7450 1900 1990 61000 6500 950 Total 36000 4000 Average 6000 800 Population in 2020 = 61000 + (6000 * 3) + [3 G+1y/2] x 800 = 83800 Population in 2030 = 61000 + (6000 x 4) + [4 (4+1)/2] x 800 = 93000 Population in 2040 = 61000 + (6000 x 5) + [5 (5+1)/2] * 800 = 103000 (iii) Decrease rate of increase method ‘Year | Population | Increase | % Increase Decrease in % increase 1930 25000 1940 27500 2500 10 _ 1950 34100 6600 24 =a 1960 41500 7400 217 23 1970 47050 $550 134 83 EVEN-9Sis POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 1980 54500 — 61000 Total Average Population in 2000 = 61600 + (12+0.4y/100 x 61000 = 68564 = 77340 + (12.8 +0.4)/100 x 7734 Population in 2030 = 87548 + (13.2 + 0.4)/100 x 87548 = 99454 Population in 2040 = 99454 + (13.6 + 0.4Y/100 x 99454 =113377 sign the approximate dimensions of a set of rapid gravity filters for treating Water required for a population of 50000; the rate of supply being 180 litres/dayiperson. The filters aro rated to work 6000 litresihum®, Aseume Wenitever data are necessary, are not given. [WBUT 2015] Answer: Average demand = 180 x 50000 lit / day = 9.00 x 10° lit / day Assume the maximum demand is 1.5itimes of the average demand. “Maximum demand = 1.5 9,00, 10° lit /day = 13, 54196 W/dy Maximum demand required to be considered = 13.5* 10° lit / day é Assume Rate of filtration = 180 x 24 lit / day / m? = 4320 lit / day / m 6 ++ Total surface area of filter required See m?=3125 m? Assume, there are six set of filters and one is kept for emergency. So, as out of six units only five area to be used, therefore 5 surface area of each unit = 3125/5 = 625 m? b As the length of each bed is twice of its width 2Bx B=625 p85 2 B=1767 m Length = 2 x 17.67 m=35,35 m The dimension of each of rapid sand filter is 17.67 m x 35,35 m (Ans.) 5. A city with a population of 1.2 million has a continuous water supply. The average demand of town is 250 Lit/capita/day. The water is Supplied to the city by direct pumping. The total supply of 250 litres is supplied as under: [WBUT 201 6] Time Litres i () From 5 A.M. to 11 A.M. 85 (il) From 11 A.M. to 3 P.M. 50 (iii) From 3 P.M. to 9 P.M. 80 (v) From 9P.M.to 12 mid-night 25 (v) From 12 mid-nighttoSAM. 10 EVEN-10ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Water is supplied from treatment plant at a uniform rate of 12.6 million litres per ity of reservoir using Mass curve hour for all 24 hours. Determine the capaci method. Answer: Total daily supply = 250 x 1.2 x 10° lit = 300 Mit : Time Daily consumption | Total ‘consumption: Cumulative per capita inM Lit demand in M Lit Sam to 11 am 85 102 102 11am to 3 pm 50. 60 162 3 pm to 9 pm. 80 96 258 9pm to 12 am 25 30 288 12 am to Sam 10 120% 300 A 390 A (Excess supply) = 0 B= (Excess demand) = 58 ML 250 200 1— Supply line 150, 100 50 ey Sam am 3am sam 12am “Total storage requirement = A+B =58ML 6. The following data have been noted from the census department: [WBUT 2016] Year | Population 1940 8000 1950. 12000 1 1960 17000 1970 22500 Calculate probable population in year 1980, 1990 and 2000 by following methods. (i) Arithmetical increase method (ii) Geometrical increase method (iii) Incremental increase method Answer: Year Population | Increment | Incremental | Percentage _ Increment per decade_| increase per Decade 1940 8000 EVEN-11POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 00 1950 12000 +4000 - A166 1960 17000 | +5000 +1000__+ 35 1970 22500 | +5500 +500 + 124.01 Net values +14500__| + 1500 +4133 ‘Averages +4833 | +750 : (@ Arithmetical Progression Method: Py=Ptni Average increases per decaile = i = + 4833 Population for the years, s 1980= population 1970 + ni, here n = | decade = 22500 + 4833 = 27333 1990= population 1970 + ni, here n= 2 decade = 22500 + 2 x 4833= a 2000 population 1970 + ni, here n= 3 decade = 22500 + 3 x 4833= (ii) Geometric Progression Method: Average percentage increase per decade = 41.33 P,=P (1 +i/100)" Population for 1980 = Population 1970 x (1 + i/100)" = 22500 x (1+41.33/100), i = 41.33, n= 1= 31799.25 Population for 1990 = Population 1970 x (14/100) * = 22500 (1+41.33/100)*, i = 41.33, n = 2= 4941.88 Population for 2000 = Population 1970 x (1+i/100)" = 22500 x (1+41.33/100)*, i = 41.33, n=3= 63516" (iii) Incremental Increase Method: Population for the years, 1980= population 1970 + average increase per decade + average incremental increase = 22500 + 4833+750 = 28083 1990= population 1980 + (28083 — 22500) = 28083+ 5583 = 33666 2000 = population 1990 + 5583= 33666+ 5583 = 39249 2, Water has to be supplied to a town with 1.6 lakhs population @ of 200 litres per capita per day from a river 2km away. The difference in elevation between the lowest water level in the sump well and service reservoir is 40m. Determine the size of the main and the power of the pump provided. [WBUT 2018] Assume: i) Maximum demand to be 1.8 times the average demand ii) The pumps work for 12 hours a day to supply full day's demand ill) Velocity of flow through the