Date-26/09/2020.

Chapter-8

-: GRAVITATION: -
Introduction:-
Newton at the age of twenty-three is said to have seen
an apple falling down from tree in his orchid. This was the year
1665. He started thinking about the role of earth's attraction in
the motion of moon and other heavenly bodies.

Gravitation:-gravitation is the name given to the force of

attraction between any two bodies of the universe due to their
mass.

Newton's law of Gravitation:-

According to Newton's law of gravitation,

‘Everybody in this universe attracts every other body with a force, which is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers’.

 The direction of the force is along the line joining the particles.

Thus the magnitude of the gravitational force F that two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r exert on each other is given by,

m1 m2 Gm1m2
F or F= .
r2 r2

Vector form:- According to Newton’s law of Gravitation,

  Gm1m2   Gm1m2   Gm1m2 
F12  2
r 21  r21  
r21 .
r r3 3
| r21 |

 
Here the –ve sign indicates that F12 is opposite to that of r21 .

  Gm1m2   Gm1m2   Gm1m2 

Similarly F21  r 12  r12  
r12
r2 r3 3
| r12 |

Gm1m2   
 
 r 21  As r12   r21 
r2  
 

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 1

  
 Hence it is clear that, F 12   F 21 , which is Newton’s 3rd law of motion.
 
 r12 = unit vector from A to B. r21 =unit vector from B to A.
 
 F12 = gravitational force exerted on A due to B. F21 = gravitational force exerted on B due to A.
 Here G is constant of proportionality which is called 'Universal gravitational constant'.

If m1 = m2 = 1 and r = 1, then F =G.

i.e. Universal gravitational constant is equal to the force of attraction between two
bodies each of unit mass whose centers are placed unit distance apart.

 The value of G in the laboratory was first determined by Cavendish using the torsional balance.
 The value of G is 6.67×10–11 Nm2 /kg2 in S.I. And G =6. 67×10–8 dyne- cm2/g2 in C.G.S. system.
 Dimensional formula of G = [M-1L3T-2].
 The value of G does not depend upon the nature and size of the bodies.
 It also does not depend upon the nature of the medium between the two bodies.
 As G is very small hence gravitational forces are very small, unless one (or both) of the masses is
huge.
Properties of Gravitational Force.
 It is always attractive in nature while electric and magnetic force can be attractive or repulsive.
 It is independent of the medium between the particles while electric and magnetic force depend
on the nature of the medium between the particles.
 It holds good over a wide range of distances. It is found true for interplanetary to inter atomic
distances.
 It is a central force i.e. acts along the line joining the centers of two interacting bodies.
 It is a two-body interaction i.e. gravitational force between two particles is independent of the
presence or absence of other particles; so the principle of superposition is valid i.e. force on a
particle due to number of particles is the resultant of forces due to individual particles,
   
i.e. F  F1  F2        F n.

While nuclear force is many body interaction.

 It is the weakest force in nature: As Fnuclear > F electromagnetic > F gravitational.

 It is a conservative force i.e. work done by it is path independent or work done in moving a particle
round a closed path under the action of gravitational force is zero.
 It is an action reaction pair i.e. the force with which one body (say earth) attracts the second body
(say moon) is equal to the force with which moon attracts the earth. This is in accordance with
Newton's third law of motion.
Gravity: - Gravity is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its center on a body
lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity is merely a special case of
gravitation and also called earth’s gravitational force.
 If m is the mass of a body placed on the surface of earth, where acceleration due to gravity is g
then gravitational pull = weight of the body = mg.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 2

 Assignment:-1
Q.1) Mass M is divided into two parts xM and (1 – x) M. For a given separation, the value of x for
which the gravitational attraction between the two pieces becomes maximum is.
1 3
[a] [b] [c]1 [d] 2
2 5
Q.2) Three identical point masses, each of mass 1kg lie in the x-y plane at points (0, 0), (0, 0.2m)
and (0.2m, 0). The net gravitational force on the mass at the origin is,
     
[a] 1.67  10 9  i  j  N . [b] 3.34  10 10  i  j  N .
   
     
[c] 1.67  10 9  i  j  N . [d] 3.34  10 10  i  j  N .
   
