AIR AND WATER

Composition of air - The air in the atmosphere is a mixture of gases. Air contains varying
amounts of water vapour. The naturally occurring clean gases in the atmosphere include
N2, CO2, O2 and inert/ noble gases. Air also contains very small traces of methane gas,
ozone, and solids such as soot, bacteria and pollen. Some pollutant gases found in air
include H2S, SO2, CO and oxides of nitrogen e.g. NO, N2O, NO2

Name of gas formulae % uses

Oxygen Supports respiration, combustion and rusting

O2 20 - Given to hospital patients suffering from

pneumonia and breathing problems

-used in oxy-acetylene ( O2 + C2H2)

Nitrogen 78 - Manufacture of ammonia gas in the Haber

process
N2
- making of fertilisers

Carbon CO2 0,04 - To extinguish fires. It displaces oxygen

dioxide
-used as a refrigerant in the form of dry ice

Noble gases Ne, He, <1 - to provide an inert atmosphere in filament bulbs
Kr, Xe and
-for filling air balloons
Ar

OXYGEN GAS - O2 gas up 20% of atmospheric air. Animals get most of their oxygen from
plants. Plants release oxygen gas during photosynthesis. The two main forms of oxygen are
i) oxygen gas O2 ii) ozone gas O3. Industrially oxygen gas is prepared from the fractional
distillation of atmospheric air e.g. at BOC gases in Zimbabwe

Properties of oxygen gas 1- colourless gas with no smell

2 neutral to litmus paper

3 O2 is slightly soluble in water

4 supports combustion and (corrosion)

5 It supports breathing

Uses of oxygen 1- Given to hospital patients with breathing problems, asthma, pneumonia
2 For oxyacetylene welding

3 support respiration, rusting, combustion

Experiment aim: To prepare oxygen gas (O2) in the laboratory

Materials: Thistle funnel or separating funnel, bee-hive shelf, gas jar, trough, delivery tube
and flask

safety googles, lab coat, gloves

Diagram:

Method: 1-Set up the apparatus as shown on the diagram.

2 Put solid manganese dioxide MnO2 into the flask

3-Using a thistle funnel or separating funnel add hydrogen peroxide into the flask.

4 Connect a delivery tube which dips into a trough to the flask.

5-Test for the gas collected with a glowing splint

Results: Oxygen gas is collected by downward displacement of water. The hydrogen

peroxide decomposes to form oxygen gas and water. The gas collected relights a glowing
splint (proving that it is oxygen).

2 H2 O2 (aq) 2 H2O (l) + O2(g)

Hydrogen peroxide

Conclusion: Oxygen gas is collected by downward displacement of water. Solid MnO2 acts as
a catalyst.

Carbon Dioxide gas ( CO2)

Experiment aim: To prepare carbon dioxide gas in the laboratory

Material: thistle funnel/separating funnel, delivery tube, trough, gas jar, lime water tube,
Calcium carbonate/marble chips, HCl, limewater solution, gloves, safety glasses

Diagram: Draw in pencil

Method: 1 Set up the apparatus as shown on the diagram.

2 Put about 5g of marble chips (calcium carbonate) into flat bottomed flask.

3 Connect a delivery tube which goes to the trough

4 Open the tap to release the acid.

5 Collect the gas by downward displacement of water.

6 Test the gas evolved with lime water.

Results A gas which turns limewater milky is given off. The gas is CO2.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)

white ppt

Properties of carbon dioxide gas 1- It is a colourless odourless gas.

2-It is sparingly soluble in water to form carbonic acid.

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3(aq)

 3- Carbon dioxide is denser than air.

4- When carbon dioxide is cooled to -78 °C it sublimes to form solid carbon dioxide

5-It turns limewater milky.

 Uses of carbon dioxide gas 1-It is used in carbonated drinks or fizzy drinks.

2- Used in fire extinguishers. It is used to extinguish electric fires. Carbon dioxide

displaces air (oxygen).

3- Refrigerants. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is used for refrigerating ice cream, meat
and soft drinks. It is colder than ice and it sublimes.

