Date-15/07/2021.

Chapter-6 Unit-4

:ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION:
Magnetic flux:
The total magnetic field lines passing normally through a surface held in a magnetic field is called
magnetic flux.
The total magnetic flux through the surface;
 
 B  B . A  BA cos .
 
  B .d A.

 
 We may take φB is positive when angle between B and d A is 00, and is negative when angle
 
between B and d A is 1800.
 Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity, but it may be positive or negative.
 Its SI unit is tesla-m2, which is called the Weber. Thus 1 Weber = 1 Wb = 1T-m2.
 The C.G.S unit is Maxwell (Mx) [1T=108 Maxwell].

 Michael Faraday suggested that if current flowing through a wire produces magnetism,
then opposite might be true.
 Whenever there is a relative motion between a
magnet and a coil, an emf gets induced in the
coil and hence current flows through the coil.
This is called electromagnetic induction.
 The electric current flows only while the
magnetic field moves or varies.
 If the magnet and coil are still, no current
flows in the coil.
Faraday's law of emi:
According to Faraday, The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of
change of magnetic flux through the circuit:
d
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by,    B [Where  B  BA cos  ]
dt
 The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence the direction of current in a closed loop.

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  In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change of flux associated with each turn, is the
d
same. Therefore, the expression for the total induced emf is given by,    N B .
dt
 The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of turns N of a closed coil.

Lenz’s law:
According to Lenz’s law the direction of induced current is such that it opposes the cause which
produces it, i.e. it opposes the change in magnetic flux.
 When North Pole of a bar magnet moves toward a coil or
south pole moves away, then the direction of induced current
will be anti clockwise.

 When South Pole of a bar magnet moves toward a coil or

north pole moves away, then the direction of induced current
will be clockwise.

Lenz’s law obeys conservation of energy:

Now consider the correct case shown in Fig (above). The bar magnet experiences a repulsive
force due to the induced current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet. This
work done get converted to electrical energy. Hence Lenz’s law obeys conservation of energy.
Example:
Figure shows planar loops of different shapes
moving out of or into a region of a magnetic field
which is directed normal to the plane of the loop
away from the reader. Determine the direction of
induced current in each loop using Lenz’s law.
Answer:
(i) The magnetic flux through the rectangular loop
abcd increases, due to the motion of the loop
into the region of magnetic field, The induced
current must flow along the path bcdab so that
it opposes the increasing flux.
(ii) Due to the outward motion, magnetic flux
through the triangular loop abc decreases due to which the induced current flows along bacb, so as to
oppose the change in flux.
(iii) As the magnetic flux decreases due to motion of the irregular shaped loop abcd out of the region
of magnetic field, the induced current flows along cdabc, so as to oppose change in flux. Note that
there are no induced current as long as the loops are completely inside or outside the region of the
magnetic field.

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 Motional electromotive force:
The emf induced in a conductor due to its motion in a conductor in a magnetic field is called motional emf.
Case-1 (By Faraday’s law of E.M.I):
Let us consider a rectangular conductor PQRS in which the conductor PQ is free to move in a
uniform and time independent magnetic field.
The rod PQ is moved towards the left with a constant velocity ‘v’ as shown in the figure. Assume
that there is no loss of energy due to friction.
PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing an area that changes as PQ moves in a uniform magnetic
field ‘B’.
If the length RQ = x and RS = l.
The magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the loop PQRS is,
ΦB = Blx-------------- (i)

Since x is changing with time, the rate of change of flux Φ B will induce an emf given by:
d d dx
   B   ( Blx )   Bl  Blv .
dt dt dt
dx
 Where we have used   v, which is the speed of the conductor PQ.
dt
 The induced emf ‘Blv’ is called motional emf.
Case-2 (By Lorenz force):
It is also possible to explain the motional emf by the Lorentz force acting on the free charge carriers of
conductor PQ.
 Consider any arbitrary charge ‘q’ in the conductor PQ. When the rod moves with speed v, the
charge will also be moving with speed v in the magnetic field B.
 The Lorentz force on this charge is qvB in magnitude, and its direction is towards Q ( By Fleming’s
left hand rule).
 All charges experience the same force, in magnitude and direction, irrespective of their position in
the rod PQ.
The work done in moving the charge from P to Q is,
W = (qvB) l.
Since emf is the work done per unit charge,
W qvBl
   Blv .
q q
 Hence the ‘Q’ end will be higher potential and ‘P’ end will be lower potential. And hence the
conductor PQ will behave as a battery.