Q.3) Four particles of masses m, 2m, 3m and 4m are kept in sequence at the corners of a square of
side a. The magnitude of gravitational force acting on a particle of mass m placed at the centre of
the square will be.
24Gm 2 6Gm 2 4 2Gm 2
[a] [b] [c] [d]zero.
a2 a2 a2
Q.4) Four particles of equal masses M move along a circle of radius R under the action of their
mutual gravitational attraction. Find the speed of each particle.
GM  2 2 1 GM  2 2  3 
[a]   [b]  
R  4  R  4 
 

GM  2 2 1 GM  2 2  1 
[c]   [d]  
R2  4  R  4 
 

Q.5) Three particles A, B and C, each of mass m, are placed in a line with AB = BC = d. Find the
gravitational force on a fourth particle P of same mass, placed at a distance d from the particle B on
the perpendicular bisector of the line AC.
Gm2  1  Gm2  1 
[a] 2
1  along PB. [b] 2
1  along PB.
d  2 d  2
Gm2  1  Gm 2  1  2 3 
[c] 1  along PB. [d]  along PB.
d  2 d 2  2 
Answers:-1.a 2.a 3.c 4.a 5.a
Acceleration Due to Gravity (g):-
The force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body is called gravitational pull or gravity.
 We know that when force acts on a body, it produces acceleration. Therefore, a body under the
effect of gravitational pull must accelerate.
 The acceleration produced in the motion of a body under the effect of gravity is called
acceleration due to gravity, it is denoted by g.
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ is lying on the surface of earth then gravitational force on the body is
given by,
GMm
F = 2 -------------------------- (1)
R
Where M = mass of the earth and R = radius of the earth.
Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 3
 If g is the acceleration due to gravity, then the force on the body due to earth is given by ,
Force = mass ×acceleration.
Or F = mg --------------------------- (2)
Comparing equation (1) and (2) we have,
GMm
mg 
R 2 --------------------- (3)

GM
Or g= ------------------------------- (4)
R2

4R 3  G
Or g  2
3 R .

4 3
[As mass M = volume ( πR ) x density (ρ)]
3

4R G
g . -------------------- (5)
3

 From the expression g in equation (4) and (5) it is clear that its value depends upon the mass radius and
density of planet and it is independent of mass, shape and density of the body placed on the surface of
the planet.
I.e. A given planet (reference body) produces same acceleration in a light as well as heavy body.

 The greater the value of ‘R’ or ‘ρ’ greater will be value of g for that planet.

 Acceleration due to gravity is a vector quantity and its direction is always towards the centre of the
planet.

 Dimension of [g] = [LT–2].

 The average value of g is 9.8 m/s2 or 980 cm/sec2 or 32 feet/sec2, on the surface of the earth at mean
sea level.

Variation in ‘g’ with Depth:-

Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth,
GM 4
g = 2 = πRρG ----------------- (i)
R 3

Acceleration due to gravity at depth d from the surface of the earth,

4
g’ = πρG(R-d) ------------------------- (ii).
3
4R 3 G( R  d ) GM ( R  d )
g’ =  ----(iv) g’α (R-d).
3R 3 R3

d
From equation (i) and (ii) g’ = g [1- ].
R

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 4

  The value of g decreases ongoing below the surface of the earth. From equation (ii) we get, g’ α (R –d).

 So it is clear that if d increases the value of g decreases.

 At the centre of earth d =R, so g =0, i.e., the acceleration due to gravity at the centre of earth
becomes zero.

 Decrease in the value of g with depth,

dg
Absolute decrease g  g  g ' 
R
g g  g ' d
Fractional decrease  
g g R
g d
Percentage decrease 100  100%.
g R

 The rate of decrease of gravity outside the earth (if h << R) is double to that of inside the earth.
Variation in ‘g’ Due to Shape of Earth:-
Earth is elliptical in shape.it is flattened at the poles and bulged out at the equator.the equitorial
radius is about 21km longer than polar radius.
From the equation of g,
GM
g= 2
R
GM
At equator g e  2      (i)
Re
GM
At pole gp       (ii )
R p2

ge R p2
From equation (i) and (ii )  .
gp Re2
Since Requator > Rpole hence, gpole > gequator and gp= ge+0.018m/s2.

 Therefore the weight of body increases as it is taken from equator to the pole.
Variation in ‘g’ with Height:-
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth,
GM
g  2          (i)
R
Acceleration due to gravity at height h from the surface of the earth,
GM
g'       (ii )
( R  h) 2

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 2
 R 
From equation (i ) and (ii ) g '  g       (iii )
RH 
R2
g  g 2      (iv )
'

r [As r=R+h]
1
 As we go above the surface of the earth, the value of g decreases because, . g’α
r2
 If r=∞ then g =0, i.e., at infinite distance from the earth, the value of g becomes zero.
 If h<<R i.e., height is negligible in comparison to the radius then from equation (iii) we get,
2
R2  h  2h 
g'  g  g 1    g 1  
( R  h) 2
 R  R [As h<< R]

 If h<<R ,then decrease in the value of g with height :

2hg
Absolute decrease g  g  g ' 
R
g g  g 2h
'
Fractional decrease  
g g R
g 2h
Percentage decrease 100   100%.
g R

Variation in ‘g’ Due to Rotation of Earth:-

As the earth rotates, a body placed on its surface moves along the circular path and hence experiences
centrifugal force, due to it, the apparent weight of the body decreases.
If the body of mass m lying at point P, whose latitude is λ, then due to rotation of earth its apparent
weight can be given by,
Latitude at a place: -
is defined as the angle which the line joining the place to the center of the earth makes with the
equatorial Plane.
  
mg ' = mg + Fc .