4-Special effects. Carbon dioxide is used to create the ‘smoke’ effect at musical shows
and television programmes

5-Heat transfer agents. Carbon dioxide gas is used for transferring heat in some nuclear
power stations.

Experiment aim: To measure the percentage of oxygen in the air (atmosphere).

Materials: two gas syringes, copper metal, Bunsen burner, air

Diagram: page175 Complete Chemistry page211 Complete Chemistry

A Heat B

Method: 1-Put some copper turnings / wire into hard glass tube/reduction tube.

2-Connect the hard glass tube to two gas syringes A and B.

3- Pull out the plunger of gas syringe A until it has 100cm3 of air.

4- Apply heat to the hard glass tube for 3 minutes. 5-Allow the apparatus to cool.

6-Push in the plunger of gas syringe A until it has no air (i.e. 0 cm3)

7-Measure the volume of air collected in gas syringe B.

Results: The copper metal is combusted/burned using oxygen from the air to form a
black solid of copper (II) oxide. The volume of air in gas syringe A decreases as oxygen is
used up in combustion.
2 Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s) . Only 80cm3 of air remains in gas syringe A which is
transferred to B. i.e. air used up =100cm3 -80cm3 = 20cm3

Volume of oxygen gas collected in gas syringe B = 80 cm3.

Therefore % of oxygen in air = 20cm3 X 100 = 20%

100cm3

Conclusion: Therefore, air contains one fifth by volume oxygen gas (i.e. 20%).

Experiment aim: To prepare Hydrogen gas in the Laboratory

Diagram: p206 Chemistry New edition

Method: 1-Set up the apparatus as shown on the diagram.

2 Put about 2,5 g of zinc granules into the conical flask.

3 Pour about 30-40 cm3ml of hydrochloric acid (or sulfuric acid) down the thistle
funnel/separating funnel.

4 Test for the gas collected with a burning splint.

Results: Hydrogen gas is collected by downward displacement of water. The gas burns
with a pop sound.

Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

Conclusion Hydrogen gas is prepared by an acid –metal reaction.

Hydrogen gas (H2) Physical properties 1-colourless, odourless gas (without smell)

2-Lowest density of all elements (i.e. lighter than air)

3- neutral gas ( pH 7).

4- Pure H2 burns with a steady blue flame.

 5 Burns in air exothermically to form water.

2 H2(g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O(l) ΔH = - 285 kJ/mol

6 A mixture of hydrogen gas and air burns with pop sound.

7 -It is a reducing agent and can reduce many metal oxides by removing the oxygen.

CuO(s) + H2 (g) Cu(s) + H2 O (l)

Uses of hydrogen gas 1 Hydrogen gas is used as a raw material for the manufacture of
ammonia in the Haber process. 2 It is used as fuel for a space rocket.

Water -Water is the chemical for life. Without water there is no life on earth. Water is
required for plant growth. Water is required for domestic use, cooking, washing, as solvent
and recreational facilities. Animals contain up to 60-70% water. Some diseases are water
borne e.g. cholera, typhoid, and diarrhoea. Sources of water include lakes, rivers, dams,
wells, boreholes, natural springs and rain water. Water has to be purified/ sterilised before
use. Raw water contains i) suspended matter e.g. leaves, twigs, grass

ii) dissolved mineral salts iii) dissolved gases iv) bacteria and micro organisms

Chemical properties of water

1-Water turns white anhydrous copper(II) [CuSO4]sulphate blue.

2-Water turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink.

3-water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid at room temperature.

Physical properties of water 1- Water boils at 100°C at sea level 2-Freezes at 0°C 3-water
has a density of 1g/cm3

N.B. water expands in volume when it freezes to form ICE. Therefore ice (solid) is less dense
than water (liquid).

CHEMICAL TESTS FOR WATER

1-Water turns white anhydrous copper(II) [CuSO4]sulphate blue.

CuSO4 + 5 H2O CuSO4, 5 H20

white blue

2-Water turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink.

