September 1, 2021

UNIT 1: Orientation to the Human Body

● Define anatomy and physiology and describe their subdivisions.
○ Anatomy
■ Derived from the Greek to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
■ The study of structure and shape of the body and body parts and their
relationships to one another
■ Subdivisions
● Gross/macroscopic anatomy
○ Regional
■ All structures in one part of the body
○ Systemic
■ Gross anatomy of the body studied by (a) system
○ Surface
■ Study of internal structures as they relate to the
overlying skin
● Microscopic anatomy
○ Cytology
■ Study of the cell
○ Histology
■ Study of tissues
● Developmental anatomy
○ Embryonic development (before birth)
○ Physiology
■ Comes from the Greek nature (physio) and the study of (ology)
■ Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts work or function
● Explain the principle of complementarity (structure follows function), with specific
examples.
○ Function always reflects structure and vice versa
○ What a structure can do depends on its specific form
○ For example, bones can support and protect body organs because they contain
hard mineral deposits
● Explain the relationship between the different levels of structural organization that
make up the human body (chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system).
○ Chemical
■ Atoms combined to form molecules
○ Cellular
■ Cells are made up of molecules
○ Tissue
■ Consists of similar types of cells
○ Organs
■ Made up of different types of tissues
○ Organ system
 ■ Consists of different organs that work closely together
○ Organismal
■ Made up of the organ systems
● Describe all the Human Body Systems and give a brief description of their functions
○ Skeletal system
■ The skeletal system supports and protects the body’s internal organs.
■ The ribs protect the abdominal organs, which are both vulnerable to
injury and dangerous to our well being when injured.
■ The skull protects our brain which controls all functions of our bodies
and minds.
■ The skeleton provides the framework and shape to our bodies.
○ Muscular system
■ Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and power the actions that
maintain blood flow through our body;
■ Smooth, or involuntary muscles are found in the heart and organs, they
surround the internal organs and are responsible for their movement
such as moving food through the digestive tract; and
■ Skeletal, or voluntary muscles, are responsible for carrying out the
actions and movements caused by messages sent from our brains
through our nervous system. Skeletal muscles are also responsible for
maintaining posture and producing heat.
○ Nervous system
■ The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord,
and the peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves that
lead into and out of the CNS to other parts of the body.
■ The entire nervous system controls all of the other systems of the body,
such as digestion and cardiac rhythm, and responds to internal and
external changes, such as activating muscles and breathing.
■ It also transmits information to the brain, such as pain and external
sensations.
○ Integumentary systems
■ The largest organ of the body, equaling 15-20% of our total body mass.
■ It acts as a barrier to physical, chemical, and biological agents.
● The skin prevents water loss and regulates body temperature. It
transmits the senses of touch, pain, and pleasure and
maintains body temperature by secreting sweat.
● The hair lubricates the scalp, which secretes pheromones and
cools or warms our heads.
● The nails protect our fingers, which are a major tool used for
protecting ourselves and providing ourselves with food, shelter,
and sensations.
● The skin leaves us most vulnerable when it is compromised by
open wounds, allowing infectious agents into the body.
 ○ Endocrine system
■ The glands of the endocrine system secrete chemicals called hormones
that regulate most of the processes in our bodies such as growth,
reproduction, metabolism, and even the control of the amount of
glucose in our blood.
○ Cardiovascular (circulatory) system
■ The heart, made of cardiac muscle, pumps blood and blood vessels
such as arteries and veins, transport the blood to every part of our body
providing organs and muscles with nourishment.
■ The blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste and more
throughout the body.
○ Lymphatic system
■ This system transports clean fluids in our body back to the blood and
drains excess fluids and debris from the tissues and cells of the body.
■ It also houses the white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in
protecting our bodies from infection.
○ Respiratory system
■ This system maintains our breathing.
■ It supplies the body with oxygen for cellular respiration by collecting
oxygen in the lungs and disposes of carbon dioxide by breathing out
the waste product.
■ It also provides our functions of speech and smell.
○ Digestive system
■ This system is responsible for the breaking down and absorption of
nutrients and the elimination of the waste not utilized by the body.
■ It is responsible for identifying which minerals, vitamins, and other
essentials from the foods we eat can be absorbed and utilized or stored