Or mg’ = (mg) 2  ( Fc ) 2  2mgFc cos(180 0   ) .

[As Fc = mω2r = mω2Rcosλ.]

 mg '  (mg ) 2  (m 2 R cos  ) 2  2mgm 2 R cos  ( cos  ) .

 g '  ( g ) 2  ( 2 R cos  ) 2  2 g 2 R cos  ( cos  )

R 2 4 2 R 2
 g' 1 cos 2
  cos 2 .
g2 g
Expanding binomially and Neglecting higher order terms,

By solving we get, g’= g – ω R cos λ.

2 2

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 6

  Substituting λ = 900 in the above expression we get, gpole = g – R ω2cos2900= g.
i.e., there is no effect of rotational motion of the earth on the value of g at the poles.
 Substituting λ = 00 in the above expression we get, gequator = g – R ω2cos200= g –Rω2.
i.e., the effect of rotation of earth on the value of g at the equator is maximum.
From equation (i) and (ii) gpole –gequator =Rω2 = 0.034m/s2.
 When a body of mass m is moved from the equator to the poles, its weight increases by an amount,
m (gp –ge) =mRω2.
 Weightlessness due to rotation of earth: As we know that apparent weight of the body decreases due
to rotation of earth. If ‘ω’ is the angular velocity of rotation of earth for which a body at the equator will
become weightless.
g '  g   2 R cos 2 .

 0  g   2 R cos 2 0. [As λ=00 for equator.

g
 g   2 R. [   .
R

2 R
Or time period of rotation of earth, T   2 .
 g

Substituting the value of R =6400x103 m and g= 10 m/s2. We get,

1
  1.25  10 3 rad / sec . and T  5026.5 sec  1.40hr.
800
 This time is about (1/17) times the present time period of earth. Therefore if earth starts
rotating 17 times faster than all objects on equator will become weightless.
 After considering the effect of rotation and elliptical shape of the earth, acceleration due to gravity at
the poles and equator are related as,
g p  g e  0.034  0.018m / s 2  g p  g e  0.052m / s 2 .
Mass and Density of Earth:-
Newton’s law of gravitation can be used to estimate the mass and density of the earth.
GM gR 2
As we know g  , so we have M  .
R2 G
9.8  (6.4  106 ) 2
M 11
 5.98  10 24 kg  10 25 kg.
6.67  10
4RG 3g
And as we know g  , so we have   .
3 4GR
3  9.8
   5478.4 kg / m 3  5.5  10 3 kg / m 3 .
4  3.14  6.67  10 11  6.4  10 6

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 7

 Assignment-2
Q.1) The moon's radius is 1/4 that of the earth and its mass is 1/80 times that of the earth.
If g represents the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth, then on the
surface of the moon is.
g g g g
[a] [b] [c] [d] .
4 5 6 8
Q.2) If the radius of the earth were to shrink by 1% its mass remaining the same, the acceleration due to
gravity on the earth's surface would.
[a] Decrease by 2% [b] Remain unchanged [c]Increase by 2% [d] Increase by 1%.
Q.3) The value of acceleration due to gravity at earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2. The altitude above its surface
at which the acceleration due to gravity decreases to 4.9 m/s2, is close to.
(Take, radius of earth = 6. 4 × 106 m).
[a] 9. 0× 106 m [b] 2 .6 × 106 m [c] 1.6 × 106 m [d] 6. 4× 106 m
Q.4) If the radius of the earth were to shrink by one per cent, its mass remaining the same, the
acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface would
[a] decrease [b] remain unchanged [c] increase [d] be zero.
Q.5) The ratio of the weights of a body on the earth’s surface, so that on the surface of a planet is
9: 4. The mass of the planet is 1/ 9 Th of that of the earth. If R is the radius of the earth, what is the
radius of the planet? (Take the planets to have the same mass density)
R R R R
[a] [b] [c] [d] .
2 3 4 9

Answers: - 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a).

Inertial and Gravitational Masses.

Inertial mass: It is the mass of the material body, which measures its inertia. If an external force F acts on
a body of mass mi, then according to Newton’s second law of motion,
F
F  mi a or mi  .
a
Hence inertial mass of a body may be measured as the ratio of the magnitude of the external force
applied on it to the magnitude of acceleration produced in its motion.