pipe = 1.5mi/s iv) Hazen’s William’s formula V =0.849C.r°° 59 The notation have their usual meaning. v) C=120 EVEN-12EEE jel} ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Answer: Avg. Water Demand = 100000 x 150 Maximum Water Demand = 1.5 * 15 Max, Discharge Required, Q= (22.5 x 106 )/ (103 x 8 x 60 x 60) = 0.7812 m3 /s A=(Q/v)=([]/4) * d= (0.7812/2.4 ) d=0.644m Hi = (fx L x V2)/(2 gx d) Hy = (0.03 x 2000 x 2.42 ) / (2 x 9.81 x 0.644) = 27.36 Required lift head between sump and reservoir = 40m Total Head Against which pump has to work = 40 + 27.36 = 67.36m Brake Horse Power (rw x Q x H)/ (nx 0.745) = (9.81 x 0:7812 x 67.36) / (0.8 x 0.745) = 865.38 BHP (645.314 K Watt) rite short notes on the following: ire water demand . [IWBUT 2015] Population forecasting [WBUT 2017] r Saggy fire water demand: Fire demand is the amount of water required to extinguish fire. Or The water required for fire fighting in a given area. Although the actual amount of water used in a year is small for fire fighting. But the rate of use is large. Generally the water pressure is 20 Psi. There are two methods for the e n of fire demand. fational board of fire under writers formul: ‘insurance service office formula. ee forecasting: The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below. The particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city depends largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to the discretion and intelligence of the designer. 1. Arithmetic Increase Method 2. Geometric Increase Method Incremental Increase Method Decreasing Rate of Growth Method Simple Graphical Method Comparative Graphical Method Ratio Method Logistic Curve Method PNA Aw EVEN-13POPULAR PI IBLICATIONS SOURCES OF WATER Multiple Choice Type Questions [WBUT 2013) 1. Which of the following is not a sub-surface source? ‘Springs a) Storage reservoirs ¢) Infiltration galleries d) Tube wells: Answer: (b) 2. Discharge per unit draw down in case of an aquifer is known 28 [WBUT 2013) \3)specific yield b) specific capacity ¢) field capacity d) none of these Answer: (a) 3. The effectiveness of a tube well can be studied by [WBUT 2017] €) Specific yield i b) Storage coefficient ©) Specific capacity d) Specific retention Answer: (d) Fe 4. Astructu t rater fr ¢ such as river is called ire used to collect raw water from a sees Wea 2644) ey Aqueduct. b) Ramp ©) Intake 4) Clarifier Answer: (a) “ Short Answer 4. A catchment area of 20km? consists of two third rural and one third urban area. The rainfall intensity in this area is‘ recorded as 25 mm/hr. Find the quantity of storm water run-off in the area in liters per second, k for rural area is 0.30 and i “> WBUT-2014] urban 0.50. Answer: . : Quantity of storm water run-off Rural catchment area = (3 x 20} km? Urban catchment area= (} 20)knt ~*. Quantity of storm from the rural catchment area, = RRs 263 m"/sec -. Quantity of storm from the urban catchment area, Os 1x20x0,5x2.5 =0.219 m/sec 3x38 EVEN-14ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING «. Total quantity storm water run-off = (0.263 + 0.219)m'/sec =0.482m'/sec (Ans.) 2. Show the zones of underground water with the help of a diagram. [WBUT 2017] Answer: Under ground water is available in aquifer. Any underground rock formation containing water is called aquifer. The rock of an aquifer must be porous and permeable so that it can absorb water. Aquifers are an important source of fresh water. On the basis of saturation of cracks and pores between soil particles and rocks by water, the underground section is divided into two zones — i) Unsaturated zone ii) Saturated zone. In the unsaturated zone, the pores between the soil particles are partially filled up by the water and remaining portion is filled up by the air. So, this zone is sometime called as aerated zone. The water present in this zone is called vadose water and this water is unavailable to us. Only plant can extract the upper part of this water by means of their root system. This water is known as soil water. The saturated zone is placed just below the unsaturated zone. Here, soil pores are completely saturated by water. The water present in this zone is called ground water. This water can be pumped out for our use. The upper boundary of the saturated zone is called water table. There is a transitional zone between saturated and unsaturated zone. This is called the capillary fringe. In this zone, water rises into small cracks as a result of the attraction between water and rock surfaces. The unconfined aquifer, that is the zone through which water can easily move situated above a confined bed. As the confined bed is impermeable to water, water is restricted here. This bed is also known as aquitard or aquiclude. When an aquifer present in between two confined bed ie. aquitard, it is called sandwich aquifer or confined aquifer. Soil water g 5 — ee ! RVR é 4 : t 5| 2 Capillary fringe Hy Ground wate Confined bed Fig. Aquifer EVEN-15POPULAR PUBLICATIONS [MODEL QUESTION} 3. What are the different sources of Raw Water? Answer: ice The various sources of water can be classified into two categories: Surface sources, such as 1. Ponds and lakes; 2. Streams and rivers; 3. Storage reservoirs; and ; oe 4. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at pres Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as 5. Springs; 6. Infiltration wells ; and 7. Wells and Tube-wells. it’ i ed aquifer, clearly 1. a) Derive the Dupuit’s expression for yield of an unconfin Stating the assumptions and the terms used in deriving the formula. [WBUT 2013] : Answer: Quantitative Derivation of Dupuit’s Equations v . Dupuit developed a theory based on the simplifying assumptions, resulting from the f |] i | observations that in most groundwater flow the slops of the phireatic surface is very small, In steady two-dimensional unconfined flow without accretion in the vertical xz plane, the phreatic surface is a streamline. At every point P along it, the specific discharge’ q, is given by Darcy’s law. 4,=-KB- KE _Ksing, see (1) dh / When @ is very small, Dupuit suggested that sin be replaced by the slope: tand = 7 The assumption of a small @ is equivalent to assuming that the equipotential surface is vertical and the flow is essentially horizontal, or to assuming that we have a hydrostatic Pressure distribution. Thus, the Dupuit assumption lead to the specific discharge | expressed by: a, =-KS, h=h(x) +. (2) and to the total discharge through any vertical surface of width b Q, =-Kon (x). It should be emphasized that all these’ assum approximations in regions where @ is indeed small ptions may be considered as good and the flow is essentially horizontal. EVEN-16ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING The important advantage gained by employing the Dupuit assumptions is that the number of independent variables of the original problem (x, z) has been reduced by one; in (3)z does not appear anymore as an independent variable. We have here an extension of what is known as the hydraulic approach to fluid flow. In hydraulic flows, also called one-dimensional flows, we neglect non-uniform flow variations, or changes im velocity, Pressure, etc., which transverse to the main flow direction. At every vertical cross section. Perpendicular to the flow direction, conditions are expressed in terms of average values of velocity, density and other properties over the cross section. The whole is considered as a single-streamtube. This is the engineering approach that is most useful in treating pipe flow, flow in open channels, etc. Here we consider a single streamtube bounded by two stremlines; the phreatic surface and the impervious bottom. The cross sections of interest are vertical. Thus, the usual dependent variable, the piezometric head 9=9(x, 2), is replaced by another variable h(x), the elevation head, because for a point on the free surface the pressure head p =0 and it follows that ¢=/. Consequently we assume that the vertical cross sections are equipotential surfaces on which ‘Once the Dupuit assumptions are employed, the continuity equation for phreatic flow is different. One can derive it by considering a control box in a phreatic aquifer [Bear, 1972; 1979}. The balance equation based on Dupuit assumption of horizontal flow ard with no internal sources and/or sinks, is Ho) 2( mn) syasdt wn (4) al ae) a ey at where /h is the hydrologic head, S' is the storativity, N is the source term due to nature replenishment artificial recharge and pumping; K = K(x, y) is the conductivity. For a homogeneous aquifer, K = constant and we obtain 4 0@).2 pt) NSH wan (5) aa) aa) K Ka This is the basic continuity of flow equation for groundwater in a phreatic aquifer with a horizontal impervious base. It is called the Boussinesq equation. Equations (4) and (5) are nori-linear (because of the product /dh/dx), We may regard the product Kh in (4) and in (5) as the transmissivity 7' of the phreatic aquifer. However, unlike the transmissivity in a confined aquifer, here it may vary in both space and time, as h=h(x,y,1). ‘Two methods of linearization are often applied to (5) in order to facilitate a solution: (1) Assume that T=T+T;T is the average constant transmissivity of the phreatic flow and T is a deviation from the average. Then (4) reduces to the linear equation in h on at 7[S2 2h) vost, oO ae By ar EVEN-17POPULAR PUBLICATION: = yar and assume that S/F where h , (2) We rewrite the right-hand side of (5) as (S'/#)0(H" /2) a to may be considered as a constant, where T= Kit. Then (5) reduces o ah ata : = (Se -2e .2N_ San CeO eka Tea which is linear equation in 2, undwater flow in be unsteady Bron (which goes Equation (6) is the one commonly used to describe unsteady ero’ Phreatic aquifers. The approximation involved inthe linearization, whic CrAT™ Bos Kusher then the one introduced by the Dupuit assumptions) is justi ST Te Tatively small changes in dh (with respect tothe total thickness #7) Nei aauifers A beter approximation however is (7). Whenever the stuaion SY A) or (5) should be used. Overall we have a decrease in reliability when going (7) to (6) and an incorporation of stronger assumptions. By replacing fin (6) by 9, (6) becomes identical to the flow equation for eae aquifer. We may, therefore, regard (6) as the general continuity equation ae a in both phreatic and confined aquifer. For a phreatic aquifer this is true ever linearization is justified: Measurements in b) A 60 cm diameter well is being pumped at a rate of 1360 iit a nearby test well were made at the same time as follows. At a distance of 6 m from the well being pumped, the drawdown was 6 m and at 15 m, the drawdown was 1.5 m. The bottom of the well is 90 m below the ground water table. i) . Find the coefficient of permeability “ fi) If all the observed points were on the Dupuit curve, what was the drawdown in the well during pumping? iii) What is the specific capacity of the well? iv) What is the maximum rate at which water can be drawn from this well? [WBUT 2013] Answer: Here, hy= (90—6)in = 84m And, h,= 90-— Q= 13601/mii The coefficient of permeability K= Qn (ty/tz) * % (hy? fy?) = 1958.4 In (15/6) + 3.14 (88.52 84?) =0.73 m /day We know, Q= 1958.4 m/day Again, Q = 3.14 x 0.73 (84 h;?) So, 3.14 x 0.73 (84°— hy’) = 1958.4 hy = 62.07 m the depth of aquifer = 90 m ; drawdown in the well during pumping = (90 — 62.93)m= 27.93 m EVEN-18ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2. Write short notes on the following; a) Infiltration gallery [WBUT 2015] b) Balancing Reservoir [WBUT 2015] ¢) Development of Tubewell [WBUT 2017] Answer: a) Infiltration gallery: The value of an aquifer as a source of groundwater is a function of the porosity of the geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed. Water is withdrawn from an aquifer by pumping it out of a well or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically includes several horizontal perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a large-diameter vertical shaft. Itis a structure including Perforated conduits in gravel to expedite transfer of water to or from a soil aquifer. b) Balancing Reservoir: Reservoirs can be used to balance the flow in highly managed systems, taking in water during high flows and releasing it again during low flows. In order for this to work without pumping requires careful control of water levels using spillways. When a major storm approaches, the dam operators calculate the volume of water that the storm will add to the reservoir. If forecast storm water will overfill the reservoir, water is slowly let out of the reservoir prior to, and during, the storm. If done with sufficient lead time, the major storm will not fill the reservoir and areas downstream will not experience damaging flows. ©) Development of Tubewell: A tube well is not completely ready for use just after construction. The next important step is to develop the drilled tube well. The tube well can function successfully only after proper development. It is the process by which the finer particles from around the screen are removed to increase the permeability of the formation through which water moves towards the well. Development serves following functions: i. It clears the water bearing formation clogged by the mud in the drilling operation. ii, It causes the gravel pack and: surrounding formation to settle and to get compacted against the screen, thus it makes the tube well structure stable. iii, It serves to breakdown the bridging of sand grains across the screen openings and in the surrounding gravel pack and aquifer formation and makes the well efficient. iv. It helps in obtaining sand free water by stabilising the sand formation around the screen. v. Ithelps in reducing head losses near the screen. vi, Itbrings the well to its maximum capacity that is maximum yield is available at minimum drawdown, vii. It, gives a measure of available water supply and helps in determining the + required characteristics ofa pump and power unit to be installed. viii. It increases useful life of the screen or strainer. EVEN-19POPULAR PUBLICATIONS WATER QUALITY Multiple Choice Type Questions = DWBUT 29 3] jorary hardness in water is caused by “* and Mg** wi bi-carbonates of oa are Mg" ») sulphates ote and Moe? ©) chlorides of Ca” and Mg** d) nitrates 1 Answer: (a) p i table water j EAs per Indian Standard, the safe permissible limit of Arsenic in eu ore ) 0.02 mgn 0.05 mgit ¢) 0.10 mgit 4) none of they Answer: (b) 30 Maximum Permissible turbidity for drinking water based on silica Seale le 72016 475 ppm b) 10 ppm c) 20 ppm 4) 50 ppm Answer: (a) Water sample has PH value of 9.00, The concentration of OH ion in the Water sample is [WBUT 201 a) 10° moles/L rio" moles/L. c) 0.17 mg/L. d) 1.7 mgit Answer: (b) : e resistance of water to the assage of light through it isa measure of a Ce [WBUT 2018) a) Colour us Turbidity c) Hardness d) Dissolved gases Answer: (b) _& Higher Concentration of nitrate in water caus [WBUT 2018] ‘a) Typhoid {i Mathomnogicbinicaic ¢) Gastroenteritis . d) Flurosis Answer: (b) 7 Which of the following can he used for disinfection of water? ; [MODEL QUESTION] .3yChlorine b) Hydrogen Peroxide c) Ozone d) None of these Answer: (a) 1. Write short note on pH values and its determination. [WBUT 2013] EVEN-20ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Answer: . A value characteristic of an aqueous solution is its pH value, which represents conventionally its acidity or alkalinity. . The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity, which may be measured potentiometrically. Formerly, pH was regarded as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. As it is known that not all hydrogen ions are necessarily equally active, this concentration may be different from the hydrogen ion activity. However, if the activity coefficient is close to 1, as is true in dilute solutions, the values of hydrogen ion activity and hydrogen ion concentration become nearly identical. The determination of the pH value is carried out by measurement of the potential difference between electrodes immersed in standard and test solutions. The standard solutions used are assigned a definite pH value by convention. In the measurement of pH, glass electrode finds wide applicability as it shows an immediate response to rapid changes of hydrogen ion concentrations even in poorly buffered solutions. Since the mechanism of this electrode involves no electron exchange it is the only electrode sensitive to hydrogen ions that is not disturbed by oxidizing or reducing agents. The pH values of solutions or suspensions that are only partially aqueous and that can be considered only as “apparent pH values" can also be measured by using the proper electrode and by suitably standardizing the pH-meter. As pH values are dependent on temperature, the measurements are carried out at selected constant temperatures. Solutions used in determinations of pH are prepared with carbon-dioxide-free water R. Find the hardness as CaCO, of flaw water having following chemical characteristics: Dissolved CO, = 42.5 mg/L, Ca‘* = 52.5 mg/L, Mg” = 24 mg/L, Na’ = 18.5 mgiL, Bicarbonate alkalinity = 128 mg/L. [WBUT 2017] Answer: Ca hardness = =131.25 ppm Mg* bardness=21%52 - $7 ppm 128x 50 61 “+ Total hardness as CaCO, =(131.25+87.5+104.91) =323.66ppm — (Ans,) HCO,” = =104.91 ppm 3. How do you differentiate between an alkaline solution and alkalinity of a ‘solution? What are the different forms of alkalinity? What form's of alkalinity you may except when the pH of a solution is (a) 3.45 (b) 6.73 (c) 9.05 (d) 12.337 [WBUT 2018] EVEN-21POPULAR PUBLICATIONS ey are usually Answer: «ic and neutralise ther re a carbonates, + Bases are substances that react with acids Ge aes or metal hydroet fa base does metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal cartorasolVe in water. 0 Many bases are insoluble - they iT But dissolve in water, we call it an alkali. : solution/compoun basic \d that the same as 9 DASE juble in water an * Alkaline solution/compound is A you can specify "alkali to refer to those bases thal are salts of alkaline or alkaline earth metals 100- The various forms of alkalinity are ‘© hydroxide alkalinity, © carbonate alkalinity, ? © hydroxide plus carbonate alkalinity, © carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, an © bicarbonate alkalinity, s. which is useful mainly in water softening and boiler feed water aa The various forms of alkalinity when pH are (a) 3.45- acidic (b) 6.73 - bicarbonate alkalinity ‘ (©) 9.05 - carbonate alkalinity (d) 12.33 - hydroxide alkalinity ‘4. What if drinking water contains E. coli? [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: fy Xi i : und in the intestines of animals "E. coli is a type of fecal coliform bacteria commonly fot ie n and humans. E. coli is short for Escherichia coli. The presence of E. coli in water isa strong indication of recent sewage or animal waste contamination. Sewage may contain many types of disease-causing organisms." Ge The fact sheet begins with a discussion of one rare strain of E. coli, strain 0157:H7, that has caused serious disease. Fortunately this strain is rarely encountered. The great majority of E. coli strains do not themselves cause disease. However, since E. coli typically grows in the gut of humans, warm-blooded mammals, and birds, and is normally excreted by the billions in their waste, and it normally dies or is eaten by other microbes within a few days or weeks of being released into the environment, then finding E. coli in your drinking water is a good indication that sewage or animal waste was recently in contact with your water. And since sewage and animal waste can carry a wide variety of other microbes, some of which do cause disease, the presence of E. coli suggests that other, more dangerous, microbes might be present. Public water supplies are usually