by the body and which are to be disposed of and carrying out those
functions.
○ Urinary system
■ This system is responsible for eliminating waste products of
metabolism and other materials from the body that are of no use.
■ The system is also responsible for maintaining the balanced fluid
volume in our bodies by regulating the amount of water that is
excreted, maintaining the concentrations of electrolytes, and normal
pH levels of the blood.
○ Reproductive system
■ MALE (prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens)
■ FEMALE (Mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, fallopian tube)
■ The reproductive system mainly functions to create human life.
● Identify the necessary life functions and survival needs of the body.
Life Functions
○ Maintaining boundaries
 ■ The internal environment remains distinct from the external
■ Cellular level
● Accomplished by plasma membranes
■ Organismal level
● Accomplished by the skin
○ Movement
■ Locomotion, propulsion (peristasis), and contractility
○ Responsiveness
■ Ability to sense changes in the environment and ability to respond to
them
○ Digestion
■ Breakdown of ingested food
○ Metabolism
■ All the chemical reactions that occur in the body
○ Excretion
■ Removal of wastes from the body
○ Reproduction
■ Cellular
● An original cell divides and produces two identical daughter
cells
■ Organismal
● Sperm and egg unite to make a new being
○ Growth
■ Increase in size of a body part of the organism
Survival Needs
a. Nutrients
i. Chemical substances used for energy and cell building
b. Oxygen
i. Needed for metabolic reactions
c. Water
i. Provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions
d. Maintaining normal body temperature
i. Necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates
e. Atmospheric pressure
i. Required for proper breathing and gas exchange in lungs
● Explain the mechanisms and importance of homeostasis, including negative and
positive feedback loops.
○ Homeostasis definition
■ The ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an
ever-changing outside world
■ The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of
equilibrium
 ■ Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain
homeostasis
■ Internal conditions change and vary within very narrow limits
● For example, body temperature should be around 36.5-37*C
○ Feedback mechanisms
■ Negative
● The output shuts off the original stimulus
■ Positive
● The output enhances the stimulus
● Describe the anatomical position
○ Body erect with feet slightly apart
○ Arms at sides with palms facing forward
○ The anatomical position is the common visual reference point
● Identify the anatomical terms to describe body directions, regions, cavities, and body
planes.
○ Directional terms used in anatomy reference deviations from the anatomical
positions
○ Additionally, the terms left and right always refer to the person, cadaver, or
skeleton being viewed and are not the viewer’s right and left
○ Regional terms: There are two fundamental divisions of our body
■ They are used to designate specific areas within the major body
divisions
■ Axial
● Head
● Neck
● Trunk
■ Appendicular
● shoulder/arm
● pelvis/leg
● And their corresponding attachments
○ Directional terms
■ Superior
● Toward the head/upper end of a structure or the body
■ Inferior
● Away from the head/lower part of a structure or the body
■ Anterior
● Toward or at the front of the body (aka ventral)
■ Posterior
● Toward or at the back of the body (aka dorsal )
■ Medial
● Toward or at the midline of the body
■ Lateral
● Away from the midline of the body
 ■ Intermediate
● Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
■ Proximal
● Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of
a limb to the trunk of the body
■ Distal
● Further from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment
of a limb to the trunk of the body
○ Body planes
■ In the study of anatomy, the body is often sectioned (cut) along a flat
surface called a plane
■ Planes section the body through portions of the anatomical position
■ Looking at structures in sections can often add insight into spatial
relations and understanding of internal positioning
1. Median (mid-sagittal) plane
a. Lies vertically and divides the body into right and left parts
b. It lies exactly at the midline of the body
2. Frontal plane
a. Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
b. Also called a coronal when referring to the head
3. Transverse plane
a. Runs horizontally and divides the body into superior and inferior
sections
b. Transverse sections are also called cross-sections
4. Oblique plane
a. Cuts made along any plane that ues diagonally between
horizontal and vertical are called oblique sections (which are
rarely used)
○ Body cavities
■ Dorsal body cavity
● Cranial cavity (contains the brain)
● Vertebral cavity (contains the spinal cord)
■ Ventral body cavity
● Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs)
● Pelvic cavity (contains bladder, reproductive organs, rectum,
and peritoneal cavity)
● Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera, kidneys, and
peritoneal cavity)
● Diaphragm

● Identify dependent and independent variables in an experiment and graph the data.