 It is the measure of ability of the body to oppose the production of acceleration in its motion by an
external force.
 Gravity has no effect on inertial mass of the body.
 It is proportional to the quantity of matter contained in the body.
 It is independent of size, shape and state of body.
 It does not depend on the temperature of body.
 It is conserved when two bodies combine physically or chemically.
 When a body moves with velocity v , its inertial mass is given by,

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 8

 m0
m , where m0  rest mass of body, c  velocity of light in vcuum.
v2
1 2
c

Gravitational Mass:
It is the mass of the material body, which determines the gravitational pull acting upon it. If M is the
mass of the earth and R is the radius, then gravitational pull on a body of mass ‘mg is given by,

GMmg F F
F 2
or mg  2
 .
R (GM / R ) E

Here mg is the gravitational mass of the body, if E = 1 then F = mg.

Thus the gravitational mass of a body is defined as the gravitational pull experienced by the body in a
gravitational field of unit intensity,

Comparison between inertial and gravitational mass:-

 Both are measured in the same units.
 Both are scalars.
 Both do not depend on the shape and state of the body.
 Inertial mass is measured by applying Newton’s second law of motion where as gravitational mass is
measured by applying Newton’s law of gravitation.
 Spring balance measure gravitational mass and inertial balance measure inertial mass.

Gravitational Field:-
The space surrounding a material body in which its gravitational force of attraction can be experienced
is called its gravitational field.
Gravitational field intensity :
The intensity of the gravitational field of a material body at any point in its field is defined as the force
experienced by a unit mass (test mass) placed at that point, provided the unit mass (test mass) itself does
not produce any change in the field of the body.
So if a test mass ‘m’ at appoint in a gravitational field

experiences a force F then,

 F
E .
m
 It is a vector quantity and is always directed towards the centre of gravity of body whose gravitational
field is considered.
 Its S.I unit is -> Newton/kg or m/s2.
 Dimension of E = [M0LT-2].
 If the field is produced by a point mass M and the test mass m is at a distance r from it then by
GMm
Newton’s law of gravitation, F = 2 .
r

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 9

 F GMm / r r GM
Then intensity of gravitational field, E   2 .
m m r
 Intensity at a given point (P) due to the combined effect of different point
masses can be calculated by vector sum of different intensities,
   
EN  E1  E 2       E n .
 Gravitational field line is a line, straight or curved such that a unit mass
placed in the field of another mass would always move along this line. Field lines for an isolated mass m
are radially inwards.
GM GM
 As E  2 and g  2  E  g.
r r

Note:-Thus the intensity of gravitational field at a point in the field is equal to acceleration of test mass
placed at that point.
 Field due to a Uniform Circular Ring at a Point on its Axis :-
GMr
E 2 .
(a  r 2 ) 3 / 2
Where M= Mass and ’a’ radius of the ring. The field is directed towards the
centre of the ring.

 Field due to a Uniform Disc of mass ‘M’ and radius ‘a’ at a Point on its Axis:-
GM
E  2 (1  cos ).
a

 Field due to a Uniform Thin Spherical Shell (hollow sphere )of mass ‘M’ and radius ‘a’:-
GM
(i) Outside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r >a) , E0  2 .
r
GM
(ii) On the surface of the sphere (r = a), Es  2 .
a
(iii) inside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r <a), Einside  0.

(iv) Graph:-

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 10

 Field due to a Uniform solid sphere of mass ‘M’ and radius ‘a’:-
(i) Outside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r >a) ,
GM
E0  .
r2
GM
(ii) On the surface of the sphere (r = a), Es  2 .
a
[maximum]
(iii) inside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r <a),
GMr
Einside  .
a3

Assignment-3
Q.1) A solid sphere of mass M and radius ‘a’ is surrounded by a uniform concentric spherical shell of
thickness 2a and mass 2M. The gravitational field at distance 3a from the centre will be.
GM 2GM GM 2GM
[a] 2
[b] 2
[c] 2
[d]
3a 9a 9a 3a 2

Q.2) two bodies of masses m and 4m are placed at a distance ‘20m’ find the point on the line
joining them where the net gravitational field is zero.
20 20
[a] m from the body of mass ‘m’ [b] m from the body of mass ‘4m’
3 3
[c] 40m from the body of mass ‘m’ [d]40m from the body of mass ‘m’.
Q.3) A spherical shell is cut into two pieces along a chord as shown in the figure.
P is a point on the plane of the chord. The gravitational field at P due to the
upper part is E1 and that due to the lower part is E2 , What is the relation
between them,
[a]E1= E2 [b] E1> E2 [c] E1< E2 [d] No definite relation.
1
Q.4) Knowing that mass of Moon is( )M, where M is the mass of Earth; find the distance of the
81
point where gravitational field due to Earth and Moon cancel each other, from the Moon.
Given that distance between Earth and Moon is 60 R. Where R is the radius of Earth.
[a] 2R [b] 4R [c]6R [d]8R.
Q.5) Gravitational mass is proportional to gravitational,
[a] Field [b] Force [c] Intensity (d] All of these.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers:- 1.a 2 .a 3.a 4.c 5.d