disinfected with chlorine, ozone, or some other process. Finding E, coli in a public water supply indicates that the disinfection process, was not working, or that contact with the waste occurred after the water was treated. If your sample was from a public water supply, you should notify the water supplier. If sample EVEN-22ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING was from a private well or other source, we should take some actions to protect that source, 1. Calculate the quantity of filter alum and quick lime required in kg/day to coagulate 3 MLD of water Containing a natural alkalinity of 15mg/l as CaCO,, if the optimum dosage of filter alum be 45mg/l. Given: Al; (SO), 18H,0+3Ca( Hf], ), =241(OH), +3CaS0, + 18H,0+6C0, 3CaCO, +3H,0 +3C0, = 3Ca(HCO, oF 3Ca0 +3CO, = 3CaCO, : [WBUT 2018] Answer: Bicarbonate hardness = 100 mg/L as CaCO3 = (100 mg/L) [(100g/mole) x (1000mg/g)] = 0.001 mole/L The balanced equation: Ca(HCO3)2+CaO+H20- 2CaCO3 (s) +2H20 ie, 1 mole of calcium bicarbonate consumes 1 mole of CaO and produces 2 moles of calcium carbonate. As there is no non-carboriate hardness is assumed here, no soda ash is required. Thus: Lime (CaO) required = 0.001 moles/L (ie., 0.001moles/L. x56g/mole=0.056 g/L CaO) If lime is 90% pure, so we need = 0.0569/0.9=0.0632 g/L. So Daily lime requirements 0.0632g/L *0.001K e/g) x (10,000 m3 /day 1000 L/m3 ) 332 Ke/day (answer) Soda-ash required = 0 (answer) CaCO3 produced = 20.001 moles/L (i.e., 0.002moles/L. x100g/mole=0.2 g/l. CaCO3) (answer) 2. Write short notes on the following: a) Break Point Chlorination [WBUT 2017] b) Water softening [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: a) Break Point Chlorination: Breakpoint chlorination is the point where the demand for chlorine has been fully satisfied in terms of chlorine addition to the water. When chlorine is added to water, a reaction is produced in the compounds present in the water, These compounds utilize the chlorine, resulting in zero chlorine residual. EVEN-23Poput PUBLICATIO! sploro-oreani™ nese ones on For Desirtion of chlorine residual by reducing compounds Formation of « ; cholo t forganie {compounds i ‘hioramines point ined residual Residual Chlorine (mg/L) Chlorine added | (mg/L) aaa Fig: Break point chlorination softening. te poset peer of hardness from the water is known as water S There are twe .s of water softening. These are — “ i) Tan jones ii) Removal of permanent hardness 4) Removal of temporary hardness: : Temporary hardness can be removed by the following ways — . (@ Boiling: When the water has temporary hardness, it can be removed by: the boiling. The following reaction is taking place during the boiling Mg (HCO, ), > Mg CO, + CO, + H,O (8) Addition of lime water: The temporary hardness can al lime water. The following reaction takes place — Mg (HCO,), + Ca(OH), > CaCO, 1 +Mg (OH), + +H,0. if) Removal of permanent hardness: ; Removal of permanent hardness from the water is a difficult process as compare to the reduction or removal of temporary hardness. Following are the various methods which are commonly adopted for the removal of permanent hardn (a) Lime-Soda Process: Simply addition of lime can not Ca®* & Mg” from the water. Hence permanent hardness removal is not possible in that ut if Soda-ash is added in lime, the non-carbonate hardness (permanent) can be ethod is known as.lime-soda process. The following chemical Iso be removed by addition of ess. remove the sulphate salts of way. Bi easily removed, This m¢ reactions take place — Mz (HCO,), + Ca (OH), > Mg CO, 4 +CaCO, 4 +2H,0 Mg CO, + Ca(OH), > Mg (OH), + + CaCO, + Mg SO, + Ca (OH), -> Mg (OH), 4 + CaSO, EVEN-24ENVIRONMENTA\ INEERIN¢ (Base exchange process: This process is also known as Zeolite process or cation exchange process. In this process, the hard water should pass through a bed of sodium- zeolite sand. When hard water is passes through it, the Ca’"& Mg” get replaced by Na” from the bed (exchanger) and water become soft. But the reactions are reversible and Zeolite bed can be recharged by passing through a solution of common salt. 3. What is called hardness of water? Describe briefly Lima-Soda process for softening of water. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: The presence of multivalent cations, mostly Ca’* & Mg” and their sulphate, bisulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate salts, is referred to as hardness of water. The degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of the equivalent CaCO; concentration as follows: Soft > 0-60 mg/L Medium => 60-120 mg/L Hard = 120-180 mg/L Very hard => greater than 180 mg/L Hardness may also be classified based on the Carbonate (temporary) and non- carbonate (permanent) hardness, Temporary hardness can be removed or precipitated by boiling. This type of hardness is responsible for the deposition of scale in hot water pipes and kettles. Non-carbonate hardness is caused by the association of the ‘hardness causing cations’ with soy ,cr & NO,.. It can not be removed by boiling. Public acceptability of degree of hardriess may vary considerably from community to community, depending upon the local condition. Hardness can be reported in one of three different expressions: Mol - milligrams per liter Ppm - parts per million Gpg - grains per gallon Hard water produces scale around the wall of the boiler. As a result excess amount of heat accumulation takes place which may be the cause of explosion. Ca(HCO, ), + Heat > H,0 +CO, f (gas) +CaCO, ¥ (scale) Hard water did not produces foam with soap readily. This is the reason why it is not use in laundries. Lime-Soda Process: Simply addition of lime can not remove the sulphate salts of Ca” & Mg” from the water. Hence permanent hardness removal is not possible in that way. But if Soda-ash is added in lime, the non-tarbonate hardness (permanent) can be easily removed, This method is known as lime-soda process. The following chemical reactions take place — Mg (HCO,), + Ca(OH), > Mg CO, 4 + CaCO, ++2H,0 Mg CO, + Ca(OH), > Mg (OH), 4 + CaCO, Y Mg SO, + Ca(OH), + Mg (OH), 4 + CaSO, 4 EVEN-25Pr PULAR PUBLICAT) IONS CONVEYANCE OF WATER 1 i designed for a deg) pencate supply Projects under normal cireumstances BUT 204, 2016, 2orey a) 25 yrs ) 20 yrs 30 yrs Answer: (c) b) 15 yrs ofa 2. The formula which is m: ropriate to the design of pressure pipes is A¥Manning’s formu DNBUT 2018 ») Darcy Weisbach formula i. ©) Chezy’s formula 4) Dupit’s formula Answer: (a) 3. Duty of well water is more than canal water because [MODEL QUESTION) a) Conveyance losses in well irrigation are less b) Well water is clear than canal water ¢) Lifting of water increases cost of well water 4) Well water is used economically Answer: (a) 4. Awater shed canal [MODEL QUESTION] a) irrigates only on one side b) avoids the cross drainage warks generally aligned parallel to the contours of the area d) is most suitable in hilly areas Answer: (b) Short Answer Type Questions 4. State the comparative merits and demerits of the following materials for pipes used in the conveyance of water: a) Steel b)RCC. [WBUT 2013] Answer: a) Merits of steel as conveyance of water: These pipes are extensively used for water supply. They are best suitable for long distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide satisfactory performance during service. These pipes have excellent mechanical properties and are ideally suited for welding. The pipes are made in length more than twice the length of Cl pipes; which saves in transpo" layout of pipe and joining cost. There is minimum damage to the pipes in transportation The pipes being light in weight ae used fr large diameter pip lines. EVEN-26ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Demerits of steel as conveyance of water: Steel pipes are heavy in weight. Therefore transportation is costlier and they are not suitable for inaccessible places. b) Merits and demerits of RCC as conveyance of water: | Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their corrosion resistance. These pipes are bulky, heavy and require careful transportation and handling. The layout Process of these pipes is costlier than steel pipes. 2. What are the different methods of water conveyances? [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: Among the most common water conveyance methods are tanker trucks, rural aqueducts, and pipelines. In some cases, this involves the transfer of water from one portion of a river basin to another, or between river basins. Each of these methods is described below. Tanker Trucks Tanker trucks are fitted with a cistern or storage tank to transport and distribute water from a point of supply to the point of use, particularly to suburban and rural-areas’ not served by a piped supply. If water is not supplied from a central treatment facility, it is usually extracted from the closest natural source (rivers, canals, reservoirs, or groundwater sources) and transported by’ the trucks to the point of use. Water thus transported may be pumped into a storage cistern, dispensed directly into household or other containers, or discharged into’ a small-scale treatment facility for centralized distribution. The tanks on the trucks are usually manufactured locally, and some trucks are equipped to carry portable pumps to extract the water from its source. Pipelines : Water may conveyed through pipelines by gravity flow or by pumping. The latter system will be significantly more expensive to construct;"operate and maintain than similar gravity-flow systems. Large-diameter pipelines can be used to convey water over large distances, while smaller-diameter Pipelines can be used to provide bulk or individual supplies at the point of use. Aqueducts Aqueducts are canals used to bring water from a river or reservoir to a water distribution center. The main factors to be considered in the design of an aqueduct are the demand'to be met, the source of the water, the topography in the