CoCl2 + 6 H2O CoCl2, 6 H20

 blue pink

INDUSTRAL USES OF WATER: 1 making steel 2 making paper; 3 textiles 4

generating electricity / energy / power / turbines; HEP; water mills; steam
power (e.g. steam engines); geothermal power 5 agriculture 6 livestock
7 irrigation 8 hydration of alkenes / manufacture of ethanol / alcohols 9
manufacture of sulfuric acid / Contact process 10 manufacture of
hydrogen; 11 solvent / dissolving; coolant / cooling; cleaning / washing;
(supply of) drinking (water)12 central heating 13 production of slaked
lime; cooking;

Purification of water on large scale

Water from the source undergoes physical treatment (filtration) and chemical
treatment (chlorination or ozonolysis) at the water works

A) PHYSICAL TREATMENT – This involves passing raw water through a screen

and sand/carbon filters. The stages are

1- Straining- Raw water is passed through coarse and fine strainers which
remove floating materials, suspended solids and some algae

2-Sedimentation -Clear water obtained is piped to the sedimentation tanks.

Flocculants such as alum or aluminium sulphate are added to precipitate dirt
and smaller particles. Sedimentation is the settling out of large particles under
the influence of gravity. Flocculation is the settling out of fine small suspended
particles due to the chemical reagents. The smaller particles in the suspension
can be made to settle too, by adding alum or potassium aluminium sulphate.
This chemical helps a lot of small particles to stick together until they form
larger particles that settle out.
3-Filtration The water is then passed through sand filters or carbon filters, to

produce clear water.

B) Chemical treatment- Chlorination Chlorine gas(Cl2) is bubbled into filtered

water. It kills micro-organisms and bacteria/microbes. Chlorine gas is a
sterilising agent. Bacterial checks are made. The water is aerated to remove
the smell of chlorine gas. In developed countries fluorides (F-) salts in very
small concentrations are added to the water to reduce teeth decay in the
population. {Chlorination can also be replaced by radiation(uv) or ozonolysis.}

Addition of softeners: Water softeners such as bicarbonates of soda are added

to remove water hardness. Water that contains dissolved sulphates of Mg2+,
Ca2+is called permanent hard water.

Storage: The purified water is stored in reservoirs situated on high ground so

that the water can be released under high pressure to enable it to be pumped
places far away. The water is then piped to homes and industries.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGmJqhPQcS4

Pollution - Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment

that cause instability, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem or environment.
Pollution takes the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat
or light, photo chemical smog

Types of pollution: i) water pollution ii) air pollution iii) land pollution iv) noise
pollution v) thermal pollution vi) soil pollution

Causes of air pollution 1-When coal burns in industries, the sulphur in coal
forms sulphur dioxide gas (SO2). The carbon in coal forms carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and soot.

2-When petrol burns in an engine, nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are
formed. Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in rain water to form
 acid rain that damages the breathing system, vegetation, statues, pollutes
rivers and dams, and peels off paint from buildings.

3 Carbon monoxide from the exhaust fumes of car engines is a poisonous gas
that pollutes air and kills by suffocation.

4 Diesel smoke from lorries, buses and trains contains carbon particles that can
be breathed in and settle in the lungs.

5 Burning of fossil fuels and wood adds huge amounts of carbon dioxide to the
air. Carbon dioxide is used by plants to make food during photosynthesis.
Excessive carbon dioxide causes global warming.

Pollutant Source Adverse effect

CO Incomplete Very poisonous stops oxygen from

combustion of Carbon
being taken in by red blood cells
containing substances
e.g. fuels, petrol, coal

SO2 Burning coal and Damages the breathing system. Dissolves in rain
sulphur
forming acid rain which damages statues,

buildings plants and aquatic life.