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Gravitational Potential Energy:-
The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing the body from infinity to that point against the gravitational force without acceleration.
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ is at a distance r from another body of mass ‘M’.
GMm
The gravitational force acting on the body of mass ‘m’ F = 2 .
r
The work done for a small displacement dx is dw = F dx.
The total work done in bringing from ∞ to r is,
r
1 1 1 
r
GMm GMm
W   2 dx  GMm   GMm     .

x  x  r  r
This work done is stored inside the body as its gravitational potential energy.
GMm
 U  .
r
 Potential energy is a scalar quantity.
 S.I Unit of potential energy: Joule.
 Dimension of P.E. (U) = [ML2T-2].
 Gravitational potential energy is always negative in the gravitational field because the force is always
attractive in nature.
 As the distance r increases, the gravitational potential energy becomes less negative i.e., it increases.
 If r = ∞, then P.E (U) becomes zero (maximum).
 Gravitational potential energy of a system consisting of three bodies of mass m1, m2, m3 placed at a
distance r12,r23 and r13 respectively.,

 Gm m Gm1m3 Gm2 m3 
U   ui    1 2   .
 r12 r13 r23 

 If the body of mass m is moved from a point at a distance r1 to a point at distance r2 ,

(r1 > r2) , then change in potential energy,

1 1 1 1 
r2
GMm
U   2
dx  GMm   or U  GMm  
r1
x  r2 r1   r1 r2 
As r1 is greater than r2, the change in potential energy of the body will be negative. It means that if a
body is brought closer to earth its potential energy decreases.
 Relation between gravitational potential energy and potential,
GMm   GM 
U   m  mV .
r  r 
 If the body of mess m is moved from the surface of earth to a point at distance ‘h’ above the surface of
earth, then change in potential energy or work done against gravity will be,

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 12

 1 1 
W  U  GMm  
 r1 r2 
1 1 
 W  U  GMm   [As r1=R and r2 = R+h]
 R R  h 
GMmh mgh GM
 W   [As  g]
 h h R2
R 2 1   1 
 R R

 If h is very small as compared to radius of the earth then term h/R can be neglected,
mgh h
From W=  mgh. [ As  0]
1 h / R R

Gravitational Potential:-
The gravitational potential at a point within gravitational field may be defined as the amount of work
done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point against the gravitational force without
acceleration.
Or
At a point in a gravitational field potential ‘V’ is defined as negative of work done per unit mass in
shifting a test mass from some reference point (usually at infinity) to the given point i.e.,
U GM
V= =- . [r=R+h]
m r
 It is a scalar quantity because it is defined as work done per unit mass.
 Relation between gravitational potential energy and potential,
GMm   GM 
U   m  mV .
r  r 
 S.I unit: - Joule/kg or m2/sec2.
 Potential due to large numbers of particle is given by scalar addition of all the potentials,
I.e. V = V1+V2+V3 +--------.

n
GM GM GM M
V     G i .
r1 r2 rn i n ri

Gravitational potential difference:

It is defined as the work done to move a unit mass from one point to the other in the gravitational field.
The gravitational potential difference in bringing unit test mass m from point A to point B under the
gravitational influence of source mass M is,
WAB 1 1
V  VB  VA   GM   .
m  rB rA 

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 13

Point of zero potential:
 It is that point in the gravitational field, if the unit mass is shifted from infinity to that point then net work
done will be equal to zero. Let m1 and m2 are two masses placed at ‘d’ distance apart and P is the point of
zero potential in between the two masses.
Net potential for point V1+V2 =0.
Gm1 Gm2 m1d
    0 by solving x  .
x dx m1  m2

 Gravitational potential due to a Uniform Circular Ring at a Point on its Axis:-

GM
V  2 .
(a  r 2 )1/ 2

Where M= Mass and ’a’ radius of the ring. The field is directed towards the centre of the ring.

 Gravitational potential due to a Uniform Thin Spherical Shell (hollow sphere )of mass ‘M’ and radius ‘a’:-
(i) Outside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r >a) ,
GM
Vo   .
r
GM
(ii) On the surface of the sphere (r = a), Vs   .
a
(iii) inside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r <a),
GM
Vinside   .
a
 Variation of gravitational potential with distance from center of the sphere.

Note :-( a=R)

 Gravitational potential due to a Uniform solid sphere of mass ‘M’ and radius ‘a’:-
GM
(i) Outside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r >a) , Vo   .
r
GM
(ii) On the surface of the sphere (r = a), Vsurface   .
a

(iii) inside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from center (r <a), Vinside  
GM
2a 3
 
3a 2  r 2 .

3GM
At the center of the sphere:- Vc   .
2a

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 14

 (iv) Note: - (a=R)

Relation between gravitational field and potential:-

 
Suppose the gravitational field at a point r due to a given mass distribution is E .

By definition, the force on a particle of mass m when it is at ‘ r ’ is,
 
F  mE .
  