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Fleming’s right hand rule:-

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, if the fore figure,

middle figure and thumb of the right hand will be
stretched in such a way that they are perpendicular each other
when fore figure represents magnetic field , thumb
represents the direction of motion of the conductor than the
middle figure will represent the direction of induced
current through the conductor.

Energy consideration: a quantitative study:

 Let ’R’be the resistance of movable arm PQ of the rectangular conductor shown in Fig. (Above).We
assume that the remaining arms QR, RS and SP have negligible resistances compared to ‘R’.
 Thus, the overall resistance of the rectangular loop is ‘R’ and this does not change as PQ is moved.
 Bvl
The current I in the loop is, I   .
R R
 On account of the presence of the magnetic field, there will be a force on the arm PQ.
 
 This force I ( l  B) is directed outwards in the direction opposite to the velocity of the rod.
The magnitude of this force is,
B 2l 2 v
F  BIl  .
R
Note: This force arises due to drift velocity of charges (responsible for current) along the rod and the
consequent Lorentz force acting on them.
 Alternatively, the arm PQ is being pushed with a constant speed v, the power required to do this is,
B 2l 2 v 2
P  Fv  .
R
 The agent that does this work is mechanical. It is dissipated as Joule’s heat, and is given by,
2
 Blv  B 2l 2 v 2
PJ  I R  
2
  .
 R  R
 Thus, mechanical energy which was needed to move the arm PQ is converted into electrical
energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal energy.
 There is an interesting relationship between the charge flow through the circuit and the change in
the magnetic flux. From Faraday’s law, we have learnt that the magnitude of the induced emf is,

|  | B        (i ).
t
Q
Again we know, |  | IR  R.    (ii )
t

From equation (i) and (ii ), Q  B .
R

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 EDDY CURRENTS:
The induced circulating current in a metal plate due to change in
magnetic flux linked with it is called eddy current.
Uses:
Eddy currents are used to advantage in certain applications like:

(i) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails in some electrically
powered trains. When the electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the rails
oppose the motion of the train. As there are no mechanical linkages, the braking effect is smooth.
(ii) Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of nonmagnetic metallic
material. When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the motion and
bring the coil to rest quickly.
(iii) Induction furnace: Induction furnace can be used to produce high temperatures and can be
utilised to prepare alloys, by melting the constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current
is passed through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in
the metals produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it.
(iv) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates
due to the eddy currents. Electric currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by
sinusoidally varying currents in a coil. You can observe the rotating shiny disc in the power meter
of your house.
Disadvantages of eddy current:
 Due to eddy current energy loss takes in the form of heat.
 Due to eddy current the insulation breaks in different machinery parts due to heat produced.
 Eddy currents are minimised by using laminated thin metal sheets to make a metal core. The
laminations are separated by an insulating material like lacquer.
 The plane of the laminations must be arranged parallel to the magnetic field, so that they cut
across the eddy current paths.
Self induction:
The emf induced in a single isolated coil due to change of flux through the coil by means of
varying the current through the same coil. This phenomenon is called self-induction. And the
induced emf is called self induced emf.
In this case, flux linkage through a coil of N turns is proportional to the current through the coil and
is expressed as,
N  I  N  LI .
N
L
I .
 Self-inductance (L) of any coil may be defined as, the total flux linked with the coil per unit
current flowing through it.

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 Weber
 The SI unit of inductance is Henry and is denoted by H or .
ampere
 Where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It is also called the
coefficient of self-induction of the coil.
 When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is induced
in the coil.
The induced emf is given by,

d ( N B ) dI
   L .
dt dt

 Thus, the self-induced emf always opposes any change (increase or decrease) of current
in the coil.
 When the current is constant, and there is no self-induced
emf. Hence,
dI
 0, e  0 or Vab  0.
dt
 When the current is increasing, the induced emf e must oppose
the increasing current, so it must be in the sense from b to a, a
becomes the higher potential terminal and Vab is positive. The
direction of the emf is analogous to a battery with a as its
positive terminal.
dI
 0, e  0 or Vab  ve.
dt
 When the current is decreasing, the self-induced emf e opposes
this decrease and Vab is negative. This is analogous to a battery
with b as its positive terminal.
dI
 0, e  0 or Vab  ve.
dt
Assignment:

1. The magnetic flux through the coil perpendicular to its plane and directed into the paper is varying
according to the equation,   4t 2  5t  10 mWb . Calculate the magnitude of the emf induced in the
loop at t= 5sec.
2. The magnetic field of flux density 10T acts normal to a coil of 50 turns having 100 cm2 areas. Find the
emf induced if the coil is removed from the magnetic field in 0.2 sec.
3. The two rails of a railway track insulted from each other and the ground are connected to a milli-
voltmeter. What is the reading of the milli-voltmeter when a train travels at a speed of 180 km/hr
along the track? Given that the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field is 0.2 x10 -4 Wb/m2
and rails are separated by 1 meter.
4. When a wheel with metal spokes 1.0 m long rotates in a magnetic field of flux density 2 x10 -4 T normal
to the plane of the wheel, an emf of π x10-2 V is induced between the rim and the axle of the wheel.
Find the rate of revolution of the wheel.
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 Answer: (1) 45mV (2)25V. (3) 1mV. (4)50 rps.

Self inductance of a long solenoid:

Let us calculate the self-inductance of a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A and length l, having n
turns per unit length.
The magnetic field due to a current I flowing in the solenoid is
B   0 nI      (i)

The total flux linked with the solenoid is,

N B  (nl )(  0 nI ) A   0 n 2 AlI . ------------ (ii)
Where ‘N=nl’ is the total number of turns.
Thus, the self-inductance is,
N B  N2A N
L   0 n 2 Al  0 . [n  ] Where N= total number of turns.
I l l
 If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability µ r (for example soft
iron, which has a high value of relative permeability), then,

L   0  r n 2 Al.
 The self-inductance of the coil depends on its geometry and on the permeability of the
medium.
 Self Inductance is a scalar quantity.
 Dimensions of L= [M L 2 T –2 A –2].
Energy stored in an inductor:
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any change in the current in a
circuit. Physically, the self-inductance plays the role of inertia.
So, work needs to be done against the back emf (ε) in establishing the current. This
work done is stored as magnetic potential energy.
Let I be the current through a inductor at any
dI
instant, the induced emf will be e   L .
dt
The work done against the induced emf to increase
the current further by dI is:
dI
dW |  | dq |  | Idt  L Idt  LIdI .
dt
Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is,
W I I
dI 1 dI
W   dW   L Idt   LIdI  LI 2 . [ As, |  | L ]
0 o
dt 0
2 dt

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 Mutual inductance:
Consider two long co-axial solenoids each of length l.
 We denote the radius of the inner solenoid S1 by r1
and the number of turns per unit length by n1. The
corresponding quantities for the outer solenoid S2
are r 2 and n2, respectively.
 Let N1 and N2 be the total number of turns of coils
S1 and S2, respectively.
When a current I2 is set up through S2, it in turn sets
up a magnetic flux through S1. Let us denote it by Φ1.
The corresponding flux linkage with solenoid S1 is,
N11  M12 I 2      (i)

M12 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S1 with respect to solenoid S2. It is also referred to
as the coefficient of mutual induction.

According to Faraday’s law the emf is induced in coil C1 wherever there was any change in current
through coil C2.

Let Φ1 be the flux through coil C1 (say of N1 turns) when current in coil C2 is I2.

d ( N11 ) d ( MI 2 ) dI
1     M 2 . [ As N11  MI 2 ]
dt dt dt

Mutual inductance of two co-axial solenoid:

Consider two long co-axial solenoids each of length l.
 The radius of the inner solenoid S1 by r1 and the
number of turns per unit length by n1. The
corresponding quantities for the outer solenoid S2
are r 2 and n2, respectively.
 Let N1 and N2 be the total number of turns of coils
S1 and S2, respectively.

Case-1:
Let the current in S2 is I2.
The magnetic field within the core is,
B2   0 n2 I 2        (i) .
The resulting flux linkage with coil S1 is,
N11  N1 B2 A1  (n1l )( r12 )(  0 n2 I 2 )   0 n1n2 A1lI 2      (ii ) .
Where ‘n1l’ is the total number of turns in solenoid S1.
Again we know, N11  M12 I 2      (iii )
Thus, from Eq. (ii) and Eq. (iii), N11  M 12 I 2   0 n1n2 A1l.I 2

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  0 N1 N 2 A1
Or M 12   0 n1n2 A1l       (iii ) .
l
Case-2:
Let the current in S1 is I1.
The magnetic field within the core is, B1   0 n1 I1        (iv ) .
The resulting flux linkage with coil S2 is,
N 22  N 2 B1 A1  (n2l ) A1 ( 0 n1 I1 )   0 n2 n1 A1lI 1    (v) .
Magnetic field exists within common area of cross-section (A1)
Where, ‘n2l’ is the total number of turns in solenoid S2.
Again we know, N 22  M 21I1      (vi)
Thus, from Eq. (iv) and Eq. (v), N 22  M 21I1   0 n1n2 A1l.I1
 0 N1 N 2 A1
Or M 21   0 n1n2 A1l       (vii) .
l
Comparing equation (iii) and (vii) we have,
 0 N1 N 2 A1
Or M 21  M 12   0 n1n2 A1l  .
l
It is also important to know that the mutual inductance of a pair of coils, solenoids, etc.,
depends on their separation as well as their relative orientation.