Oxides of Car engines at high causes acid rain

nitrogen temperature
e.g. NO,
NO2

Lead Leaded fuels Toxic, cumulative poison

compound
Causes brain damage especially in children
s
when inhaled directly or taken in food. Slows down

growth rate in children

Waste Car exhaust, lightning - asbestosis

gases from and power stations
- damages breathing system and vegetation
industries
and dust
from
factories

The catalytic converter P189 New Edition Chemistry Exhaust of modern

cars fitted with catalytic converters before the leave the assembly line.
Catalytic converters change harmful gases into harmless ones. All modern
cars use lead free petrol (unleaded petrol). Catalytic converters contain
reducing agents and catalyst and a Palladium, platinum- rhodium catalyst.
They also have Al2O3. The converter completes the oxidation of unburnt
hydrocarbons to form water vapour and carbon dioxide gas. Oxides of
nitrogen and carbon monoxide are changed into harmless products as
follows:

2CO + O2 2CO2 2NO + 2CO N2 + 2 CO2

CXHY +( x+ y/4 ) O 2 x CO2 + y/2 H2O

RUSTING- Rusting is caused by the reaction of iron with oxygen (air)

and water in air. The strength of the iron metal is considerably reduced as
the metal crumbles to a red brown powder (iron (III) oxide) called rust.
Rust is therefore hydrated iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3, nH2O. The process of
rusting is accelerated by the presence of i) excess oxygen gas ii) presence
of electrolytes e.g. carbonic acid, aq NaCl.

4Fe(s) + 6H2O (l) + 3 O2 (g) 4Fe(OH)3 [2 Fe2 O3 ,n H2O ]

n=3. Rusting occurs on iron (and steel). Other metals are said to corrode
e.g. copper coins turn green.

Methods of preventing rusting

1 Painting- is used to coat iron and steel structures e.g. window frames,
ladders, burglary bars, sign posts. Red lead (Pb3 O4) and zinc chromate
paints are used for primary coats. Paints form a barrier which prevents the
entry of rusting agents oxygen and water e.g. paints which contain iron
(III) phosphate.
 2 plastic coating-protects metal dishes, racks, paper racks, record racks
and metal baskets

3 Films of oil and grease - used on tools, gates, outdoor objects and
machinery

4 Vitreous enamel-coats ironware such as cooking pots, frying pan, baking

trays.

5 Plating-Tin plating is used to protect food tins made of iron and iron
sheets. Chromium plating is used to coat steel with a shiny protective
layer e.g. on car bumpers. Like tin, chromium metal is deposited by
electrolysis.

6 Galvanising – iron is acid cleaned and placed in molten zinc at 450°C.

When galvanised iron is exposed to the atmosphere, a cell is set up
because zinc is more reactive than iron. Zinc becomes the anode, it loses
electrons, dissolves to form zinc ions which become zinc oxide (sacrificial
protection) forming a water and air proof layer on the zinc itself which
stops it from corroding more.

N.B. For tin plating, tin is below iron in the reactivity series and if the tin
layer breaks and exposes the iron, the iron metal will lose electrons and
must rust rapidly.

Sacrificial /anodic protection - Can be done using magnesium. When a

bar of magnesium is attached to the side of a steel ship or underwater
pipe (hull of a ship), it corrodes, instead of the steel. When the bar is
nearly eaten away, it can be replaced by a fresh one. This is also called
anodic protection. Stainless steel resists rust for a long time e.g. knives,
surgical instruments, and chemical containers/plants. Magnesium and zinc
are often used as sacrificial metals. They are more reactive than iron and
lose their electrons in preference to iron. This prevents iron from losing its
electrons and becoming oxidised.

Anodic/sacrificial protection Cathodic protection

1-sacrificial protection–is a cell 1-is electrolysis NOT electrical cell

 2-sacrificial protection – electrons 2-cathodic protection – electrons from batte
from more reactive metal
3-cathodic protection uses up / needs a sac
3-sacrificial protection – does not
need or use power / battery /
electricity / electrical CELL

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=npk+fertilisers+igsce

FERTILISERS – These are compounds which are used to increase plant growth.
They supply mineral ions to plants. Chemicals required by plants are divided
into three main groups, trace elements, secondary nutrients and
major/main/essential elements.

The essential elements needed in greater amounts are Nitrogen, Phosphorus

and Potassium.