area in which the aqueduct is to be built, the size and nature of the storage facilities, and the size and location of the distribution network. Aqueducts are best suited to meeting large-scale demands in areas with a fairly flat or gently sloping landscape suitable for conveying water to the point of use by gravity. Answer tions 1. Calculate the head loses and the corrected flows in the various pipes of a distribution network shown in figure 1. EVEN-27POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 03 m'/see 1.0 m’/sec moo 1-600 d=sdem 0.5 mise ealeivee ‘ [WBUT 2016] method. Compute the corrected flow using Hardy-Cross sige flows in each pipe ae AMSWE: magnitudes as well ste diestions of the posite ion. The two closed we ns : ‘ rst of all, the magnitudes as awof contin ser tables 1 & 2 respectively, et : assumed keeping in consideration the loops, ABCD is then analyzed by Hardy Cross m' and the corrected flows are computed. Tablet Consider loop ABCD ore ia KOs] Od [Pipe] Assumed flow | Diz. of pipe Tang of ge aie Faiizolincumece|dinaa]. "| any 470d) (mm). a 8) (9) (10) ale lo eto o OQ op ane | AB] G43] 70.043 | 030 785x107] 500 373 gaxio'] +152 66 Bc] ()23| +0.023 | 0.20 3.95% 107] 300 11s yx t04] -194 ” CD] 20 | 0.020 | 0.20 | 395x107} 500 260/720 | 3.23 2 PALQSS “n035_| 020 |395x10*| 300 1615 tL HL G,/LIGG09 * 100 xa") ot, K.0," = (9, *Ly(a70* a") or, K=(LY(470 xd") SSH, /xZ1H/Od For loop ABCD, we have ‘ 53/(1.85 x 281) cumecs } (-2.53 * 1000)(1.85 * 281) IIs : = 4.86 I/s = 5 Vs (say) Hence, corrected flows after first correction are: AB act cD [ DA Pipe ‘Corrected flows after first correction in l/s +48 [+28] -15 | -30 2. a) Write various advantages of using cast.iron pipe in conveyance of water. [WBUT 2016] Answer: This is a kind of steel pipe used for water conveyance and plumbin; . ae Fi ae ig. Cast iron is the preferred choice for handling high pressures and loads of water. However, thee ies are very heavy and it requires specific means of transportations. It is also not advisable to use inaccessible places. Because of their heavy load, these pipes are made cast iron pipes in i c jn shorter lengths. This equates to more jointing and a more complicated layout. EVEN-28|GINEERING b) What is Nomogram? What is its use? Discuss. [WBUT 2016] Answer: A nomogram (from Greek voyoc nomos, "law" and ypayu grammé, line"), also called a nomograph, alignment chart or abaque, is a graphical calculating device, a two- dimensional diagram designed to allow the approximate graphical computation of amathematical function. The field of nomography was invented in 1884 by the French engineer Philbert Maurice d’Ocagne (1862-1938) and used extensively for many years to provide engineers with fast graphical calculations of complicated formulas to a practical precision. Nomograms use a Parallel coordinate system invented by d'Ocagne rather than standard Cartesian coordinates, A nomogram consists of a set of n scales, one for each variable in an equation. Knowing the values of n-1 variables, the value of the unknown variable can be found, or by fixing the values of some variables, the relationship between the unfixed ones can be studied. The result is obtained by laying a straightedge across the known values on the scales and reading the unknown value from where it crosses the scale for that variable. The virtual or drawn line created by the straightedge is called an index line or isopleth. . Calculate the head losses and corrected flows in the various pipes of a distribution network shown in figure. The diameters and the lengths of the pipes used are given against each pipe. Make use of Hardy-Cross method with William Hazen's formula. Compute the correct flows after two corrections. [WBUT 2018] Q=80us $= 300m 1=500 m oe A B $=20em $=20em 1=300m 1=300m lous $=20em 1=500m > *15Us $=15em $=15em 1=300m 1=300m E F $= 150m 1=500 m 35 368 Answer: Similar to Question No. 1 of Long Answer type Questions. (data change) 4. Write short notes on the following: a) Dead End System [WBUT 2015] b) Water Hummer in Pumping main [WBUT 2017) EVEN-298) Dead End i . ystem: Ttis suitable for o1g towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads. @ : Main pipe ® ; Branch © :Subthains i) . Cut off valves i Bi Advantages: Cele re ee 1. Relatively cheap. : M 2 ination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves, Disadvantages: i 1. Due to many dead ends, staguation of water occurs in pipes. b) Water Hummer in pumping main: ii A water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at'an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave, Propagates in the pipe. This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe'collapse. 4 it Water hammer (also waterhammer) is a pressure surge that Gan arise in any Pumping system that undergoes an abrupt change in its rate of flow and usually results from pump starts and stops, the opening and ‘closing of valves, or watercolumn separation and closure. : , ‘ EVEN-30 i