Mutual induction between circular coils :

Consider two circular close-packed coils, the smaller (radius R2, with turns N2) being coaxial with the
larger (radius R1, with N1 turns) and in the same plane. Assuming R 1 >> R2. Imagine a current I1 in the
larger coil, the value of B 1 at the centre of coil,
 NI
B1  0 1 1        (i )
2 R1
 Because we have assumed that R 1 > > R2, we may
take B1 to the magnetic field at all points within the
boundary of the smaller coil. Therefore the number
of flux linkage for the smaller coil is,
 N I 
N 221  N 2 B1 A2  N 2  0 1 1  A2      (ii )
 2R1 
Again we know that N 221  MI1.      (iii )
Comparing equation (ii) and (iii) we have,
 NN A
M  0 1 2 2.
2 R1
Where A2 is the common are of cross-section.

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 Ac generator:
Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Principle:
Generator is based on the principle of electro-
magnetic induction.

Working:
 When the coil is rotates with a constant angular
speed ω, the angle θ between the magnetic
field vector B and the area vector A of the coil
at any instant t is θ = ωt,
(Assuming θ = 0° at t = 0).

 As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines changes with time,
The flux at any time t is,
ΦB = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt---------- (i)

From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is then,
d d
   N B   NBA cos t.
dt dt
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is,
  NBA sin t        (ii )

 Where,  max   0  NBA, When, sin t  1.

 The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current is called alternating
current (ac). Where, ω = 2πf. Where ‘f’ is the frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil.
Variation of current w.r.t time:

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 10

 Note:
 The armature is provided by water falling from a height, for example, from dams. These are called
hydro-electric generators.
 Alternatively, water is heated to produce steam using coal or other sources. The steam at high
pressure produces the rotation of the armature. These are called thermal generators.
 Instead of coal, if a nuclear fuel is used, we get nuclear power generators.
 Modern day generators produce electric power as high as 500 MW, i.e., one can light up 5 million
100 W bulbs.
 In most generators, the coils are held stationary and it is the electromagnets which are rotated.
 The frequency of rotation is 50 Hz in India. In certain countries such as USA, it is 60 Hz.
Combinations of inductors:
1. Series: Let two inductors L 1 and L2 are connected in series. Considering only self inductance of
inductors, then total induced emf

L = L1 + L2.

2. Parallel connection: Let two inductors L 1 and L2 are

connected in parallel. Considering only self inductance of
inductors, then total induced emf
1 1 1
  .
L L1 L2
Total inductance:
When coils are connected together in a circuit, they offer both self induction and mutual induction.
Their total induction will be the algebraic sum of self induction and mutual induction.

(1). suppose two coils of self inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series in such a way that their fluxes
are additive.

LTotal = L1 + L2 + 2M.

(2). When the coils are so connected that their

fluxes are in opposite directions.

LTotal = L1 + L2 – 2M.

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 Assignment:
6. A 300 turns coil of self- inductance 20mH carries a current of 5mA. Find the magnetic flux linked
with each turn of the coil.
7. The self inductance of an air cored solenoid increases from 0.04mH to 16 mH on introducing an iron
core into it. What is the relative magnetic permeability of the core?
8. A long solenoid has 500 turns. When a current of 2A is passed through it, the resulting magnetic flux
linked with each turn of the solenoid is 4 x 10 -3 Wb. Find the self inductance of the solenoid.
9. In an inductor of self-inductance L = 2mH current changes with time according to relation:
i.e i  t 2 e t . At what time emf is zero?
10. A solenoid of length 50cm with 20 turns per cm and area of cross-section 40 cm2 completely
surrounding another solenoid of the same length, area of cross-section 25 cm2with 25 turns per
cm. calculate the mutual inductance of the system.

Answer: (6) 3.33 x10-7Wb. (7) 400. (8) 1H (9) 2s. 10. 7.85 x 10-3 H.

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