Lecture 4: Measuring Instruments and Power/Signal Sources

Following are the important instruments used in electric circuits:

For measurement:
1- Digital Multimeters
2- Clamp meters
3- LCR meters
4- Oscilloscopes
For signal generation:
5- Signal generators
For power supply:
6- Constant (adaptors) and variable power supply

1- Digital Multimeter
Voltage, current, and resistance measurements are commonly required in electronics work. The
instrument used to measure voltage is a voltmeter, the instrument used to measure current is an
ammeter, and the instrument used to measure resistance is an ohmmeter. Commonly, all three
instruments are combined into a single instrument called a multimeter, in which you can choose
what specific quantity to measure by selecting the appropriate function with a switch.

A DMM (digital multimeter) is a multifunction electronic instrument that can measure voltage,
current, and resistance. DMMs are the most widely used type of electronic measuring instrument.
Generally, DMMs provide more functions, better accuracy, greater ease of reading, and greater
reliability than do many analog meters. Analog meters have at least one advantage over DMMs,
however. They can track short-term variations and trends in a measured quantity that many
DMMs are too slow to respond to. Figure 1 shows typical DMM.

Fig.1: Digital multimeter functions and probes

Exercise: Find three different multimeters online and read their datasheet to find their
specifications

Measuring Resistance – To measure resistance, first turn off the power and disconnect one end
or both ends of the resistor from the circuit; then connect the ohmmeter across the resistor. This
procedure is shown in Figure 2.

NOTE: Measuring resistance while they are connected in the circuits (in-circuit resistance), may
or may not give the rite value and it is always advisable to remove the resistance from the circuit,
measure the resistance and then putting it back to your circuit.

Fig.2: Procedure for measuring resistance through a multimeter

Measuring Voltage – To measure voltage, connect the voltmeter/multimeter across the
component for which the voltage is to be found. Such a connection is a parallel connection. The
negative terminal of the meter must be connected to the negative side of the circuit, and the
positive terminal of the meter must be connected to the positive side of the circuit. Figure 3 shows
a voltmeter connected to measure the voltage across the resistor.

Fig.3: Procedure for measuring voltage through a voltmeter

NOTE: Always ensure proper probe connections to the multimeter. The red probe to the red
socket with a V sign on it and the black probe in the socket named COM or GND. Since
multimeters can be used to measure voltage, connecting the probes to these will connect the
instrument parallel to the measuring voltage nodes. Making opposite connections would give the
negative reading (reverse potential) at the node being measured.

Measuring Current – To measure current, connect the ammeter/multimeter in series in the

branch where the current needs to be found. The negative and positive terminals of the
multimeter should be connected in between any two elements in the branch. The sign of the
current displayed on the multimeter represents the positive to negative probe. Figure 4 shows an
ammeter connected to measure the current.

Fig.4: Procedure for measuring current through an ammeter

NOTE: Always ensure proper probe connections to the multimeter. There are generally two
sockets available for the red probe in case of current measurement labelled as mA and 10A input
terminals as shown in Figure 1. The red probe for current measurement should be inserted in one
of them based on the expected current range. The black probe in the socket named COM or GND.
Since multimeters can be used to measure current, connecting the probes to these will connect the
instrument in series with the circuit. Making opposite connections would give the negative
reading (reverse potential) at the node being measured.

IMPORTANT: DONOT connect the red probes of the multimeter to opposite probe sockets for
voltage or current measurement. This can damage the multimeter as well as the circuit.

Fig.5: Clamp meter types and functional part

2- Clamp meters
A current clamp or current probe is an electrical device with jaws (which open to allow clamping
around an electrical conductor) to measure DC and AC electrical current without making contact
with the electrical circuit. Current clamps are typically used to read the magnitude of alternating
current as well as the phase and waveform. Some clamp meters can measure currents of 1000 A
and more. Figure 5 shows the parts of the clamp meter. There is a jaw or transformer clamp that
surrounds the conductor, an LCD to display the current value and a rotatable dial to select the
measurement type (DC or AC) and range.

3- LCR meters
As the name suggests, such meters are made to specifically measure the resistance, inductance
and capacitance of the passive circuit elements. Figure 6 shows a typical handheld LCR meter, a
benchtop version of LCR meters are also available. It contains connecting probes, an LCD to
display the value and a rotatable dial to select the measurement type (resistance, capacitance or
inductance) and their ranges. Several multimeters discussed in heading 1 also contains the
functionality of the resistance and capacitance measurements.