As the particle is displaced from, r to r  d r the work done by the gravitational force on it is,

  
dW  F .d r  m E .d r .
 
The change in potential energy during this displacement is, dU  dW  m E .d r

dU  
The change in potential is, by equation, dV    E .d r .
m
 
Integrating above equation from, r1 to r 2 .
v2 r2  

 dV V2  V1   E.d r .
v1 r1

dV dV dV
Thus, Ex   , Ey   , Ez   .
dx dy dz

I.e. Gravitational field is –ve gradient of potential.

Negative sign indicates that the potential decreases along the direction of gravitational field.

Assignment:-4
Q.1) Two bodies of masses m and M are placed a distance d apart. The gravitational potential at the position
where the gravitational field due to them is zero is V, then,

G Gm GM G
[a] v   (m  M ) [b] v   [c] v   [d] v   ( m  M ) 2 .
d d d d
Q.2) if ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface, the gain in the potential energy of an
object of mass ‘m’ raised from the surface of the earth to a height equal to the radius ‘R’ of the earth is,
1 1
[a] 2mgR [b] mgR [c] mgR [d] mgR
2 4

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 15

 Q.3) A particle of mass 10 g is kept on the surface of a uniform sphere of mass 100 kg and radius 10 cm .find
the work done against the gravitational force between them, to take the particle far away from the
sphere, (G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2)
[a] 13.34 x 10-9J [b] 6.67 x 10-9J [c] 1.334 x 10-10J [d] 6.67 x 10-10J.
Q.4) A particle of mass ‘M’ is situated at the center of a spherical shell of same mass and radius ‘a’ the
gravitational potential at a point situated at a/2 distance from the center will be,
3GM 2GM GM 4GM
[a]  [b]  [c]  [d] 
a a a a
Q.5) Four point masses of mass ‘m’ each placed at four corner of a square of side ‘d’ , the gravitational
potential energy of the system is,

[a] 
Gm 2 
d 
4 
1 
 [b] 
2
4Gm2
d
[c] 
Gm2
d

4 2  [d] 
4Gm 2
d2

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answer: - 1.d 2.c 3.d 4.a 5.c

Escape Velocity (ve)

The minimum velocity with which a body must be projected up so as to enable it to just overcome the
gravitational pull, is known as escape velocity.

The work done to displace a body from the surface of earth (r = R) to infinity r =∞ is,

GMm  1 1  GMm
W  dx  GMm    .
 R 
2
R
x R

This work required to project the body so as to escape the gravitational pull is performed on the body by
providing an equal amount of kinetic energy to it at the surface of the earth.

If ve is the required escape velocity, then kinetic energy which should be given to the body is,
1
K.E = mve2.
2

1 2 GMm 2GM
mve   ve  .
2 R R

 ve 
2GM
R2
 R  2 gR. As GM  gR 2 
4 8G  4 
ve  2  GR  R  ve  R  As g GR
3 3 3 

 Escape velocity is independent of the mass and direction of projection of the body.
For the Earth as g= 9.8m/s2 and R = 6400km.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 16

  ve  2  9.8  6.4 10 6  11.2km / s.
 If body projected with velocity lesser than escape velocity (v < ve) it will reach a certain maximum height
and then may either move in an orbit around the planet or may fall down back to the planet.
 When the projection velocity of body of mass m is v > ve, then it crosses the gravitational field and then
moves in space with velocity (v’ let).
Total energy at surface = Total energy at infinite.
1 2 GMm 1
mv   m(v ' ) 2  0.
2 R 2

v ' 2  v 2  2GM
R
2
 v '  v 2  ve2

 2GM 
 v '  v 2  ve2 .  As  ve2 
R 
i.e., the body will move in interplanetary or inter stellar space with velocity,
v '  v 2  ve2 .
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

1st law of Orbits:

Every planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with sun at one of the foci.

2nd law of Area:-

The line joining the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal interval of time. I.e. Areal
velocity is constant.

dA 1 r (vdt) 1
Proof;- Areal velocity    rv.
dt 2 dt 2
dA L L
  . [ As L  mvr; rv  ].
dt 2m m

Since no external torque is acting on the system so the angular momentum is conserved
(L= constant). (According to conservation of angular momentum)
dA
Hence the areal velocity ( ) = constant.
dt
 Note:-According to this law planet will move slowly when it is farthest from sun and more rapidly
when it is nearest to sun.

3rd law: - The Square of period of revolution ‘T’ of any planet around
sun is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis
of the orbit.
3
r r 
T 2  a3 or T 2   1 2  .
 2 
Proof:-From the fig AB =AF+FB.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 17

 r1  r2
2a  r1  r2  a  , where a = semi-major axis.
2
r1 = shortest distance of planet from sun .
r2 = longest distance of planet from sun .