Types- a) Nitrogenous fertilisers contain nitrogen (N) in the form of soluble

ammonium ions, and nitrates e.g. ammonium nitrate

b) Phosphate fertilisers - Most fertilisers containing phosphorus (P)

are phosphates and are made from calcium phosphate
c) Potassium fertilisers-These contain potassium K and are made from
potassium chloride or potassium nitrate or potassium sulphate

NPK Fertilisers-these are fertilisers which contain the main elements Nitrogen
(N), Potassium (K) and Phosphorus (P).

element function Deficiency signs and symptoms

Nitrogen(N) Increase growth of stem and leaf. Helps Undersized leaves, poor growth
to build up chlorophyll (also contains
rate. Leaves pale green, or yellow
Mg)

Phosphorus(P Root growth, accelerates ripening of Poor root system, stunted growth.
) the crop and also seed formation
 Leaves fall prematurely

Potassium(K) Helps development of fruit and seeds Poor leaves with yellow edges

Promotes resistance to disease Leaves die early

Compound fertilisers- these are mixtures of fertilisers which contain the three
essential elements (N, K and P). They usually contain ammonium nitrate,
ammonium phosphate and potassium chloride in different proportions.

Organic fertilisers-these are obtained from the decomposing remains of plants and
animals e.g. compost. They are natural. Plants grow slowly

Dangers of the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers-

a) Soils become acidic. NH4+ NH3 + H+. The acidic soils can be neutralised
by adding lime (a mixture of CaO +Ca(OH)2).
b) Eutrophication occurs- minerals salts leach into aquatic systems. There is
excessive growth of algae (algae bloom). Blockage of sunlight. Plants die and get
decomposed by bacteria that use up oxygen (Oxygen depletion). Water
organisms e.g. fish die off because of lack of oxygen.
Question River water contains many substances including minerals, dissolved oxygen,
organic material, nitrates and phosphates.
(a) Give one source of phosphates in water. [1]
(b) Excess dissolved phosphates in river water cause eutrophication.
c) Describe the process of eutrophication. [3]

(a) source is fertilisers or detergents [1]

(b) any three points from four
•algal bloom forms •this blocks sunlight •water plants die •bacteria remove oxygen from the
water [3]

(a) Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Scientists think that an increase in the greenhouse
gases will result in global warming.
i) what is a greenhouse gas.
(ii) Describe two consequences of global warming. [2]
d) (b) Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram for carbon dioxide. Show the outer shell electrons only.

Separation of gases

Atmospheric air can be separated into oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and noble gases
by the process of fractional distillation.
 Liquefying the air -Air is filtered to remove dust, and then cooled in stages until it
reaches –200°C. At this temperature it is a liquid. The air has been liquefied.

Here's what happens as the air liquefies:

 water vapour condenses, and is removed using absorbent filters

 carbon dioxide freezes at -79°C, and is removed
 oxygen liquefies at -183°C
 nitrogen liquefies at -196°C

The liquid nitrogen and oxygen are then separated by fractional distillation.

The liquefied air is passed into the bottom of a fractionating column. Just as in the
columns used to separate oil fractions, the column is warmer at the bottom than it is at
the top.

Fractional distillation of atmospheric air

 Air can be separated into different gases by the process of fractional
distillation, which involves two stages…

a) First the air is cooled down until it turns into a liquid

b) Second-the liquid air is then heated again. Different gases boil off
at different temperatures and are collected one by one.

1 Air from the atmosphere is pumped into the plant. The filter
removes dust.

2 Solid carbon dioxide freezes at -79 ◦C and water vapour condenses

are removed [these block the pipes and freeze]. Oxygen liquefies at
-183°C and nitrogen liquefies at -196°C.
3 Next the air is forced into a small space or compressed. That makes
it hot. It is then cooled down by recycled cold air.

4 The cold compressed air is passed through a jet, into a larger space.
It expands, and that makes it very cold.

 5 The liquid air is pumped into the fractionating column. There it is

slowly warmed up. The gases boil of one by one and are collected in
tanks or cylinders.
Gas Boiling point / °C

Carbon dioxide -32

xenon -108

krypton -153

oxygen -183

Argon -186

nitrogen -196

neon -246

helium -249