Fig.6: LCR meter and probes

4- Oscilloscopes
The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device that traces a graph of a measured
electrical signal on its screen. Figure 7 shows two different models of oscilloscopes. In most
applications, the graph shows how signals change over time. The vertical axis of the display
screen represents voltage, and the horizontal axis represents time. You can measure amplitude,
period, and frequency of a signal using an oscilloscope. Also, you can determine the pulse width,
duty cycle, rise time, and fall time of a pulse waveform. Most scopes can display at least two
signals on the screen at one time, enabling you to observe their time relationship.
Two basic types of oscilloscopes, digital, and analog can be used to view digital waveforms. The
digital scope converts the measured waveform to digital information by a sampling process in an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The digital information is then used to reconstruct the
waveform on the screen as shown in Figure 8. The analog scope works by applying the measured
waveform directly to control the up and down motion of the electron beam in the cathode-ray
tube (CRT) as it sweeps across the screen. As a result, the beam traces out the waveform pattern
on the screen. The digital scope is more widely used than the analog scope. However, either type
can be used in many applications; each has characteristics that make it more suitable for certain
situations. An analog scope displays waveforms as they occur in “real time.” Digital scopes are
useful for measuring transient pulses that may occur randomly or only once. Also, because
information about the measured waveform can be stored in a digital scope, it may be viewed at
some later time, printed out, or thoroughly analyzed by a computer or other means. The digital
scope first acquires the measured analog waveform and converts it to a digital format using an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The digital data is stored and processed. The data then goes
to the reconstruction and display circuits for display in its original analog form. All the
oscilloscopes use BNC connectors discussed in the next section.

Fig.7: Oscilloscope models

Fig.8: Block diagram of a digital oscilloscopes

 Fig.9: Control of a digital oscilloscopes
Some of the main controls are now discussed. Refer to the user manual for complete details of
your particular scope.

Vertical Controls – In the vertical section of the scope in Figure 9, there are identical controls for
each of the two channels (CH1 and CH2). The Position control lets you move a displayed
waveform up or down vertically on the screen. The buttons immediately right of the screen
provide for the selection of coarse or fine adjustment for the Volts/Division. The Volts/Div
control adjusts the number of volts represented by each vertical division on the screen. The
Volts/Div setting for each channel is displayed on the bottom of the screen.
Horizontal Controls – In the horizontal section, the controls apply to both channels. The Position
control lets you move a displayed waveform left or right horizontally on the screen. The
Horizontal Menu button provides for the selection of several items that appear on the screen such
as the main time base, expanded view of a portion of a waveform, and other parameters. The
Sec/Div control adjusts the time represented by each horizontal division or main time base. The
Sec/Div setting is displayed at the bottom of the screen.

5- Function Generators
A function generator is an instrument that produces more than one type of waveform. It provides
pulse waveforms as well as sine waves and triangular waves. Typical function generator is shown
in Figure 10. These generators are also called signal generators since they provide a wave of
function with the required voltage amplitude, however, their current providing capability is very
low. There are several signal types among them sinusoidal, triangular, square/pulsating and
saw-tooth wave forms are the most common signals. For signal communication, a special cable
known as co-axial cable is used. A co-axial cable cut-out is shown in the figure as well. It contains
an insulated copper wire (that contains the signal) surrounded by copper mesh (that contains the
negative/reference/signal ground). Furthermore an outside insulation is used to protect the
cable. Since the signals are generally very sensitive to fluctuations and environment, co-axial
cables are used for the signal protection from the environmental disturbances. As these are special
cables, a special connector named as BNC are used for cable ends. The female type is mounted
on the instrument and the female connector is used at the probe end.

Fig.10: Procedure for measuring current through an ammeter

6- Power Supplies
Utilities universally have adopted ac for transmitting electricity from the generating station to the
user because it can be readily transformed to high voltages for transmission and low voltages for
the end user. High voltages are much more efficient and cost-effective to transmit over long
distances. In the United States, the standard voltage supplied to outlets is approximately 120 V
or 240 V at 60 Hz, but in Europe and other countries, the outlet voltage is 240 V at 50 Hz.
Power supplies and batteries are types of voltage sources. A power supply is generally defined as
an electronic device that converts ac (alternating current) from the utility lines to a dc (direct
current) voltage that virtually all electronic circuits and some transducers require. Batteries are
also capable of supplying dc; in fact, many systems, such as laptop computers, can run from a
power supply or internal battery.
Virtually all electronic systems require stable dc for the integrated circuits and other devices to
work properly. Power supplies fulfill this function by converting ac to stable dc and are usually
built into the product. Many electronic systems have a recessed and protected switch that allows
the internal power supply to be set for either the 120 V standard or for the 240 V standard. That
switch must be set correctly, or serious damage can occur to the equipment.
In the laboratory, circuits are developed and tested. The purpose of a laboratory power supply is
to provide the required stable dc to the circuit under test. The test circuit can be anything from a
simple resistive network to a complex amplifier or logic circuit. To meet the requirement for a
constant voltage, with almost no noise or ripple, laboratory power supplies are regulated,
meaning the output is constantly sensed and automatically adjusted if it tries to change because
of a change in the line voltage or the load.
 Fig.11: Benchtop variable DC power supply
Figure 11 shows a triple output bench supply such as the type used in many electronic
laboratories. The model shown has two 0–30 V independent supplies and a 5 V high current
supply (commonly referred to a logic supply). Voltages can be precisely set using coarse and fine
controls. The 0–30 V supplies have floating outputs, meaning they are not referenced to ground.
This allows the user to set them up as a positive or negative supply or even connect them to
another external supply. Another feature of this supply is that it can be set up as a current source,
with a maximum voltage set for constant current applications.