Orbital Velocity of Satellite (v)

Satellites are natural or artificial bodies describing orbit around a planet under its gravitational
attraction.
 Moon is a natural satellite while INSAT-1B is an artificial satellite of earth.
Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity required to put the satellite into its orbit around the earth.
For revolution of satellite around the earth, the gravitational pull provides the required centripetal force.
mv 2 GMm
 2 .
r r
GM
 v
r
gR 2 g
 v R [As GM =gR2 and r = R+h]
Rh Rh

 Orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the orbiting body and is always along the tangent of the
orbit i.e., satellites of deferent masses have same orbital velocity, if they are in the same orbit.
 Orbital velocity depends on the mass of central body and radius of orbit.
 For a given planet, greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be the orbital velocity of the satellite.
1
v .
r
 Orbital velocity of the satellite when it revolves very close to the surface of the planet.
GM GM GM
v  v   gR . [As h=0 and GM = gR2]
r Rh R
For the rarth , v  9.8  6.4 106  7.9 km / s  8 km / s.

GM 2GM
 Close to the surface of planet v = [As ve = ].
R R
ve
V= i.e. v e = 2vorbital .
2
Time Period of Satellite.

It is the time taken by satellite to go once around the earth.

circumference of the orbit
T .
orbital velocity
2r r GM
 T  2 r . [As v  ]
v GM r

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 18

 r3 r3
 T  2  2 . [As GM=gR2]
GM gR 2

( R  h) 3 2 ( R  h) 3
 T  2  [As r=R+h]
gR 2 R g

r3
 From T =2π ,It is clear that time period is independent of the mass of orbiting body and depends
GM
on the mass of central body and radius of the orbit.
r3
 We know T =2π ,
GM
4 2 3
 T  2
r i.e. T 2 r 3 .
GM
This is in accordance with Kepler’s third law of planetary motion r becomes a (semi major axis) if the
orbit is elliptic.
 Time period of nearby satellite,
r3 R3 R
From T  2  2 2
 2 . [As h=0 and GM =gR2 ]
GM gR g

For earth R = 6400 km and g =9.8m/s2. T =84.6mins ≈ 1.4hr.

 Time period of nearby satellite in terms of density of planet can be given as,
r3 R3 2 ( R 3 )1/ 2 3
T  2  2   .
GM GM  4 3  1/ 2
G
G. 3 R  

Height of Satellite:-

r3 ( R  h) 3
As we know the time period of satellite, T  2  2 .
GM gR 2

gR 2T 2
By squaring and rearranging both sides,  ( R  h) 3 .
4 2

1/ 3
 T 2 gR 2 
h   2 
 R.
 4 
By knowing the value of time period we can calculate the height of satellite the surface of the earth.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 19

 Assignment-5

Q.) The escape velocity of a body on the surface of the earth is 11.2 km/sec. If the earth’s mass increase to twice its
present value and radius of the earth becomes half, the escape velocity becomes:

[a] 5.6 km/s [b] 22.4 km/s [c] 11.2 km/s [d] 44.8 km/s.

Q.2) The escape velocity on the surface of the earth is 11.2 km/s. If mass and radius of a planet is 4 and 2 times
respectively than that of earth, what is the escape velocity from the planet?

[a] 15.8 km/sec [b] 1.112 km/sec [c] 11.2 km/sec [d] 22.4 km/sec.

Q.3) If an artificial satellite is moving in a circular orbit around the earth with a speed equal to half the magnitude of
the escape velocity from the earth, the height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is:

[a] 2R [b] R/2 [c] R [d] R/4.

Q.4) A body is projected vertically upwards from the surface of a planet of radius R with a velocity equal to half of the
escape velocity for that planet. The maximum height attained by the body is:

[a] R/3 [b] R/2 [c] R/5 [d] R/4.

Q.5) suppose the gravitational force varies inversely as the nth power of distance. Then the time period of a planet in
circular orbit of radius ‘R’ around the sun will be proportional to,

 n 1   n 1   n 2 
     
 2   2  n  2 
[a] R [b] R [c] R [d] R

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answers: - 1.b 2.a 3.c 4.a 5.a

Geostationary Satellite

The satellite which appears stationary relative to earth is called geostationary or geosynchronous
satellite or communication satellite.
 A geostationary satellite always stays over the same place above the earth such a satellite is never at
rest.
 Such a satellite appears stationary due to its zero relative velocity w.r.t. that place on earth.
 The orbit of a geostationary satellite is known as the parking orbit.
 It revolves in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the equatorial plane.
 It sense of rotation should be same as that of earth about its own axis i.e., in anti-clockwise direction
(from west to east).
 Geostationary satellites are used for communication purpose.
 Its period of revolution around the earth should be same as that of earth about its own axis.
T = 24hr =86400sec.
 Height of geostationary satellite,

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 20

 r3 ( R  h) 3
As T = 2π = 2π = 24hr.
GM GM
Substituting the value of G and M we get R+h =r ≈ 42000km = 7R.
So height of geostationary satellite from the surface of earth h = 6R = 36000 km.
GM
 Orbital velocity of geo stationary satellite can be calculated by v = .
r
Substituting the values of G, M and r, v = 3.08 km/s.
Angular Momentum of Satellite:-
Angular momentum of satellite, L =mvr.
GM GM
 Lm r [As v .]
r r
 L  m 2GMr .
i.e., Angular momentum of satellite depends on both the mass of orbiting and central body as well as
the radius of orbit.
 In case of satellite motion, force is central so torque = 0 and hence angular momentum of satellite is
conserved i.e., L = constant.
 In case of satellite motion as a real velocity,
dA 1 r (vdt) 1
  r v.
dt 2 dt 2
dA L
  . [As L = mvr]
dt 2m

But as L = constant, so the areal velocity (dA/dt) = constant which is Kepler’s II law.

Energy of Satellite.
When a satellite revolves around a planet in its orbit, it possesses both potential energy (due to its position
against gravitational pull of earth) and kinetic energy (due to orbital motion).
GMm L2   GM 2 
(1). Potential energy: U  mV    2.  As V  r , L  m GMr 
2

r mr
1 2 GMm L2   GM 
(2). Kinetic energy: K  mv   .  As v  .
2 2r 2mr 2  r 

GMm GMm GMm L2

(3). Total energy: E  U  K      .
r 2r 2r 2mr 2

 Kinetic energy, potential energy or total energy of a satellite depends on the mass of the satellite and the
central body and also on the radius of the orbit.
 From the above expressions we can say that Kinetic energy (K) = – (Total energy).
Potential energy (U) = 2 (Total energy).
Potential energy (K) = – 2 (Kinetic energy)

 Energy graph for a satellite:-

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 21

  Binding Energy: Total energy of a satellite in its orbit is negative. Negative energy means that the satellite
is bound to the central body by an attractive force and energy must be supplied to remove it from the
orbit to infinity.
The energy required to remove the satellite from its orbit to infinity is called Binding Energy of the
system, i.e.
GMm
Binding Energy , B.E   E  .
2r
Polar satellite:-
Polar satellites revolve around earth in polar orbits. These satellites are also called sun synchronous
satellite.
Uses of polar satellite:-
 These satellites are used for remote sensing.
 For getting information about image of cloud, atmospheric data, ozone layer.
 For the survey of ground water.
 For the assessment of drought.etc.

Assignment-6
Q.1) for a satellite moving in an orbit around the earth, the ratio of kinetic to potential energy is,
1 1
[a] 2 [b] [c] [d] 2
2 2
Q.2) The satellite of mass ‘m’ is orbiting around the earth in a circular orbit with a velocity ‘v’ what will be its
total energy.
3 1 1
[a] mv 2 [b] mv 2 [c] mv 2 [d]  mv 2
4 2 2
Q.3) A satellite revolving around the earth loses some energy due to collision .what would be the effect on
its velocity and distance from the center of the earth.
[a] Velocity increases and distance decreases.
[b] Both Velocity and distance increases.
[c] Both Velocity and distance decreases.
[d] Velocity decreases and distance increases.
Q.4) A satellite with kinetic energy ‘E’ is revolving round the earth in a circular orbit. The minimum
additional kinetic energy required for it to escape into outer space is:

[a] 2E [b] E [c] E/ 2 [d] 2E

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers: - 1.b 2.d 3.a 4.b

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 22

 Weightlessness.

The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted towards the centre of earth. When a body is
stationary with respect to the earth, its weight equals the gravity. This weight of the body is known as its
static or true weight.
We become conscious of our weight, only when our weight (which is gravity) is opposed by
some other object. Actually, the secret of measuring the weight of a body with a weighing machine lies in
the fact that as we place the body on the machine, the weighing machine opposes the weight of the body.
The reaction of the weighing machine to the body gives the measure of the weight of the body.

The state of weightlessness can be observed in the following situations:-

 When objects fall freely under gravity: For example, a lift falling freely, or an airship showing a feat in
which it falls freely for a few seconds during its flight, are in state of weightlessness.
 When a satellite revolves in its orbit around the earth: Weightlessness poses many serious problems to
the astronauts. It becomes quite difficult for them to control their movements. Everything in the satellite
has to be kept tied down. Creation of artificial gravity is the answer to this problem.
 When bodies are at null points in outer space: On a body projected up, the pull of the earth goes on
decreasing, but at the same time the gravitational pull of the moon on the body goes on increasing. At one
particular position, the two gravitational pulls may be equal and opposite and the net pull on the body
becomes zero. This is zero gravity regions or the null point and the body in question is said to appear
weightless.
*************************************

****

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 23